At the beginning of the 12th century. Rus' entered a period of political fragmentation. The territory of the country, weakened by internecine wars, became the target of attacks. From the north, attempts to seize cities and lands by the descendants of the Varangians - the Swedes - continued, from the eastern steppes a wave of nomads rolled in - the Mongol-Tatars, enemies more terrible, stronger and cruel than their predecessors - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, and on the western borders an active military-colonial The activities were launched by German knights.
In the XI – XIII centuries. Western Europe was experiencing a period of aggravated internal contradictions, a struggle between secular and spiritual authorities, emperors and popes. The conflict was not limited to the European continent, but marked the beginning expansion to other countries known as "Crusades".
The arena of the struggle of the Roman Catholic Church against the “pagans” in order to convert them to the “true faith” became Finland and the Baltic territories, where Christianity was not widespread. In order to seize lands, the Teutonic Order was founded in 1128. In 1200, the Pope and the German Emperor Frederick II announced the start of a crusade against the lands of the Prussians, Estonians, Livonians, Lithuanians, Finns, Karelians and Yatvingians with the aim of converting them into Catholicism. IN crusade German, Danish, Norwegian knights and troops from other countries took part northern countries Europe, striving for capture new territories.
Advancing into the Baltic lands, the Germans subjugated the Pomeranian Slavs and invaded the territory of the Livonians (hence Livonia), where in 1201 they founded the city of Riga. To capture the Baltic states and Christianize the local population, it was formed in 1202 Order of the Sword, which conquered most of the Baltic tribes within a decade and began to advance on Russian lands.
In 1204, the crusaders captured and ravaged Constantinople, which was the beginning of the war Orthodox world against Roman Catholic. The peoples of the Baltic states and Rus' united to fight the Germans. In 1212, the Novgorodians, at the request of the Estonians, undertook their first campaign to the Baltic Sea. However, this did not stop the invaders. In 1219, the city of Revel (Tallinn) was founded in the Baltic lands, and in 1224 the city of Yuryev (Tartu) was captured and Izborsk was occupied, which created a threat to Pskov and Novgorod. Knights of the Teutonic Order arrived in 1226 to conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and southern Russian lands. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder.
In 1234, the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later - by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. In 1234 - 1236 they were again defeated by the squads of Novgorod and the Vladimir principality. At the same time, the Order of the Swordsmen suffered a crushing defeat in Lithuania. Further advance of the Germans required the unification of forces, and in 1237 part of the Teutonic Order and the remnants of the Order of the Swordsmen united into the Livonian Order (named after the captured territory where the Livonians lived), which further increased the danger of the capture of Rus', which was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In 1239 the knights Livonian Order they recaptured Izborsk, and in 1240, thanks to treason, they occupied Pskov.
In the same year, the Swedes appeared on the Neva, competing with Russia for the lands of the Neva and Ladoga regions. So, back in 1164, a large fleet of Swedes appeared at the walls of Ladoga (a suburb of Novgorod), but was defeated by the Novgorodians. In 1240, the Swedes, prompted by messages from the Pope, undertook a crusade against Rus'. Rus', weakened by the Tatars, could not provide Novgorod with any support. Confident of victory, the leader of the Swedes, Jarl Birger, entered the Neva on ships. The ultimate goal of the campaign was the conquest of the Novgorod land. Warned by the elder of the friendly Izhora tribe Pelgusius, the 19-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander and his squad approached the mouth of the Izhora, where the enemies stopped to rest, and on July 15, 1240 they suddenly attacked them. There was a battle on the river. Neve. Suddenness and swiftness decided its outcome in favor of the Novgorodians. Later, Prince Alexander received the honorary nickname Nevsky. As the chronicle testifies, “the losses of the Novgorodians were very insignificant, only twenty people with the Ladoga residents.”
