Where is the country's main rapper located? Reference point - what is it? Why are reference points needed in construction, geodesy, business or science? About the Kronstadt footstock and determining sea level

REPER

(French). A sign that serves as a reference point for leveling.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

rapper

(fr. repere)

1) geod. so a point on an area with a famous absolute height- a metal disk with a protrusion (or with a hole - mark), fixed in the walls of long-term structures, or a concrete monolith embedded in the ground; serves as a reference or verification point during leveling and when laying out engineering structures;

2) in artillery - an auxiliary point specially selected in the target area for firing, at which the guns are zeroed in with subsequent transfer of fire to hit the target.

3) tech. checkbox for checking linear changes of an object

New dictionary foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .

Benchmark

rapper, m. [fr. repere ] (geodes.). 1. A firmly fortified platform for setting the staff, with a precisely defined height above sea level, serving as a starting or verification point for leveling (geodesis). 2. An auxiliary point at which artillery is zeroed in with subsequent transfer of fire to the target (military).

Large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing House "IDDK", 2007 .

Benchmark

A, m. ( fr. repère mark, notch).
1. geod. A sign on the ground indicating a certain absolute height of a given point.
2. mat. A combination of two (on a plane) or three (in space) vectors with common beginning, not lying on the same straight line and taken in a certain order.
3. military In artillery: an auxiliary point in the target area for firing, at which the guns are zeroed, followed by a transfer of fire to hit the target.

Explanatory dictionary of foreign words by L. P. Krysin. - M: Russian language, 1998 .

Synonyms:

See what "REPER" is in other dictionaries:

Benchmark- Geodetic sign fixing a point in the leveling network Source: GOST 24846 81: Soils. Methods for measuring deformations of the foundations of buildings and structures original document ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

rapper- a, m. repère, repaire m. label, notch, icon. Poppy. 1908. 1. A sign (post, rod, etc.) fixed on the ground indicating the height above sea level, determined by leveling. BAS 1. A small stake for orientation when setting up... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

rapper- rapper, plural rappers, b. rappers and in the speech of artillerymen, rapper, plural. rapper, b. rappers... Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian language

In geodesy, a sign of a point with a known absolute height is a metal disk with a protrusion (or a mark with a hole), fixed in the walls of long-term structures, or a concrete monolith embedded in the ground...

- (French repere) in space (on a plane) a set of three (two) vectors with a common origin, not lying in the same plane (on the same straight line) and taken in a certain order... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

In geodesy (French repere mark, sign, reference point * a. bench mark, datum mark, reference point; n. Hohenmarke, Nivellelementzeichen; f. repere; i. referencia de nivel, banco de nivel) a sign fixing a point on the earth’s surface ,… … Geological encyclopedia

RAPPER, rapper, husband. (French repère) (geod.). A firmly reinforced platform for setting the staff, with a precisely defined height above sea level, serving as a starting or verification point for leveling. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

A sign installed to mark any specific points during surveying or a certain level during leveling work. Samoilov K.I. Marine dictionary. M. L.: State Naval Publishing House of the NKVMF of the USSR, 1941 ... Marine Dictionary

A geodetic sign fixed in the ground and serving as a starting or verification point for leveling. Technical railway dictionary. M.: State Transport Railway Publishing House. N. N. Vasiliev, O. N. Isaakyan, N. O.... ... Technical railway dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 4 sign (138) rail (12) column (14) ... Synonym dictionary

Books

Home doctor. Medical reference book. New illustrated edition. Edited by V. F. Tulyankin, T. I. Tulyankina. Second edition, revised, corrected and expanded. The book contains 330 black and white illustrations and 19 color pages...

We are used to the fact that modern city permeates many different networks - communications, water supply, gas, transport and so on. There is another network among them, not that completely invisible, but little known to the uninitiated. Perhaps you have ever noticed metal signs driven or cemented into the walls of buildings. They're called geodetic benchmarks and collectively make up the state leveling network (GNS).

One of best descriptions geodetic benchmarks can be found in the technical encyclopedia of 1934.

Once upon a time, a couple of years ago, I tried to clarify some issues for myself on my own, but it turned out that materials on geodesy on the Internet are a dime a dozen, but to the common man It is not so easy to understand this mass of information, and especially in relation to our Chelyabinsk realities. And recently I had the opportunity to ask questions to the experts. They were answered:

Sergey Reingoldovich Reizvich- Director of NPF Nedra LLC.
Sergey Vasilievich Vorobyov- former leading employee of architecture in Chelyabinsk, responsible for the creation, maintenance and development of geodetic networks.
Vladimir Nikolaevich Ivanov- cadastral engineer.
Dmitry Yuryevich Mylnikov- Head of the PC design automation department at GPI Chelyabinskgrazhdanproekt.
Evgeny Anatolyevich Maslov- Head of the department for the protection of state secrets and mobilization training of the branch of the Federal State Budgetary Institution "FKP Rosreestr" in the Chelyabinsk region.

What are benchmarks and what are they for?

D. Mylnikov: Benchmarks And wall leveling marks are part of a leveling (high-altitude) network, which serves to measure height relative to sea level when performing various engineering and construction works. On the territory of Russia, the sea height is measured relative to the zero of the Kronstadt water gauge and is called the “Baltic height system”. All benchmarks are made in such a way that a leveling rod can be installed on them or suspended from a special hole, with the help of which height measurements are made.

S.R.Reisvich: Currently, after the leveling of the state high-altitude network from Kaliningrad to Anadyr, elevations are determined in the Baltic height system of 1977, which differs from the Baltic by an average of 20 cm in the Chelyabinsk region.

