Years of formation of the great horde. Formation of the Golden Horde

So where is the capital of the Golden Horde? Ask any Astrakhan schoolchild about this.

Of course, the capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Sarai-Batu, is located in Astrakhan region- he will answer you. And any Astrakhan schoolchild knows about this, not because he is smarter than schoolchildren from other regions of Russia, but because it has now become fashionable to go there on excursions.

Let's go on one such excursion.

So, early in the morning, three classes are gathering in the schoolyard, which today, instead of lessons, will go on an excursion to the excavations. A huge double-decker bus was rented, and all the people could comfortably fit in it. The children, of course, climbed to the second floor, two teachers went there, and a small group of parents, and those few “unlucky ones” who did not get a place upstairs, settled down on the lower floor.

We're leaving. Passers-by look back in amazement at this marvel of engineering. It’s not every day that you see a double-decker bus in Astrakhan.

For two whole hours we move along the Astrakhan steppe. Outside the window is a rather dull landscape. This is not a steppe, but some kind of semi-desert. But surprisingly, it turns out that we have many rivers and streams. From the window of the bus you can see a heron, which froze in some swamp. Truly an amazing view.

But then the bus leaves the highway and drives for seven kilometers along a simple country road, well-trodden by other vehicles. People from the second floor begin to run towards us, to the first. It gets unbearably hot there. Our bus stops.

We are in the desert. The area is quite strange, literally five hundred meters to a kilometer away the Akhtuba River flows its waters, and here there is a real desert. The only vegetation is camel thorn and just thorns, which we don’t even know the name of, and there is only sand under our feet. Exotic, in a word. It's good that it's quite cool today. It’s only 25-26 degrees Celsius, the sky is covered with clouds, and a refreshing breeze is blowing.

The guide takes us to the excavation site. Excavation is small hole, about half a meter deep. At the bottom of the pit you can see walls, wells, and ovens. The guide enthusiastically talks about the fact that there was a water supply system here and shows the holes where this water supply system ran.

In general, the first capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Sarai-Batu, was founded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, in 1254. The fortified settlement remaining from the first capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Batu, is striking in its size. Spread over several hillocks, it stretches along the left bank of the Akhtuba for more than 15 km. The city grew very quickly. At the beginning of the 14th century, it was a real capital - with continuous rows of houses, with mosques (of which 13 were cathedrals), with palaces, the walls of which sparkled with mosaic patterns, with reservoirs filled with clear water, with extensive markets and warehouses. The Khan's palace towered on the highest hill above the bank of Akhtuba. According to legend, the khan's palace was decorated with gold, so the entire state began to be called the Golden Horde.

While the guide, choking with delight, paints the beauty of the past, his gaze involuntarily lingers on the present. Not far away is the village of Selitrennoe. Several miserable houses, covered with dust and faded by the sun. Not a tree, not a blade of grass. Boring landscape. How is it possible, fountains and water pipes in the 13th century - and the absence of any amenities in the 21st? Hard to believe.

Meanwhile, the guide suggests moving to another place. Here, right on the bank of Akhtuba, you can find shards, remains of masonry, etc., etc. Schoolchildren instantly turn into treasure hunters. And just a few minutes later they find themselves in their hands with heaps of shards and remains of a wall that have historical value.

One boy found a handle from a jug, another - a piece of something with glaze painting. The rest just have shards from pots and pieces of masonry, covered on one side with blue paint. The children have even stopped running up to the guide: if there is blue paint, then the sample is old. Having collected a bunch of souvenirs, we return to the bus.

I turn my head all the time and am in some kind of bewilderment. The fact is that two years ago I was already at these excavations, but then they showed us completely different places. I pester the tour guide with a question.
“Those excavations have already been mothballed,” explains the guide.
- How?
- They just cover it with earth again.

I walk silently. On the one hand, I understand that if this is not done, then nature and people will cause irreparable harm to historical values. On the other hand, did they dig it up and bury it again?

Our bus goes onto the highway and after some time goes off-road again. This time the turn is so dangerous that the driver is afraid that this two-story hulk will tip over, and asks passengers to get off the bus.