However, soon the Novgorodians quarreled with Alexander, who sat down to reign in the Suzdal land. At this time, the offensive of the Livonian knights was launched again on Novgorod. By decision of the veche, the previously exiled Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich was returned to the city. Having gathered the city militia and his squad after lengthy disputes with the Novgorod boyars, Alexander Nevsky liberated Pskov and Izborsk, after which he transferred military operations to the territory of the Livonian Order. On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the melted ice of Lake Peipsi, which became known as the Battle of the Ice. Its success was predetermined by the military skill of Alexander Nevsky, who managed to take into account a number of circumstances of a military and geographical nature. This is how the historian R. G. Skrynnikov describes the events of 1241–1242: “...Novgorod was threatened with military defeat and famine. Under such circumstances, the local archbishop hastily went to Prince Yaroslav in Vladimir and begged him to let Alexander go to Novgorod to reign. In 1241, Alexander arrived in Novgorod, gathered a militia... and expelled the Germans from the Novgorod borders. The prince ordered the captured “perevetniks” - Vod and the “miracle” - to be hanged... Some of the knights captured in Koporye were released... Preparing for the campaign against Pskov, he called the Suzdal regiments to Novgorod. But he did not have to besiege Pskov. As soon as the Suzdal army approached the city, the mayor Tverdilo was removed. The Pskovites opened the gates of the fortress. The German garrison was unable to offer resistance. Captured knights and Chud in shackles were taken to Novgorod and imprisoned. In the spring of 1242, Alexander Nevsky invaded the possessions of the Livonian Order. Having entered the western shore of Lake Peipsi, the prince “let the entire regiment begin to prosper.” The regiments went on campaign without convoys, and the warriors had to obtain food for themselves by “prosperity,” i.e. robbery of the population. The campaign in Livonia began with a major failure. The detachment of Domash Tverdislavich, the brother of the Novgorod mayor, being “in dispersal”, was suddenly attacked by knights and miracles. The voivode and many of his warriors were killed. The surviving warriors fled to Prince Alexander's regiment and warned him of the approach of the knights. Alexander hastily retreated to his possessions on the Novgorod shore of Lake Peipsi. There he was joined by soldiers who were “in dispersal” and fled from the German advance. On April 5, 1242, the Order's army and Chud detachments attacked the Russians on the ice of the lake near the Raven Stone... According to Novgorod data, 50 Germans were captured by the Russians, and 400 people died on the battlefield. The losses were clearly exaggerated. The united German order in the Baltic states numbered about a hundred knights. But they had with them a significant number of squires, servants and baggage servants. German chronicles report the death of 25 soldiers of the order.”
In the context of the outbreak of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the victories of Alexander Nevsky stopped the expansion of the Livonian Order to the East, as a result of which North-Western Rus' was saved from Germanization, Catholicism and enslavement. After the defeat on Lake Peipsi There was a weakening of the military power of the order, after which the Livonians did not take active actions on the eastern borders of the country. Response to Battle on the Ice there was growth liberation struggle in the Baltics.
However, it cannot be argued that it was the Battle of the Ice that drained the strength of the order: six years before it, according to German chronicles, in 1236 the Lithuanians killed twice as many knights in the Battle of Siauliai. The influx of new crusader volunteers from the west could hardly make up for such large losses. In 1243, the Livonian knights concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod. Relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the 13th century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.
Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky in 1246, after the death of his father, entered into the struggle for the great reign with his older brother Andrei, who advocated active resistance to the Horde. However, Alexander was a supporter of “peace” with the Mongols and repeatedly suppressed anti-Horde protests (1252, 1257 – 1259, 1262), which earned him the favor of Batu Khan. Orthodox Church highly appreciated the role of Alexander Yaroslavich in the fight against Catholic expansion, canonizing him in 1547.
Questions for self-control
1. What was the danger of the invasion of European knights? Which Russian cities did they manage to capture?
2. Determine the main stages of the fight against the invasion of the Crusaders. What do you know about the battle on the Neva and Lake Peipsi?
3. Name the reasons for the defeat of Western European knights. What role did the Novgorod militia play in the victories?