D. Mylnikov: To determine the exact position on the ground, that is, coordinates, points of the state geodetic network (GGS) are used. The difference between GGS points and altitude benchmarks is that they have a clearly defined center, the coordinates of which are determined. Each item must be marked with its number, which is entered into the catalogue. All other parameters of the item are determined from the catalog. In addition, the year of foundation, the name of the organization and other parameters that are not mandatory can be indicated. Moreover, in practice, even the absence of a number on the benchmark is not critical, since all points are also marked on topographic maps and plans, as well as in the so-called “outlines” (schematic plans), according to which surveyors find them on the ground.

GGS points are the so-called “geodetic towers” that you have probably seen outside the city. At the same time, the tower itself is needed only so that it can be seen from afar, and the point itself is located under it in the form of a special sign filled in concrete base. At the same time, the most accurate points of class 1 and the astronomical-geodetic network have another duplicate sign at depth, which will be used to restore the point if it is damaged. The coordinates of these points are calculated with very high accuracy, for points of the astronomical-geodetic network - using special astronomical measurements relative to the position of the stars. GGS points are usually also points of the leveling (altitude) network, since for them, in addition to coordinates, the altitude above sea level is also determined.

S.R.Reisvich: In turn, in urban conditions, benchmarks of a leveling network are also very often used as GGS points - for such points not only the height is determined, but also the coordinates in one or another geodetic coordinate system related to the Earth’s surface.

D. Mylnikov: In addition, there are so-called points local geodetic networks which are also called support boundary networks(OMS). They are created in populated areas and are used in determining the boundaries of land plots and marking work during construction, that is, when determining the place where exactly to build a house or lay a road. Such points do not have geodetic towers. During the construction of large objects or the development of large sites, temporary benchmarks and points are often created for the period of work, which makes it possible to speed up and simplify the entire process. Often these are temporary structures, for example, a metal pipe or rail driven into the ground, the top of which serves as a mark, so they cease to exist after construction is completed.

E. Maslov: Support boundary networks are also installed by surveyors, but they are used for local purposes, for settlements somewhere in the region - in Sosnovka, Argayash, etc. After completion of the work, surveyors transfer the compulsory medical insurance to the municipality according to the act, and then the municipality is responsible for their safety. Such labels are taken into account in individual catalogs.

S.R.Reisvich: What else are benchmarks used for? To identify the influence of man-made processes during the construction of structures on quicksand, roads, bridges, subway lines, special observation stations are installed - in urban conditions they are also laid in the form of wall benchmarks.

The existing wall benchmarks are of enormous importance, since they were used to link and lay out the construction elements of the adjacent territory. If there are discrepancies in the position of the boundaries of buildings, structures, land plots, these wall benchmarks are the basis for conducting a forensic geodetic examination.

What types of rappers are there?

S.R.Reisvich: There are several varieties. Century-old rappers provide long-term preservation of the elevation; they are not found in the Chelyabinsk region. Fundamental rappers located along railway and are reinforced concrete pylons 30x30 cm into which metal signs are placed. In the rest of the region, the high-altitude network is represented by ground And wall rappers.

D. Mylnikov: Ground benchmarks must have a concrete base - an “anchor”, into which a metal, usually cast iron, marking is poured. Wall benchmarks are installed in the foundations of rear structures, including bridge supports.

V. Ivanov: You can read more about the types of benchmarks.

S.R.Reisvich: Rules for designing benchmarks - .

What other information can you get by looking at a specific benchmark?

D. Mylnikov: Usually the benchmark is stamped with its number and the name of the manufacturer, sometimes the year. On ground benchmarks there is sometimes an engraved height value. All other parameters, except for the number, are optional and are not always accurate, since all the exact parameters of the leveling network points are recorded in a special catalog.

The number on the benchmark is often not serial number item, but a unique number of the piece of iron itself, which is assigned to it during manufacture at the factory (like the body number of a car). Likewise, a year that is cast rather than engraved is the year the sign was made, not the year it was installed. That is, everything that is cast was applied at the factory at the time of manufacture, and cannot have any connection with the specific place and time of installation of the sign. Everything that is engraved (cut) is applied at the time or after the sign is installed and relates to the parameters of a specific sign in a specific location.

But even the presence of a number on the benchmark is not mandatory. In the catalog of points of geodetic and leveling networks, in addition to the number and parameters, there must be an “outline”, that is, a diagram of the location of a benchmark or point on the ground. In addition, points are often marked on the duty topographic plan settlement. At the same time, in practice, they usually first find out from a topoplan or outline where the benchmark is approximately located next to the work site, and then they look for it on the ground. The likelihood that there will be several benchmarks or points nearby is very low, so the lack of a number for its practical use is not critical.

E. Maslov: The directory of benchmarks also indicates the address of the object. By the time it is laid, it is already known, since the benchmark is installed after the building is built. That is, construction begins with surveyors and ends with them.

Who is responsible for creating, recording and storing information about benchmarks?

D. Mylnikov: The catalog of points of state networks is stored in the state geodetic fund, for which the state service of registration, cadastre and cartography is currently responsible.

E. Maslov: The catalog is marked "For official use only". Currently, all organizations performing cartographic and geodetic work are required to receive this data and use it in their work.

In what years did they start installing benchmarks and when and why did they stop doing this?

D. Mylnikov: Benchmarks began to be actively installed in the 30s, when industrialization and construction of large industrial enterprises and residential buildings. Although leveling and geodetic networks were created even before the revolution, for example, during the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway, which passed through Chelyabinsk. At the same time, in different time The markings and amount of information on the markers varied. To now find out what was indicated and where, you need to pull up the archives and look at reports on the completion of work on their installation.

New markers and signs are still being installed, but mainly where new construction is underway. In old neighborhoods there is no point in installing new benchmarks, since there are enough old ones, and the number of works for which they are needed is less in the old built-up area. In principle, the main purpose of benchmarks and points of geodetic networks is precisely to secure the reference position for as long as possible long time. In practice, this means that as soon as a particular area is largely built up, the installation of new benchmarks on it stops. And until some kind of large-scale reconstruction begins, when old buildings with benchmarks are laid in their foundations are demolished, no one will install new ones.