But now all the dangers are behind us, and before us is a panorama of a small clay town. Or maybe big, by medieval standards. Two hectares in size. The guide honestly warns that the town is not real. This is scenery from the filming of the movie "Horde". We haven’t seen the film itself yet; it hasn’t been released. But the scenery quite accurately recreated the appearance of the city in the 13th-14th centuries. Ekov, and we were happy to take pictures there. "Ancients" clay walls buildings, streets and squares, carts and ovens, there is even a trough in which I did not fail to “wash” something. All this creates a feeling of being in the Middle Ages.

Near the town there are tents of nomads, in one of them you can see household items, the other is an ordinary cafe, albeit with unusual prices. A bottle of water costs 80 rubles there. In the city, of course, it costs 20, but all the water that we took with us is already hot. And here - from the refrigerator. Meanwhile, the sun kept getting hotter. It is hot here. One of the children could not stand it and bought this literally “golden” water.

There is also a souvenir kiosk and toilet. The toilet is very important here. Why? And if you look at the photo of the area, it becomes clear. Until now, there was simply nowhere for people to retire.

Then we have a small picnic in a forest infested with snakes. Where did the little forest come from in the middle of the desert? As already mentioned, the entire territory of the region is literally riddled with small eriks and ilmens. It is near these ponds that the trees cluster.

We had to eat quickly, because all the food was covered with sand, it began to rain, and we urgently left the Tatar camp, since the roads could become muddy, and this threatened us ourselves with becoming exhibits of excavations.

The return to Astrakhan was not marked by anything special.

So, let's summarize our journey. If you are a true history buff and you are not afraid of the difficulties associated with the hot summer climate of the Astrakhan region, you will find a lot of interesting things on this trip. And if you go not in the summer, but in September-October, then it will generally be a country walk. And for money - mere pennies. If you go in an organized manner, with a group and a guide, depending on the travel agency, it will cost you 500-1000 rubles per person. Although on websites for Muscovites I have seen offers of up to 10 thousand. This amount includes travel, insurance, a guide, a visit to the excavation site, a visit to the scenery and the tent-museum.

Reasons for the collapse of the Golden Horde

Note 1

The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde is associated with "Great Remembrance" which began in $1357 with the death of Khan Janibeka. This state entity finally collapsed in the $40s of the $15th century.

Let us highlight the main reasons for the collapse:

1. Lack of a strong ruler (with the exception of a short time Tokhtamysh)
2. Creation of independent uluses (districts)
3. Growing resistance in controlled territories
4. Deep economic crisis

The Horde's destruction begins

As noted above, the beginning of the decline of the Horde coincided with the death of Khan Janibek. His numerous descendants entered into a bloody feud for power. As a result, for a little over $2$, decades of “zamyatni” were replaced by $25$ of khans.

In Rus', of course, they took advantage of the weakening of the Horde and stopped paying tribute. Military clashes soon followed, the grandiose result of which was Battle of Kulikovo$1380$ year ended for the Horde under the leadership of Temnik Mom, I terrible defeat. And, although two years later a strong khan came to power Tokhtamysh returned the collection of tribute from Rus' and burned Moscow; the Horde no longer had the previous power.

Collapse of the Golden Horde

Central Asian ruler Tamerlane in $1395$ he completely defeated Tokhtamysh and installed his governor in the Horde Edigeya. In $1408, Edigei made a campaign against Rus', as a result of which many cities were plundered, and the payment of tribute, which had stopped in $1395, resumed again.

But there was no stability in the Horde itself; new unrest began. Several times with the help of the Lithuanian prince Vytautas The sons of Tokhtamysh seized power. Then Timur Khan expelled Edigei, although he put him at the head of the Horde. As a result, in $1419, Edigei was killed.

In general, the Horde ceased to exist as a single state association after the defeat by Tamerlane. Since the $1420s, the collapse has accelerated sharply, as another turmoil led to the ruin of economic centers. Under the current conditions, it is quite natural that the khans sought to isolate themselves. Independent khanates began to appear:

• The Siberian Khanate emerged in $1420-1421
• The Uzbek Khanate appeared in $1428
• Khanate of Kazan originated in $1438$
• The Crimean Khanate appeared in $1441
• The Nogai Horde took shape in the $1440s.
• The Kazakh Khanate appeared in $1465

Based on the Golden Horde, the so-called Great Horde, which formally remained dominant. The Great Horde ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.