4. Why didn’t Alexander Nevsky try to conclude an alliance with the crusader knights against the Mongol conquerors?
5. What's it like historical meaning the struggle of the Russian people against Western aggression?
6. Why was the Order of Alexander Nevsky established during the Great Patriotic War?
Related information.
3. The struggle of North-Western Rus' against the aggression of the Crusaders
Was the attack on Russian lands part of the predatory doctrine of German chivalry? In the 12th century, it began to seize lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. The Russian lands (Novgorod and Polotsk) had a significant influence on their western neighbors, who did not yet have their own developed statehood and church institutions (the peoples of the Baltic states were pagans). Knightly orders. To conquer the lands of the Estonians and Latvians, the knightly Order of the Swordsmen was created in 1202 from the crusading detachments defeated in Asia Minor. Knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and cross. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization. Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of a Latvian settlement as a stronghold for the subjugation of the Baltic lands. To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and southern Russian lands in 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Syria during the Crusades, arrived. Knights? members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later? from Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237 Swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order? Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Livonian tribe, which was captured by the crusaders. Battle of the Neva. The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Rus', which was bleeding in the fight against the Mongol conquerors. In July 1240, Swedish feudal lords tried to take advantage of the difficult situation in Rus'. The Swedish fleet with troops on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having climbed the Neva until the Izhora River flows into it, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The Swedes wanted to capture the city Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod. Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at the time, and his squad quickly rushed to the landing site. Hiddenly approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors struck at them, and a small militia led by Novgorodian Misha cut off the Swedes' path along which they could escape to their ships. The Russian people nicknamed Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky for his victory on the Neva. The significance of this victory is that it stopped Swedish aggression to the east for a long time and retained access to the Baltic coast for Russia. Battle on the Ice. In the summer of the same 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights, attacked Rus' and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the mayor Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Strife and strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, individual detachments of the crusaders found themselves 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city. Together with his squad, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which became known as the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge pierced the center of the Russian position and buried itself in the shore. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly “pig?”. The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them seven miles across the ice, which by spring had become weak in many places and was collapsing under the heavily armed soldiers. The significance of this victory is that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. The response to the Battle of the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the 13th century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.
4. Russian lands as part of the Golden Horde: socio-economic and political development
In 1237-1241 Russian lands were attacked by the Mongol Empire, a Central Asian state that conquered in the first half of the 13th century. a vast territory from the Pacific Ocean to Central Europe. After campaigns in North-Eastern and Southern Rus', respectively in 1237-1238 and 1239-1240, the united Mongol army under the command of the grandson of the founder of the empire - Genghis Khan - Batu, established the so-called Mongol-Tatar yoke.
The Russian principalities did not directly enter the territory of the Golden Horde. Their dependence was expressed in the payment of taxes - “exit” and the supreme sovereignty of the Golden Horde Khan, who established the Russian princes at their tables.
(How did the development of Russian lands take place under new conditions?) After the invasion, the Kiev land finally lost its former significance. Kyiv was taken by the Tatars in 1240 at the height of the struggle for it between rival princes. In the 20s of the 14th century, the Kiev land became dependent on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and in the early 60s it finally became part of it.
In the Chernigov land in the second half of the 13th century, political fragmentation sharply increased, a large number of principalities In the 13th century raids began on the Chernigov land of Lithuania, and in the 60-70s of the 14th century. Most of the Chernihiv region was subjugated by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd.
In Southwestern Rus', as a result of the unification of Volyn and Galicia under the rule of Daniil Romanovich and his brother, a strong state was formed. In the 50s of the XIII century. Daniil successfully resisted the Tatar onslaught. But at the end of the 50s, the Galician prince still had to admit his dependence on the Tatar Khan.
In the Smolensk land, appanage principalities were not assigned to certain princely lines, as was the case in the Chernigov land. Nevertheless, the political importance of the Smolensk Principality gradually decreased. In 1404 Grand Duke Lithuanian Vytautas finally included the Smolensk land into Lithuania.