True, in Lately, due to the development of technologies for performing work using GPS and GLONASS, the need for installing benchmarks and geodetic network points has sharply decreased. This does not mean that they are not needed at all, but now they can be installed much less frequently (with greater distances from each other).

S.R.Reisvich: As far as I know, the last benchmarks were installed during the construction of the subway. These are ordinary metal signs that were laid along Lenin Avenue before the Aeroflot agency. As a recent example, we can also cite our markers on the building of the regional legislative assembly, which were laid around 2002.

What measures are (have been) taken to ensure the safety of the benchmarks, are they periodically inspected and restored?

D. Mylnikov: State geodetic and leveling networks are protected by the state, and administrative penalties are provided for damage to GGS and GNS points. As for the benchmarks, most of them belong to local networks, for which the municipality is responsible, which must monitor their safety. But due to the fact that recently there have been constant changes in the organs state power, responsible for geodesy and cartography, which from a separate service have now become part of the state service of registration, cadastre and cartography, no one really really does this. That is, the problem of safety of benchmarks and geodetic points exists.

As such, no special inspection of the points is currently being carried out. Usually it is replaced by constant use in the process of geodetic work. If a specialist discovers some problems with a point, he usually reports this to the accounting authority (if only because he then has to take the parameters of another, neighboring point).

Restoring damaged or lost points of local networks is usually not carried out, since it is easier and faster to establish a new point and determine its parameters. If there is a suspicion that the position of a benchmark or point has been violated, then new measurements will still have to be made at neighboring points. And if the sign itself is lost, then the new sign may have different dimensions and a different registration number.

V.S. Vorobyov: During Soviet times, checkpoints were inspected, and special money was even allocated for this. In 1992-1994, as far as I know, on the territory of Chelyabinsk, cycles of observations of settlement of buildings and structures in metro construction zones were annually carried out by a small but quite qualified enterprise, the Chelyabgeocenter Municipal Unitary Enterprise. After the cessation of its existence, the banner was picked up by Uralmarkscheideriya, which continues to carry out observations to this day, for which it is honored and praised - it is very difficult to obtain funding in our mercantile times similar works, which do not promise immediate benefits.

As for responsibility for safety, I personally don’t know of a single case where someone was actually punished for destroying a state geomark. The main problem is facing works along the facades.

E. Maslov: In the city, the destruction of points is not so noticeable, because it is mainly iron and concrete, and in the region there are even wooden towers left. Some of them have been knocked down and destroyed. They are not monitored - this is due to mismanagement, but also because there is no great need for them - GPS is increasingly used.

Why is the concentration of rappers in the city center higher than on the outskirts?

D. Mylnikov: Where work was carried out more actively, more benchmarks and points were installed. At the same time, the center is usually built up more densely, the line of sight range between points required for measurements is shorter, therefore, to simplify and speed up the work, they tried to install more benchmarks and points. In new areas, the building density is lower, the line of sight range is greater, so benchmarks can be installed at a greater distance from each other. In addition, with the advent of new equipment, such as laser levels or GPS/GLONASS geodetic receivers, the installation density can be significantly lower.

E. Maslov: By the way, this picture is typical not only for Chelyabinsk. For example, in Moscow, 20 out of 22 points are located in the city center.

Are the landmark and the building connected in some way? Is it possible to somehow determine the date of construction using the benchmark?

S.R.Reisvich: No. Indirectly, the benchmark can talk about nearby construction or the presence of dangerous objects (metro, thermal power plants, etc.).

D. Mylnikov: There is no obvious connection between the rapper and the building. Firstly, the benchmark can be installed in a building much later than its construction. Secondly, since the sign indicates the year the sign itself was made, it could have been cast before the building was built.

As for the shape of the benchmark, a separate study needs to be carried out. For a surveyor, it is not so much the shape that is important, but the safety of the sign and the ease of its use. On the other hand, during the Soviet era, benchmark signs were produced centrally, so the shape of the benchmark will rather speak about the history of mark production. When, at which factory, etc. At the same time, the benchmarks were installed at different times, that is, both old and new ones can stand on the same territory. A new benchmark could be installed to replace the lost one, etc.

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Benchmarks in geodesy

Benchmark (from the French repere - sign, starting point) is a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling.

IN Russian Federation the heights of the benchmarks are calculated relative to the zero of the Kronstadt foot rod.

Benchmarks of the state leveling network serve as starting points (reference points) for determining the heights of intermediate points on the earth's surface at topographic surveys and various kinds survey work, and are also used for scientific purposes in studying differences in sea levels.

According to their importance, rappers are divided into:

1) centuries-old

2) fundamental

3) privates.

Centuries-old benchmarks are distributed throughout the country, according to a special scheme, in places established by instructions, mainly for scientific purposes. The depth of the backfill is determined by the occurrence of rocks.

Fundamental benchmarks, which are reinforced concrete pylons, are laid in the ground every 50-80 km on all leveling lines of the 1st class, as well as on the most critical lines of the 2nd class and near the most important offshore water measuring installations.

Ordinary benchmarks laid every 5-7 km on leveling lines of all classes are divided into ground, installed in the ground, rock (fixed in rocks) and wall, laid in the walls of permanent structures.

In hard-to-reach areas, the distance between benchmarks can be increased to 6-7 km, and in seismically active areas it should be reduced to 3-3.5 km.

Wall markers are fixed in the built-up area wherever possible. Fastening is carried out in the load-bearing parts of stone or concrete structures at a height of less than 0.3 m using leveling marks.

Rock benchmarks: ordinary - in design and installation are absolutely similar to the centers of the geodetic network, fundamental - are found as an exception.