Liberation of Rus' from the yoke

In $1462, Ivan III became Sovereign Grand Duke of All Rus'. His priority foreign policy there was complete liberation from the remnants of the Horde yoke. After $10$ years he became the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat. He set out on a campaign against Rus', but Russian troops repulsed Akhmat’s attacks, and the campaign ended in nothing. Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde. Akhmat could not immediately withdraw a new army against Rus', since he was fighting the Crimean Khanate.

Akhmat's new campaign began in the summer of $1480. For Ivan III situation was quite difficult, since Akhmat enlisted the support of the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV. In addition, Ivan's brothers Andrey Bolshoi And Boris at the same time they rebelled and left for Lithuania. Through negotiations, the conflict with the brothers was resolved.

Ivan III went with his army to the Oka River to meet Akhmat. Khan did not cross for two months, but in September $1480 he nevertheless crossed the Oka and headed to Ugra River, located on the border with Lithuania. But Casimir IV did not come to Akhmat’s aid. Russian troops stopped Akhmat's attempts to cross the river. In November, despite the fact that the Ugra was frozen, Akhmat retreated.

Soon the khan went to Lithuania, where he plundered many settlements, avenging the betrayal of Casimir IV. But Akhmat himself was killed during the division of the loot.

Note 2

Traditionally, the events of Akhmat’s campaign against Rus' are called "standing on the Ugra River". This is not entirely true, because clashes took place, and quite violent ones, during Akhmat’s attempts to cross the river.

Be that as it may, after the “standstill,” Rus' finally got rid of the $240-year-old yoke.

He divided all his possessions among his sons. Eldest son Jochi, inherited a huge expanse of land from the headwaters of the Syr Darya to the mouths of the Danube, which, however, still had to be largely conquered. Jochi died before the death of his father and his lands came into the possession of five sons: Horde, Batu, Tuk-Timur, Sheiban and Teval. The Horde stood at the head of the tribes roaming between the Volga and the upper reaches of the Syr Darya, Batu received the western possessions of the Jochi ulus as his inheritance. The last khans of the Golden Horde (from 1380) and the khans of Astrakhan (1466 - 1554) came from the Horde clan; The Batu family ruled the Golden Horde until 1380. The possessions of Khan Batu were called the Golden Horde, the possessions of the Khan of the Horde - the White Horde (in Russian chronicles the Blue Horde).

Golden Horde and Rus'. Map

We know relatively little about the reign of the first Khan Batu. He died in 1255. He was succeeded by his son Sartak, who, however, did not rule the Horde, since he died on the way to Mongolia, where he went to obtain approval for the throne. The young Ulakchi, appointed as Sartak's successor, also soon died and then Batu's brother Berkay or Berke (1257 - 1266) ascended the throne. Berkay was followed by Mengu-Timur (1266 – 1280 or 1282). Under him, Jochi’s grandson, Nogai, who dominated the Don steppes and partially captured even the Crimea, gained significant influence on the internal affairs of the Khanate. He is the main sower of unrest after the death of Mengu-Timur. After civil strife and several short reigns, in 1290 the son of Mengu-Timur Tokhta (1290 - 1312) seized power. He enters into a fight with Nogai and defeats him. In one of the battles, Nogai was killed.

Tokhta's successor was the grandson of Mengu-Timur Uzbek (1312 - 1340). The time of his reign can be considered the most brilliant in the history of the Golden Horde . The Uzbek was followed by his son Janibek (1340 – 1357). Under him, the Tatars no longer sent their own Baskaks to Rus': the Russian princes themselves began to collect tribute from the population and take them to the Horde, which was much easier for the people. Being a zealous Muslim, Janibek, however, did not oppress those who professed other religions. He was killed by his own son Berdibek (1357 – 1359). Then turmoil and a change of khans begin. Over the course of 20 years (1360 - 1380), 14 khans were replaced in the Golden Horde. Their names are known to us only thanks to the inscriptions on the coins. At this time, a temnik (literally the chief of 10,000, generally a military leader) Mamai rises in the Horde. However, in 1380 he was defeated by Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field and was soon killed.