In the Novgorod land in the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries. Republican forms of government are strengthened. The annexation to Moscow in 1478 happened relatively easily: the social lower classes of the Novgorod land did not support their boyar elite.
Ryazan land in the second half of the XIII-XV centuries. maintained relative independence. However, it was sandwiched between the Golden Horde, with which it directly bordered, and North-Eastern Russia.
The Principality of Murom already in the middle of the 14th century. became dependent on Moskovsky, and in the early 90s became part of it.
The territory of the Pereyaslavl principality after Batu's invasion came under the direct control of the Horde, and in the 60s of the 14th century, like the Chernigov land, it was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
After the invasion of the 13th century. The disunity of Russian lands increased. The struggle of different princely branches for the “all-Russian” tables - Kyiv, Novgorod and Galich, which was in the first half of the 13th century, ceased. a peculiar factor in political life Rus'.
In the field of spiritual culture there is a noticeable direct
impact of the Mongol-Tatar invasion: destruction of significant cultural values, temporary decline in stone construction, painting, applied arts, loss of the secrets of a number of crafts, weakening of cultural ties with Western and Central Europe. But overall there were no deep cultural changes.
Thus, the Mongol-Tatar conquest had a significant impact on ancient Russian society. The most susceptible to deformation were socio-economic and political spheres, i.e. those that are more or less hidden from public consciousness.
Conclusion
After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the destinies of various lands diverged. Of the four strongest in the first half of the 13th century. Three principalities (Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn and Smolensk) lose their sovereignty and become part of fundamentally foreign states - Lithuania and Poland. On the territory of the fourth - Vladimir-Suzdal - the formation of a new unified Russian state begins. Thus, the old political structure, which was characterized by independent principalities - lands (ruled by various branches of the Rurik family), within which smaller vassal principalities existed, ceased to exist.
The direct impact on the economy was expressed, firstly, in the devastation of territories during Horde campaigns and raids, especially frequent in the second half of the 13th century. Secondly, the conquest led to the systematic pumping out of significant material resources in the form of the Horde “exit” and other extortions, which bled the country dry.
Previously, persons were accepted into the civil service regardless of their nationality. There was not even a column about nationality in the formal lists of officials. ** * See: Kalnyn V.E. Essays on the history of state and law of Latvia in XI - 19th centuries. Riga, 1980. P.114. ** See: Zayonchkovsky P.A. The government apparatus of autocratic Russia in the 19th century. M., 1978. P.9. Concerning...
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An uprising in the middle of the century (1648) occurred in Moscow under the name of the “salt riot”, and soon the “copper riot” broke out (more details about these events can be found in the textbook by the authors A.L. Yurganov and L.A. Katsva “History Russia. XVI-XVII centuries", pp. 146-148). But the most significant was the uprising led by Don Cossack Stepan Razin (1667-1671) – for the progress of the uprising, see the indicated...
From the beginning of the 13th century. Crusaders (mainly German) began colonizing and conquering the Baltic states. In 1201, the Germans and Danes founded Riga and created the knightly Order of the Swordsmen (Livonian Order).
By 1212, the crusaders had captured the lands of modern Latvia and the lands to conquer Estonia. At the same time, the Teutonic Order settled in the Baltic States, but in 1236 it was defeated by the Lithuanians. In 1238, an alliance was concluded between German, Danish and Swedish crusaders against Rus'.
The crusade against Rus', tormented by the Mongols, was blessed by “His Holiness the Pope.” The threat of aggression became obvious. In July 1240, a Swedish fleet under the command of Duke Birger entered the Neva. The Swedes landed troops and were preparing to launch an attack on Novgorod. At that time, 19-year-old Alexander Yaroslavovich reigned in Novgorod. Although he was only 20 years old, he was an intelligent, energetic and brave man, and most importantly, a true patriot of his Motherland. The prince did not wait for the regiments of his father, Prince Yaroslav, but with a small squad moved to the landing site of the Swedes.