Ground benchmarks: ordinary - in design and installation are absolutely similar to the GGS centers, fundamental - are a massive reinforced concrete monolith manufactured immediately at the laying site directly in the foundation pit.

Since the fundamental benchmark can only be used for leveling classes I and II, a satellite benchmark is installed nearby, which is an ordinary benchmark to which the mark from the fundamental benchmark is transferred with class II accuracy and which is used instead of the fundamental one as a reference for leveling classes III and IV.

In Russia, the Baltic height system is used in the Far East. At the end of the 1980s, the mark of the Kronstadt footpole was transmitted to the coast of the Far Eastern seas; the expected error was approximately 1 meter.

Types and designs of benchmarks, their production and laying

The diverse physical and geographical conditions of the country determine different types of benchmarks that correspond to certain areas.

A detailed description of the design of benchmarks, methods of their manufacture and laying is described in “Rules for laying centers and benchmarks at points of geodetic and leveling networks”, M., “Kartgeotsentr” - “Geodesizdat”.

Rock and wall benchmarks are included in leveling lines of all classes one day after they are laid, ground benchmarks on leveling lines of classes III and IV - no earlier than 15 days after backfilling the pit.

In the permafrost zone, soil benchmarks laid using drilling and thawing methods are included in leveling no earlier than two months after their laying, and using the pit method - in the season preceding leveling.

On class I and II leveling lines, ground benchmarks are usually laid a year before leveling.

In order to reduce or eliminate corrosion of metal parts of benchmarks, galvanized or enameled pipes should be used, if possible. In case of their absence metal pipes anti-corrosion coating is applied. An anti-corrosion coating is also applied to the surface of concrete benchmarks if they are placed in a particularly aggressive soil environment. To reduce the effect of frost heaving, the outer surfaces of benchmarks placed in the ground must be coated with anti-heaving agents. Ensuring the protection of benchmarks is carried out in accordance with the requirements Federal Law“On geodesy and cartography” and “Regulations on protective zones and the protection of geodetic points on the territory of the Russian Federation”, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation N 1170 of October 7, 1996.

Benchmarks are subject to inspection on the ground within the time limits provided for by the regulatory documents of Roscartography for the inspection and restoration of points of geodetic and leveling networks. stable, incompressible rocks.

Century-old benchmarks can be rocky or ground. The types of century markers depend on the depth of the rock. The safety of the century-old benchmark is ensured by the quality of the bookmark, the quality of the materials from which it is made, as well as its location and external design.

If the rock is located at a depth of up to 120 cm, then a group of four rock markers of type 173k (Fig. 1, a) is laid, located at a distance of 25-50 m from each other. The heights of adjacent benchmarks must differ from each other by at least 15 cm.

The benchmark consists of a mark (stainless steel or bronze) and concrete well with lid. The size of the well depends on the depth of the rock. When a rock emerges on the surface external dimensions well 50x50 cm. If the depth of the rock is 50 cm or more, this is a well with a diameter of 100 cm.

When the rock occurs at a depth of 120 to 500 cm, a century-old benchmark of type 174k is laid (Fig. 1, b), which consists of a pylon (granite or high-quality concrete) with a parallelepiped shape and a cross section of 35x35 cm, a concrete slab (anchor) with dimensions of 100x100x40 cm and wells with a diameter of more than 100 cm.

Two marks (horizontal and vertical) are cemented into the upper part of the pylon at a distance of 20 cm.

The upper end of the pylon is located at a depth of 100 cm from the ground surface. A concrete slab is made at the site where the benchmark is installed and a third grade is cemented into it.

Before filling the pit with soil and installing the well, the excesses between all grades are measured with an accuracy of 1 mm.

The benchmark in the well is covered with gravel, and a fundamental benchmark with a satellite is installed at a distance of 100-150 m from it.

A century-old tubular benchmark of type 175k (Fig. 2) is laid when incompressible rocks occur at a depth of more than 500 cm.

The benchmark is placed in a hole with a diameter of ~25 cm.

It consists of a metal pipe with a diameter of 8-15 cm with a wall thickness of at least 1 cm, buried 120 cm into incompressible rocks.

The reference pipe ends with a steel tip at least 250 cm long with three anchor discs.

The reference pipe is secured to incompressible rocks using concrete poured into the well.

The reference pipe is located in a protective pipe with a diameter of 16-23 cm with a wall thickness of at least 1 cm. In the lower part, the reference and protective pipes are separated by an oil seal and bitumen, in the upper part - by a rubber diaphragm and bitumen. At the upper end of the reference pipe, two marks made of low-oxidation material (horizontal and vertical) are fixed at a distance of 20 cm from each other. The upper end of the benchmark is located at a depth of 100 cm from the ground surface. Next to the century-old benchmark, at a distance of 100-150 m, a fundamental benchmark with a satellite is laid.

Fundamental rappers

Fundamental benchmarks, depending on the laying conditions, are divided into ground benchmarks (reinforced concrete, asbestos-cement, tubular metal) and rock.

Fundamental benchmark type 161 op. the sign (Fig. 3) for the area of seasonal soil freezing is made in a pit. A reinforced concrete pylon measuring 30x30 cm is integral with a concrete slab (anchor). Marks made of low-oxidation material (bronze, of stainless steel) or cast iron grades with hemispherical liners made of low-oxidizing material.

A reinforced concrete pylon may be replaced with an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 25 cm. A metal frame is installed inside the pipe and filled with concrete.

To increase the connection between the base of the asbestos-cement pipe and the anchor, two mutually perpendicular rods with a diameter of 1.0-1.5 cm and a length of 60 cm are inserted at a distance of 15-20 cm from the base before the pipe is filled with concrete. The upper edge of the concrete slab is placed 60 cm below the boundary of the largest soil freezing, and the upper part of the pylon is 100 cm below the ground surface.