History of the Golden Horde

After the death of Mamai, power in the Golden Horde passed to the descendant of Jochi’s eldest son, Horde (some news, however, call him a descendant of Tuk-Timur) Tokhtamysh(1380 – 1391). Batu's descendants lost power, and the White Horde united with the Golden Horde. After Tokhtamysh, the darkest period begins in the history of the Golden Horde. The struggle begins between the Tokhtamyshevichs and the henchmen of the great Central Asian conqueror Timur. The enemy of the first was the Nogai military leader (temnik) Edigey. Having great influence, he constantly intervenes in civil strife, replaces khans and finally dies in the fight with the last Tokhtamyshevich on the banks of the Syr Darya. After this, khans from other clans appear on the throne. The Horde is weakening, its clashes with Moscow are becoming less and less frequent. The last khan of the Golden Horde was Akhmat or Seyyid-Ahmed. The death of Akhmat can be considered the end of the Golden Horde; his numerous sons, who stayed on the lower reaches of the Volga, formed Khanate of Astrakhan, which never had political power.

The sources for the history of the Golden Horde are exclusively Russian and Arab (mainly Egyptian) chronicles and inscriptions on coins.

Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turkic Ulu Ulus- “Great State”) - a medieval state in Eurasia.

Title and boundaries

Name "Golden Horde" was first used in 1566 in the historical and journalistic work “Kazan History”, when the unified state itself no longer existed. Until this time, in all Russian sources the word “ Horde" used without an adjective " Golden" Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly established in historiography and is used to designate the Jochi ulus as a whole or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.

In the Golden Horde proper and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It was usually referred to as " ulus", with the addition of some epithet ( "Ulug Ulus") or the name of the ruler ( "Ulus Berke"), and not necessarily the current one, but also the one who reigned earlier (“ Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, sovereign of the land of Uzbekistan"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak. Word " horde" in the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of "country" begin to be found only in the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde" (Persian اردوی زرین ‎, Urdu-i Zarrin) meaning " golden ceremonial tent" found in the description of an Arab traveler in relation to the residence of the Uzbek Khan.

In Russian chronicles, the word “horde” usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country has become constant since the turn of the 13th-14th centuries; before that time, the term “Tatars” was used as the name. In Western European sources the names “ country of Komans», « Company" or " power of the Tatars», « land of the Tatars», « Tataria". The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(tar-tar).

In modern languages, which are related to the Horde Old Tatar, the Golden Horde is called: Olug yort (senior house, homeland), Olug olys (senior district, district of the elder), Dashti kypchak, etc. At the same time, if the capital city is called Bash kala ( main city), then the mobile headquarters is called Altyn Urda (Golden Center, tent).

The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, defined the borders of the Horde as follows:

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Story

Batu Khan, medieval Chinese drawing

Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country associated with the name of the temnik Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklyarbek, the second most important in the state, under Mengu-Timur. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde (near the Danube). Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Tula-Buga (1287-1291) he managed to subjugate a vast territory along the Danube, Dniester, and Uzeu (Dnieper) to his power.

With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored.

Rise of the Golden Horde

Fragments of tiled decoration of the palace of Genghisid. Golden Horde, Saray-Batu. Ceramics, overglaze painting, mosaic, gilding. Selitrennoye settlement. Excavations of the 1980s. State Historical Museum

"The Great Jam"

From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the “Great Jam.”

Even during the life of Khan Janibek (no later than 1357), the Ulus of Shiban proclaimed its own khan, Ming-Timur. And the murder of Khan Berdibek (son of Janibek) in 1359 put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the emergence of a variety of contenders for the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Juchids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time, following the Ulus of Shiban, acquired their own khans.

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyarbek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatai, an influential emir of the times of Uzbek Khan, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisid, Mamai had no rights to the title of khan, so he limited himself to the position of beklyarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.

Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They really failed to do this; rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in the strong power of the khan.

Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also the grandson of Isatay, tried to create an independent ulus on the Syr Darya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Buga in 1360 and killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from among themselves.

Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatay and at the same time the grandson of Khan Janibek, captured Hadji-Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgierd seized lands in the Dnieper basin.

The Troubles in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Transoxiana in 1377-1380, first captured the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Principality of Moscow (defeat on Vozha (1378)). In 1380, Tokhtamysh defeated the remnants of troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo on the Kalka River.