On July 15, 1240, secretly approaching the Swedish camp, Alexander's cavalry squad attacked the center of the Swedish army. The Novgorodians, Ladoga and Izhorians on foot struck the flank, cutting off the Swedes' retreat to the ships. In this battle, Russian soldiers covered themselves with unfading glory. The number of Swedish troops was 8-9 thousand people, the Russians had no more than 1 thousand people, but the surprise of the attack played a role. The Swedish army almost suffered complete destruction. The remnants of the Swedish army left along the Neva into the sea.
Novgorod was saved by the sacrifice and valor of Alexander's comrades, but the threat to Rus' remained.
In 1240/1241 The Teutonic knights intensified their attack on the Novgorod lands. They captured the fortress of Izborsk, and then, with the help of traitors, Pskov. In 1241, the crusaders approached Novgorod directly. At this time, due to a quarrel with the Novgorod boyars, Alexander Nevsky left Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander returned and recaptured Pskov and Izborsk from the Germans.
At the end of March 1242, Alexander Nevsky received news from intelligence that a united army of crusaders led by the master of the Teutonic Order was preparing to attack Rus'. The Crusaders and Russians met on the western shore of Lake Peipsi, at the Crow Stone.
Archers were placed in front of the Russian battle formation, militia in the center, and strong princely squads on the flanks. There was a reserve behind the left flank. The Germans lined up in a wedge shape (“pig”), at the tip of which was a detachment of horsemen, armored from head to toe. The crusaders intended to dismember the Russian troops with a blow to the center and destroy them piece by piece.
Alexander deliberately weakened the center of his army and gave the knights the opportunity to break through it. Meanwhile, the reinforced Russian flanks attacked both wings of the German army. The German infantry was victorious, the knights resisted desperately, but since it was spring, the ice cracked and the heavily armed soldiers began to fall into the water of Lake Peipsi. Russian wars drove the crusaders 7 miles. Thousands of ordinary crusaders died, 400 noble knights, 47 noble knights were captured. The defeat of the crusaders was terrifying. After the battle on April 5, 1242, the crusaders did not dare to disturb the Russian lines for a long time.
Unlike the Mongols, the crusaders set slightly different goals when conquering Russian lands.
If the Horde khans were interested in obedience and payment of tribute, then the crusaders were interested in the land of Novgorod and Pskov, which should have been captured and the Russian population, which should have been converted into serfs. But most importantly, the crusaders demanded the Catholic faith from the population. If the crusaders were successful, there was a real threat not only of the loss of national independence of Rus', but also the loss of the national religion - Orthodoxy and national culture.
Alexander Nevsky acted as a defender of Orthodox Rus' from the Catholic West. This made him one of the main heroes of Russian history.
Topic No. 6: The Rise of Moscow. Formation of a unified Russian state.
Topic plan:
1) Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands into single state.
2) The rise of the Moscow principality and its transformation into the political center of North-Eastern Rus' (1276 - 1425).
3) The reign of Vasily II the Dark. Feudal War in Russia (1425-1462)
4) The reign of Ivan III. Completion of the unification of lands around Moscow. Eliminating dependence on the Horde.
Purpose of the study: to identify the reasons for the rise of Moscow. Understanding the inevitability of the unification of Russian lands and the creation of a single Russian state. Familiarization with the personalities and periods of reign of the Moscow princes.
Student who studied this topic, must:
1) know the main reasons for the rise of the Moscow Principality;
2) understand the inevitability of the unification of Russian lands into a single Russian state;
3) be able to characterize the periods of reign of the Moscow princes.
When studying this topic you need to:
a) study these lectures;
b) it is advisable to refer to additional literature;
c) answer tests on the topic.