Above the benchmark, at a depth of 30 cm from the surface of the earth, an identification mark is laid concrete slab measuring 30x30x10 cm. The benchmark is made in a pit, the depth of which corresponds to the depth of the upper edge of the slab. For a concrete slab (anchor), a hole is dug in the soil of natural density. To do this, a tetrahedral recess is made at the bottom of the pit, the side walls of which are expanded downwards (Fig. 3).

Dimensions of the slab with vertical side edges are 115x115x40 cm. 1.7.3 Fundamental benchmarks for rocky soil types 164 op. sign and 114 op. the sign is shown in Fig. 4. If the rock reaches the earth's surface or lies at a depth of up to 130 cm, then two grades with a height difference of more than 100 mm are cemented into it at a distance of more than 500 cm from each other. In case the stamps cannot be pledged to different heights, then only one grade is laid, next to which a concrete slab on cement mortar with a second grade is installed. When the rock lies at a depth of more than 130 cm, a reinforced concrete pylon with a slab (anchor) is cast on it. The dimensions of the slab are 80x80x30 cm. Stamps made of low-oxidation material are placed in the upper faces of the pylon and slab. The pylon is cast at such a height that its top edge is located 100 cm below the ground surface.

Fundamental rock benchmarks in the field of perennials frozen soils they are laid of the same types as in the area of seasonal freezing, but the length of the reinforced concrete pylon must be such that its upper plane is located at ground level. If the rock lies at a depth of up to 50 cm from the surface of the earth, then a mark is placed in the rock. The mark is covered with slabs of collapsible rock, without soil admixture. In hard-to-reach areas, the pylon can be replaced with an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 25 cm. The pipe is filled with concrete and securely fastened using a metal frame with a reinforced anchor anchor.

To make a benchmark in the area of permafrost soils, quick-setting cement and additives that accelerate the setting of concrete are used. If at the moment of laying the benchmark the rock surface has negative temperature, then before casting the anchor, the concrete and rock are heated.

The excess between the main and additional marks of the fundamental benchmark is determined with an accuracy of 1 mm. Fundamental soil benchmarks for the northern zone of the permafrost region with a thawing depth of up to 150 cm are similar to ordinary soil benchmarks, but the base of the benchmark is located 400 cm below the thawing boundary. Fundamental benchmarks for a thawing depth of 150 cm or more are the same as in the area of seasonal soil freezing, but their pylons are made of such length that its upper part is at ground level. The base of the benchmark is located 1 m below the maximum thawing limit of the soil, but not less than 250 cm from the ground surface. The reinforced concrete benchmark pylon can be replaced with an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 25 cm. Using a metal frame, the pipe is fastened to the benchmark anchor and filled with concrete.

If permafrost soils are not discovered during work, then the depth of laying the benchmark is increased by 50 cm, and the upper end of the pylon with the mark is placed (due to this increase) 50 cm below the ground surface. It is not allowed to lay fundamental metal tubular benchmarks in the foundation pit and to use metal anchors instead of concrete ones in all regions of the country.

Ground and wall benchmarks

permafrost benchmark identification soil

Ground benchmarks types 160 op. sign and 162 op. the mark (Fig. 5, 6) in the area of seasonal freezing of soils, as a rule, is placed in drilled holes with a diameter of 50 cm. The soil benchmark consists of a reinforced concrete pylon in the shape of a parallelepiped with a cross section of 16x16 cm and a concrete slab (anchor) with a diameter of 48 cm, manufactured in advance. It is allowed to use square slabs measuring 50x50 cm.

A mark should be cemented into the upper edge of the pylon (Fig. 7). In the middle of the concrete slab, a recess measuring 20x20x15 cm is made, into which a reinforced concrete pylon is installed. The pylon can be replaced with an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 16 cm, filled with concrete and reinforcement. A mark is inserted into the upper edge of the pipe.

When using an asbestos-cement pipe, to increase the connection of its base with the anchor, two mutually perpendicular rods 1.0-1.2 cm thick and 25 cm long are inserted at a distance of 7-10 cm from the base of the pipe.

When installing a pipe into the anchor hole, the ends of the rods are placed in the corners of the recess. In the southern zone of the area of seasonal soil freezing, concrete slabs (anchors) with a height of 20 cm are used, in the northern - 35 cm. The border between these zones runs along the line Valuyki-Rossosh-Kamyshin-Pallasovka.

It is allowed to lay benchmarks in wells with a diameter of 35 cm, but in this case the height of the concrete anchor in the southern zone should be 50 cm, in the northern zone - 80 cm.

The upper edge of the concrete slab (anchor) of the leveling benchmark of classes I, II, III and IV should be 30 cm below the depth of maximum soil freezing, regardless of the diameter of the well. For all benchmarks, the mark should be 50 cm below the surface of the earth. It is possible to manufacture an anchor by pouring liquid concrete into the well.

The depth of the well is the same as when laying benchmarks made in advance. In wells with a diameter of 50 cm, concrete is poured to a depth of 20 or 30 cm, and into wells with a diameter of 35 cm - 30 or 70 cm. A pylon or asbestos cement pipe is inserted into the concrete solution. The length of the pylon or pipe should be such that the mark is at a distance of 50 cm from the ground surface.

It is possible to fill the wells with soil without waiting for the anchor concrete to set, provided that they are backfilled liquid concrete a layer of sand (loose soil) at least 10 cm thick.

It is allowed to replace reinforced concrete pylons with metal pipes with a diameter of 6 cm with a wall thickness of at least 0.3 cm or a piece of rail (Fig. 6).

In this case, the concrete slab (anchor) and the pipe (rail) are fastened together at the site where the benchmark is made. The metal pipe should have four pins protruding 10 cm from it.

When laying benchmarks at the bottom of a well or pit, a layer of cement mortar at least 3 cm thick is poured under the base of the slab. It is prohibited to lay benchmarks in a pit (well) with soil loosened or sprinkled on the bottom.

Reinforced concrete benchmarks laid in aggressive soils are made of dense concrete.

In areas of shifting sand, type 15 benchmarks are used (Fig. 8), laid by screwing into the ground to a depth of at least 400 cm. The benchmark consists of a galvanized pipe, the upper end of which with a mark is placed 80 cm above the ground surface. A security plate is attached to the pipe. In this case, digging ditches is prohibited.

In wetlands, leveling lines are secured with soil tubular benchmarks, using pipes with a diameter of 6 cm with a wall thickness of at least 0.3 cm. A screw anchor with a diameter of at least 15 cm or a drilling spiral tip (auger, coil) with a diameter of at least 10 cm is welded to the lower end of the pipe cm and a length of at least 50 cm.

The pipe is screwed to such a depth that the screw anchor enters the underlying water-saturated layer of dense rock by at least 150 cm, but in all cases the depth of laying the benchmark should not be less than the depth of greatest freezing of the soil plus 100 cm. In the presence of shock-vibration mechanisms on In wetlands, you can lay benchmarks consisting of several drill rods or pipes screwed together with a diameter of 4-6 cm with a wall thickness of at least 0.3 cm.

A metal cone is welded to the lower end of such a reference point. The rods (pipe) are driven into the ground to such a depth that the cone enters the underlying water-saturated rock at least 300 cm. The upper end of the rod (pipe), to which the mark is welded, is placed 30 cm below the surface of the earth.

The moment of entry of a screw anchor (spiral tip or cone) into the dense underlying water-saturated rock layer is determined by a sharp slowdown in the rate of immersion of the anchor into the ground. They are building around the benchmark wooden frame 200x200 cm in size and 50 cm in height, filled with peat or mineral soil. A 100 cm long metal identification pole with a security plate is installed in the log house.

In the northern and middle zones of the permafrost region, tubular metal benchmarks of type 150 are placed in drilled or thawed wells (Fig. 9). Metal pipes are used as a reference point. The diameter of the pipe is 6 cm, the thickness of the pipe walls is at least 0.3 cm.

A mark is welded to the upper end of the pipe, and a multi-disc anchor is welded to the lower end, consisting of a metal disk and eight half-disks 0.5-0.6 cm thick and 15 cm in diameter.

For better screwing (pressing) of the pipe into the ground, the metal disk has blades.

The pipe is not filled with concrete.

On outer surface the pipes are coated with an anti-corrosion and anti-swelling coating, and on the inside only an anti-corrosion coating.

When the soil thawing depth is up to 125 cm, the base of the benchmark is located 200 cm below the thawing boundary.

If the thawing depth is 125 cm or more, then the base of the benchmark should be 300 cm below the thawing boundary.

If there are rocky inclusions in the soil that make drilling and thawing of wells difficult, tubular benchmarks type 165 op. the sign (Fig. 10) is laid in the pits.

Instead of a multi-disk anchor, a concrete anchor with a diameter of 48 cm and a height of 20 cm is made.

The base of the concrete anchor is placed 100 cm below the maximum thawing limit of the soil.

For all benchmarks in the area of permafrost soils, the upper end of the pipe with a welded mark is located at ground level.

In the southern zone of the permafrost region, the border runs along the line Vorkuta-Novy Port-Khantaika-Suntar-Olekminsk-Aldan-Ayan, only tubular benchmarks with concrete anchors are laid. If permafrost soils are not discovered during work, then the depth of laying the benchmark is increased by 50 cm and the upper end of the pipe with the mark is placed (due to this increase) 50 cm below the ground surface.

It is prohibited to use metal anchors instead of concrete anchors in the southern zone of the permafrost region.

A soil benchmark of type 9 op is laid into the rock, located on the surface or lying at a depth of up to 70 cm. sign (Fig. 11), which consists of a mark on cement mortar. A reinforced concrete or tubular identification pole with a security plate is installed 100 cm from the benchmark. The identification pillar is reinforced in the rock cement mortar, apply an anti-corrosion coating and paint. Around the identification pillar and above the benchmark, if it is on the earth’s surface, a tour of stones 50 cm high and up to 1 m in diameter is laid out. If the rock lies at a certain depth, the mark is covered with rock, and then the tour is laid out.

If the rock lies at a depth of more than 70 cm, then a benchmark type 176 op is used. sign (Fig. 11). A reinforced concrete pylon with a slab (anchor) is installed on the rock. The pylon is cast at such a height that its top edge is 50 cm below the surface of the earth. In the area of permafrost soils, it is allowed to lay a tubular benchmark with a concrete anchor instead of a reinforced concrete rock benchmark.

If there is a sheer cliff near the benchmark at a distance of up to 50 m, then on it oil paint bright colors draw a triangle with sides of 100 cm, inside which indicate the reference number and the initial letters of the organization that performed the work.

Wall markers of type 143 are placed into the walls of artificial structures, buildings and the vertical surface of the rock (Fig. 12, 13).

When making wall benchmarks and marks (Fig. 7, 12, 13), the initial letters of the name of the organization that performed the leveling and the benchmark number are cast on the signs.

The wall benchmark shown in Fig. 12 is laid on the leveling lines of classes I and II, and the one shown in Fig. 13 is laid on the leveling lines of classes III and IV.

External design of benchmarks. The exterior design of the century-old landmark consists of reinforced concrete well with protective cover and lock; a mound made of stones; an indicator monolith and a fence made of four sections of rails (reinforced concrete pillars with a cross-section of 20x20 cm) with anchors laid to a depth of 140 cm and protruding 110 cm above the ground surface (Fig. 14).

It is allowed to use other external design, ensuring reliable preservation of the century-old benchmark.