Fight against Crusader aggression
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | Fight against Crusader aggression |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Policy |
Coast from the Vistula to the eastern bank Baltic Sea was inhabited by Slavic, Baltic (Lithuanian and Latvian) and Finno-Ugric (Estonians, Karelians, etc.) tribes. At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. The Baltic peoples are completing the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society and statehood. These processes occurred most intensively among the Lithuanian tribes. The Russian lands (Novgorod and Polotsk) had a significant influence on their western neighbors, who did not yet have their own developed statehood and church institutions (the peoples of the Baltic states were pagans.)
The attack on Russian lands was part of the predatory doctrine of the German knighthood “Drang nach Osten” (onset to the East). In the 12th century. it began to seize lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an attack was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The Crusaders' invasion of the Baltic lands and North-Western Rus' was sanctioned by the Pope and German Emperor Frederick II. German, Danish, Norwegian knights and troops from other northern European countries took part in the crusade.
To conquer the lands of the Estonians and Latvians, the knightly Order of the Sword Bearers was created from the crusading detachments defeated in Asia Minor. Knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and cross. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization: “Whoever does not want to be baptized must die.” Back in 1201ᴦ. The knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) and founded the city of Riga on the site of the Latvian settlement as a stronghold for the subjugation of the Baltic lands. In 1219 ᴦ. Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of an Estonian settlement.
At 1224 ᴦ. The crusaders took Yuryev (Tartu). To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and South Russian lands in 1226 ᴦ. knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in Syria, arrived. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234 ᴦ. The Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later - by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237 ᴦ. The Swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Livonian tribe, which was captured by the Crusaders.
Battle of Neva. The Russian people and the Baltic peoples waged a constant struggle against the invaders. The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Rus', which was bleeding in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.
In July 1240 ᴦ. The Swedish feudal lords tried to take advantage of the difficult situation in Rus'. The Swedish fleet with an army on board led by Duke Birger, the ruler of the country, son-in-law of the Swedish king Eric Kartavy, entered the mouth of the Neva. Having climbed the Neva until the Izhora River flows into it, the knightly cavalry landed on the bank. The Swedes wanted to capture the city of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod. Birger wrote, addressing the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich: “If you can resist me, then I’m already standing here, fighting your land.”
Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at the time, and his squad quickly rushed to the landing site. “We are few,” he addressed his soldiers, “but God is not in power, but in truth.” Hiddenly approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors struck at them, and a small militia led by Novgorodian Misha cut off the Swedes' path along which they could escape to their ships. The Russian victory was complete. Birger himself barely escaped, receiving a spear blow to the face from Alexander. Thus ended the inglorious campaign of the Swedes.
The Russian people nicknamed Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky for his victory on the Neva. This victory stopped Swedish aggression to the east for a long time and preserved Russia's access to the Baltic coast. Peter I, emphasizing Russia's right to the Baltic coast, founded the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the new capital on the site of the battle.
In the summer of the same 1240 ᴦ. The Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights, attacked Rus' and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the mayor Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Feudal strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the victory of the boyars, who expelled Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, individual detachments of the crusaders found themselves 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city.
Together with his squad, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received news that the main forces of the order were coming towards him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the path of the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The Russian prince showed himself to be an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: “We win everywhere, but we won’t win at all.” Alexander placed his troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Considering the formation of the knights in a “pig” (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was made up of heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with the tip resting on the birch. Before the battle, some of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull knights off their horses.
April 5, 1242 ᴦ. A battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which became known as the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge pierced the center of the Russian position and buried itself in a birch. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly “pig”. The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them seven miles across the ice, which by spring had become weak in many places and was collapsing under heavily armed soldiers. The Russians pursued the enemy, “flogged, rushing after him as if through the air,” the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod Chronicle, “400 Germans died in the battle, and 50 were taken prisoner” (German chronicles estimate the number of dead at 25 knights). The captured knights were marched in disgrace through the streets of Mister Veliky Novgorod.
As a result of this victory, the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened and an attempt to impose Catholicism on Rus' was thwarted. The response to the Battle of the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. At the same time, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the 13th century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands. Russian lands under the rule of the Golden Horde Formally, the power of Genghis Khan and his successors existed as a single state with its capital in the city of Karakorum, although smaller ulus states were separated from its composition. In the middle of the 13th century. one of Genghis Khan's grandsons, Kublai Khan, moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol state was nominally subordinate to the Great Khan in Karakorum. One of Genghis Khan's sons, Chagatai (Jaghatai), received the lands of most of Central Asia, and Genghis Khan's grandson Hulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of Western and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This ulus, allocated in 1265ᴦ., is called the Hulaguid state after the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi - Batu founded the state Golden Horde. The Golden Horde included the territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, North Caucasus, part of the lands of Rus' located in the steppe, former lands Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (sarai translated into Russian means palace). This state consisted of semi-independent uluses, united under the rule of the khan; they were ruled by Batu's brothers and the local aristocracy. The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the “Divan”, where military and financial questions. Finding themselves surrounded by a Turkic-speaking population, the Mongol-Tatars adopted the Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnic group assimilated the newcomers. A single people was formed - the Tatars. In the first decades of the existence of the Mongol-Tatar state, its religion was paganism.
The Golden Horde was one of the most large states of its time. At the beginning of the 14th century, she could field an army of 300,000. The heyday of the Golden Horde occurred during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). During this era (1312), Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Further, like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of feudal fragmentation. Already in the 14th century. The Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century. The Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (late 15th century) khanates stood out.
The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The continuous struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by more low level cultural and historical development of the Mongol-Tatars.
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At the same time, the lands of Rus' were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, unlike, for example, Central Asia, the Caspian region, and the Black Sea region.
In 1243 ᴦ. the brother of the great Vladimir prince Yuri, who was killed on the City River, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246) was called to the khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden tablet ("paizu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes flocked to the Horde.
To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baska governors was created - leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. Denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the prince being summoned to Sarai (often he was deprived of his label, or even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the rebellious land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the 13th century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.
Some Russian princes, trying to quickly get rid of vassal dependence on the Mongols, took the path of open armed resistance. At the same time, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 ᴦ. The regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263, understood this well. Grand Duke Vladimir. He set a course for the restoration and growth of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian church, which saw the greatest danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.
In 1257 ᴦ. The Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census - “recording a number”. Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, and they were in charge of collecting tribute. The size of the tribute (“output”) was very large, only the “tsar’s tribute”, ᴛ.ᴇ. the tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind and then in money, amounted to 1,300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by “requests” - one-time exactions in favor of the khan. At the same time, deductions from trade duties, taxes for “feeding” the khan’s officials, etc. went to the khan’s treasury. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars.
Population census in the 50-60s of the 13th century. was accompanied by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, and census takers. Sometimes they coincided with protests against their feudal lords. This was the case in Novgorod in 1257, when the mayor Mikhalka was killed, suspected of trying to put the entire burden of collecting tribute on the “lesser people.” In 1262 ᴦ. The inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. Actions against the Mongol-Tatars were noted later. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the 13th century. was handed over to the Russian princes. As a result of the struggle of the popular masses, more favorable conditions for the development of Russian lands, and this, ultimately, brought the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke closer.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons why Russian lands lagged behind developed countries Western Europe. Huge damage was caused to the economic, political and cultural development of Rus'. Tens of thousands of people died in battle or were taken into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute was sent to the Horde.
The old agricultural centers and once-developed territories became desolate and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils received the name “Wild Field”. Russian cities were subjected to massive devastation and destruction. Many crafts became simplified and sometimes disappeared, which hampered the creation of small-scale production and, ultimately, delayed economic development.
The Mongol-Tatar conquest preserved feudal fragmentation. It weakened the ties between different parts of the state. Traditional political trade ties with other countries were disrupted. The pace of cultural development of Russian lands has slowed down. It took more than a hundred years of selfless labor of the Russian people to raise the country's economy and wage an open struggle to overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke and create a Russian centralized state.