The design of the fundamental benchmark in the area of seasonal soil freezing consists of a ditch rectangular shape(Fig. 15) and a reinforced concrete identification pole (Fig. 16) with a security plate (Fig. 17) with a thickness of at least 0.8 mm. The plate should be facing the reference point. A mound 30 cm high and 150 cm in diameter is made above the benchmark. The part of the identification pole protruding above the ground is painted with brightly colored oil paint. The cross-section of the ditch along the lower base is 20 cm, along the top - 120 cm, depth - 70 cm. The name of the organization and the benchmark number are signed on the identification pole with black paint (for example, Roscartography, 1274). A mound of stones 150x150 cm, 70 cm high, is laid above the rocky foundation marker.

The base of the identification pillar is cemented with the rock or in the rock.

In the area of permafrost soils, the external design of fundamental benchmarks is the same as that of ground benchmarks, but in forested areas a tubular metal identification pole is placed (Fig. 9 and 10), and within a radius of 100-150 m from the benchmark on trees at a height of 150-250 cm make ten marks with bright paint, which should look towards the benchmark. The external design of the ground benchmark (Fig. 18) is a ditch and an identification pole in the form of a reinforced concrete pylon with a slab (anchor), installed 80 cm from the benchmark. Wooden identification poles are permitted in forested areas.

The size of the lower base of the ditch is 20 cm, the upper - 120 cm, depth - 50 cm, length - 1280 cm. A mound 30 cm high with a diameter of 100 cm is poured above the benchmark. The length of the pylon, which has bevels on two sides in the upper part, is 140 cm, and cross section 16x16 cm. Plate diameter 48 cm, thickness 15 cm (Fig. 16).

The connection between the pylon and the slab is the same as for the benchmark. The base of the slab is located 80 cm below the ground surface. When using an anchor with a diameter of 34 cm, its height is increased to 25 cm, and the laying depth is up to 90 cm. A security plate is securely attached to the identification post (when casting the pylon) (Fig. 17). The inscription on the plate is cast, stamped or applied by punching.

When installing an identification pole, the security plate must face the reference point.

The part of the identification pole protruding above the ground surface is painted with oil paint of bright colors (red, orange, yellow). The number of the benchmark and the name of the organization that founded it are indicated in black paint on the pole. The identification pole may be tubular. A metal plate is welded to the top of the pipe, to which a security plate is bolted. The pipe is painted over the anti-corrosion coating within the protruding part with bright-colored oil paint.

On back side The plates are inscribed in black paint with the number of the benchmark and the initial letters of the organization that founded it. A plug is welded to the upper end of the pipe.

The lower end of the pipe must have a concrete (metal) anchor with a diameter of 48 cm and a thickness of 15 (0.5) cm, buried 100 cm into the ground. When using an anchor with a diameter of 34 cm, its height is increased to 25 cm, and the laying depth to 90 cm. The top of the tubular identification pole should be located 100 cm above the ground surface.

In forested areas of permafrost, as well as in wetlands of seasonal soil freezing, a log frame with dimensions of 200x200 cm and a height of 50 cm is built above the ground benchmark (Fig. 19).

The log house is filled with soil and moss, which is taken no closer than 15 m from the benchmark. In the log house above the benchmark they install wooden post 70 cm long, and next to it there is a metal identification pole; within a radius of 100-150 m from the benchmark, ten marks are made with bright paint on trees at a height of 150-250 cm.

In the tundra above the benchmark, a mound measuring 200x200 cm and 50 cm high is built from earth and moss. The mound is covered with a layer of turf. A wooden pole 70 cm long is installed above the benchmark, and an identification pole next to it. Earth, moss and turf are taken no closer than 15 m from the benchmark.

In the permafrost area, depending on how the benchmark is laid, by drilling (thawing) or in a pit, an identification metal pillar is installed at a distance of 100 or 70 cm from the benchmark (Fig. 9, 10). The lower end of the pipe must have an anchor, which is buried into the permafrost soil by at least 50 cm. The upper part of the identification mark is placed 100 cm above the ground surface and painted with oil paint of bright colors. Various mechanisms can be used for digging pits, drilling wells, driving piles and screwing pipes (Appendix 8). Documentation drawn up upon completion of work on laying benchmarks:

· report with explanatory note; benchmark bookmarking magazines;

· a list of established benchmarks and a diagram of their location (on the largest scale map);

· acts of submitting benchmarks for safety supervision;

· photographs of buildings and rocks in which wall markers are embedded;

· maps at a scale of 1:25000 and larger, aerial photographs showing the locations of established and surveyed benchmarks, outlines. The scale of the outline is chosen so that the nearest landmarks indicated in the description of the location of the benchmark fit on it. The outlines are drawn up by eye, using maps, aerial photographs in ordinary conventional topographical signs, the horizontal lines on them are drawn conventionally, only to show the nature of the relief.

A separate document provides determination schemes and observation materials for the instrumental determination of the coordinates of fundamental, secular and ordinary benchmarks and a list of coordinates of benchmarks along leveling lines.

Coordinates of secular and fundamental benchmarks, determined instrumental methods, are given with an error of no more than 1.0 m, ordinary benchmarks and marks with an error of no more than 10 m.

Literature

1. Z.?.S?rsembekova, “?aza? Universities" 2013

2. M.B.N?rpeisova, Astana 2009

3. Poklad G.G. Geodesy M: Nedra, 1988.

4. Neumyvakin Yu.K. and others. Geodesy. Topographic surveys M.: Nedra, 1991.

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Level systems of heights

In Russia and some countries former USSR The zero mark for measuring the surface level is considered to be the Kronstadt footing rod. All geodetic symbols indicated on the maps of these countries are calculated according to the Baltic height system adopted in 1977. In the areas Far East calculations are carried out according to the Okhotsk height system. Its error relative to the BSV is less than one meter.

A foot rod is a rod with divisions for determining the water level in a river or other body of water. Sometimes permanently installed foot rods, as reference points and reference points in geodesy, are used by scientists to observe changes in water levels in the seas and vertical movements of layers of the earth's surface.