5. Russian lands and principalities in the second half of the 13th century - mid-15th century.
The fight against the aggression of the crusaders - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Fighting the Aggression of the Crusaders” 2017, 2018.
The fight against the crusaders in the north-west of Rus' began at a time when the Russian land was under oppression Mongol Yoke. The Swedish army appeared in the summer of 1240. Its goal was to capture the Neva and Ladoga in the lower reaches of the Volkhov. The invaders sailed on ships up the Neva. Alexander Yaroslavich was then reigning in Novgorod; his intelligence, having learned in advance about the Swedes’ campaign, warned the prince. And he prepared for the campaign of the Swedish army. Swedish military leaders from the mouth of Izhora sent a challenge to Alexander. The prince, without waiting for the complete gathering of people with the “small squad,” set out to meet the enemy. He approached Izhora, replenishing his squad with local militia. The prince's intelligence worked well, and Alexander knew all the Swede's movements. At dawn on July 15, he approached the Izhora camp of the invaders and attacked it on the move. Having lost many soldiers, the remnants of the Swedish army fled at night on their ships.
They failed to cut off Rus' from the Baltic Sea. After this brilliant victory, Alexander Yaroslavich received the nickname “Nevsky”. The attempts of the Swedish conquerors were continued by the German knights. In 1237, when Batukhan’s invasion of Rus' began, the knights joined forces - their two orders merged: Livonian and Teutonic. Crusaders from different countries came to their aid. European countries. The Pope supported and blessed this entire army. In 1242, the crusaders captured Izborsk, a fortress on Pskov land. The knights, inspired by success, moved, ravaging Russian villages along the way, to Pskov itself. They burned its settlement, but attempts to take the city were unsuccessful. But even in those days there were traitors, with the help of whom the knights took possession of Pskov. Some of the townspeople who did not agree to live like this fled to Novgorod. The knights' appetite was heating up, they had already appeared 30-40 versts from Veliky Novgorod.
Alexander, the Novgorodians invited him to defend him, he, without remembering evil, hurried to Novgorod and immediately headed to the crusaders’ base, which he took by storm, and the Novgorodians saw captured knights on the streets of their city. This victory prevented a joint action by the Germans and Swedes against Rus'. On winter days next year Alexander and his brother Andrei lead the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal regiments against the crusaders. Pskov was liberated. Alexander, not satisfied with the victory achieved, follows with his troops to the order’s border. And so on April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi. During the battle, the crusaders suffered a crushing defeat. And the battle itself went down in history under the name “Battle of the Ice.” It was here that on April 5, 1242, the famous battle took place, called the Battle of the Ice. The knights formed a wedge formation but were attacked from the flanks. Russian archers caused confusion in the ranks of the surrounded German knights.
As a result, the Russians won a decisive victory. 400 knights alone were killed, in addition, 50 knights were captured. Russian soldiers furiously pursued the enemy who had fled. The victory on Lake Peipsi had great value for the further history of both Russian and other peoples of Eastern Europe. The Battle of Lake Peipsi put an end to the predatory advance to the east, which German rulers had carried out for centuries with the help of the German Empire and the papal curia. It was during these years that the foundations of the joint struggle of the Russian people and the Baltic peoples against centuries-old German and Swedish feudal expansion were strengthened. The Battle of the Ice also played a big role in the struggle for independence of the Lithuanian people.
The Curonians and Prussians rebelled against the German knights. Tatar-Mongol invasion to Rus' deprived her of the opportunity to expel the German feudal lords from the Estonian and Latvian lands. The Livonian and Teutonic knights also occupied the lands between the Vistula and the Neman and, uniting, cut off Lithuania from the sea. Throughout the XIII century. The raids of the order's robbers into Rus' and Lithuania continued, but at the same time the knights repeatedly suffered severe defeats, for example, from the Russians at Rakvere (1268), and from the Lithuanians at Durbe (1260).