About the Kronstadt footstock and determining sea level

Initially, changes in the height of the Gulf of Finland were marked by horizontal notches on the walls of canals and basins, and on the surfaces of locks. When in 1777 in Kronstadt it was organized special service, water observations were carried out according to the marks of the foot rod from the bottom

Long-term (since 1731) and regular notes and observations of fluctuations in water levels in the Gulf of Finland were processed by hydrographer M. F. Reinecke in 1840. Based on the average readings he calculated, a horizontal line was carved on the stone support of one of the bridges across the Obvodny Canal. Several decades later, a metal plate with a horizontal mark almost coinciding with the zero reading foot rod.

Transfer of sea level to land

This level indicator was transferred to the mainland territory using leveling along the St. Petersburg - Oranienbaum railway line and “tied” with a bolt mark to one of the buildings at the Baltic Station. Since 1892, this bolt has been the main reference point for all leveling measurements in the country.

In 1946, on the territory Soviet Union a unified system of coordinates and heights was introduced. The initial level was taken as Baltic Sea with a mark corresponding to zero on the Kronstadt footstock. This is the control reference point of the state leveling system. From the mark, heights and depths are calculated for all domestic maps and directions, and orbits for spacecraft flights are determined.

Types of benchmarks in geodesy

On the ground, the reference point is indicated by a pyramid-shaped structure made of stones, boards or metal tubes. Depending on the purpose, there are several types of benchmarks:

Centuries are distributed according to a special scheme throughout the country. They are installed according to instructions at specified geographic locations. They are used mainly for scientific purposes.
Fundamental ones are equipped along all leveling lines of the first class (between centuries) and along the most critical lines of the second class. The distance between points is from 50 to 80 km. They are laid exclusively in the ground in the form of reinforced concrete pillars and pylons. Since the fundamental benchmark can only be used in certain cases, an ordinary benchmark satellite with accurate transferred data is installed not far from it. It is used as a support for leveling classes 3 and 4.
Ordinary benchmarks are wall, rock and soil. Fixed at a distance of 3.5 to 7 km from one another, these signs can be laid along all leveling lines.

The system of interconnected fundamental and ordinary reference points forms the GGS - the state geodetic network.

Cartographic designation of geodetic marks

On maps, the reference point is marked with special icons. They are distinguished as follows:

for astronomical points;
for GGS points;
for central points fixed on the territory;
for survey network points;
for points of the state leveling geodetic network.

All these points are marked on the real surface of the Earth with metal pyramids or ordinary benchmarks. Geodetic centers indicating the location of a point are plotted on maps according to coordinates, that is, as accurately as possible, with indications of elevation marks.

What is a reference point? Elevations, mounds, hills included in the general geodetic network or separately standing buildings with spiers, towers or bell towers are designated by conventionally accepted combined icons. GGS points are indicated on large-scale maps, absolutely everything. Astronomical points that are landmarks are designated only in cases where they are starting points in a given area.

Triangulation (reference) points, their installation

The installation of permanent signs is carried out by the State Geodetic Leveling Network. The ground parts of the benchmarks are mutually visible to each other at a certain distance. The design and height of signs depend on the purpose, local conditions, soil and distances from one point to another.

Geodetic points can be made in the form of metal or wooden pyramids, stone or reinforced concrete pillars. The height of each structure depends on the location of the attachment. Any benchmark serves as a tripod or support for the measuring instrument and the observer.

The underground part of such a structure is made in the form of a foundation monolith filled with concrete. A mark cast from metal is embedded in the very point, which is the center of the point. The inscription on the latter indicates the number and type of this item. The name of the organization that performed the work and the year of installation are cast along with a mark (usually cast iron).

Construction and reference marks

Disc-shaped markers, made using cast iron, are installed in the walls industrial buildings, locks, abutments and This is done to monitor the static state of large structures. In addition to inscriptions, on disk marks there are protrusions intended for installation. The purpose of geodetic marks can be divided into the following categories:

reference, or control, which are the basis for determining the position of established marks, taking into account safety and stability over time;
auxiliary signs are intermediate signs for transmitting coordinates and values between deformation and reference marks;
deformation marks, which are fixed directly on the walls of the observed structures or buildings (with spatial changes in the position of the object, these marks move with it).

Reference points in construction are a guarantee of timely detection of mobility or instability of a large object, such as a hydroelectric dam or a high-rise building.

Who needs all this?

Thanks to an interconnected system of designated points, a state geodetic network is formed. Special directories contain lists with the specified coordinates of all such points. This information is used by topographers to study the surface of the planet, in engineering and geodetic surveys, for different needs economy of the country.

Lists indicating coordinate values are communicated to army officers along with topographic maps. Artillerymen also know well that a reference point is a mark indicating a known height, a kind of support for sighting on the ground.

The reference points on the Celsius temperature scale are considered to be the boiling and freezing values of water at sea level.

In business, this concept is used to describe a certain state of affairs when certain actions can lead to either complete failure or success.

Health, entrepreneurship

Since a reference point is a kind of reference point, a “hook,” this concept can be applied in many areas of human life.

Investigating the causes of frequent stress in people who constantly live in megacities, scientists found that the unnatural visual environment is to blame. Spread of right angles and lines, buildings of uniform color, large quantity static objects negatively affects emotional condition person. The psychophysiological direction in science, called visual ecology, argues that the absence of distinctive features of architectural decorative elements overloads

The eye must highlight and fix some point, detail, element in visual space so that the brain perceives the environment as comfortable, close to natural and harmonious. Only then does a person have a feeling of aesthetic and emotional satisfaction.

Reference points in business are a kind of airbag. They can be used to increase the competitiveness of an enterprise. If we take as a basis some marketing techniques or the state of affairs in the current period, we can identify comprehensive measures that need to be taken to change the situation for the better.