Board of Tokhtamysh

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the khan made a campaign against Moscow and achieved the restoration of tribute payments. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns of 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated Tokhtamysh’s troops on the Terek, captured and destroyed Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

Collapse of the Golden Horde

Since the sixties of the 14th century, since the Great Jammy, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual collapse of the state began. The rulers of remote parts of the ulus acquired actual independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus of Orda-Ejen gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, a process of disintegration began, which accelerated from the 1420s.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Khan Kichi-Muhammad, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The Great Horde continued to be formally considered the main one among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' was finally freed from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

Government structure and administrative division

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, the Ulus of Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The right wing, which represented Ulus Batu, was considered the eldest. The Mongols designated the west as white, which is why Ulus Batu was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, North Caucasus, Don and Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Sarai-Batu.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses, which were owned by the other sons of Jochi. Initially there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who traveled to the east in 1246-1247, identifies the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mauzi on the eastern, Kartan, married to Batu’s sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people along the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was characterized by instability: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their borders. At the beginning of the 14th century, Uzbek Khan carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of the Ulus of Jochi was divided into 4 large uluses: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Dasht-i-Kipchak, led by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. The main ulusbek was the beklyarbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The remaining two positions were occupied by particularly noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small possessions (tumens), headed by temniks.

The uluses were divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman).

The capital of the Golden Horde under Batu became the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan); in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Sarai-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near modern Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Saray-Berke was renamed Saray Al-Jedid.

Army

The overwhelming part of the Horde army was cavalry, which used traditional combat tactics in battle with mobile cavalry masses of archers. Its core were heavily armed detachments consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear strike that followed the first strike with arrows. The most popular bladed weapons were broadswords and sabers. Impact-crushing weapons were also common: maces, six-fingers, coins, klevtsy, flails.

Lamellar and laminar metal armor were common among Horde warriors, and from the 14th century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was the Khatangu-degel, reinforced on the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used brigantine type armor. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and leggings became widespread. Swords were almost universally replaced by sabers. Since the end of the 14th century, cannons have been in service. Horde warriors also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chaparres. In field battles they also used some military-technical means, in particular crossbows.

Population

The Golden Horde was home to Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yas, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples. The small Mongol elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. The nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by the ethnonym “Tatars”.

The ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, and Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of the modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.

Cities and trade

On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers with material culture of an oriental appearance, which flourished in the first half of the 14th century, have been archaeologically recorded. The total number of Golden Horde cities, apparently, was close to 150. Large centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Hadji-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Dzhuketau, Madjar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench, etc.

The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captaincy of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde to trade cloth, fabrics and linen, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , forest, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.

Trade routes leading both to southern Europe and to Central Asia, India and China began from the Crimean trading cities. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran passed along the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk portage there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Azov and Black Seas.

External and internal trade relations were ensured by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper pools and sums.

Rulers

In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the primacy of the great kaan of the Mongol Empire.

Khans

1. Mengu-Timur (1269-1282), first khan of the Golden Horde, independent of the Mongol Empire
2. Tuda Mengu (1282-1287)
3. Tula Buga (1287-1291)
4. Tokhta (1291-1312)
5. Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
6. Tinibek (1341-1342)
7. Janibek (1342-1357)
8. Berdibek (1357-1359), last representative of the Batu clan
9. Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360), impostor, posed as the son of Janibek
10. Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360), impostor, posed as the son of Janibek
11. Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Orda-Ejen clan
12. Timur Khoja Khan (August-September 1361)
13. Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur family
14. Kildibek (October 1361-September 1362), impostor, posed as the son of Janibek
15. Murad Khan (September 1362-autumn 1364)
16. Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), first representative of the Shibana family
17. Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
18. Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
19. Hasan Khan (1368-1369)
20. Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
21. Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
22. Urus Khan (1372-1374)
23. Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
24. Muhammad Bulak Khan (beginning 1375-June 1375)
25. Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
26. Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-late 1375)
27. Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
28. Arabshah (Kary Khan) (1377-1380)
29. Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
30. Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
31. Shadibek (1399-1407)
32. Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
33. Timur Khan (1411-1412)
34. Jalal ad-Din Khan (1412-1413)
35. Kerimberdy (1413-1414)
36. Chokre (1414-1416)
37. Jabbar-Berdi (1416-1417)
38. Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
39. Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
40. Barak Khan (1423-1426)
41. Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
42. Barak Khan (1427-1428)
43. Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
44. Kichi-Muhammad (1432-1459)

Beklyarbeki

see also

Notes

1. Zahler, Diane. The Black Death (Revised Edition). - Twenty-First Century Books, 2013. - P. 70. - ISBN 978-1-4677-0375-8.
2. DOCUMENTS->GOLDEN HORDE->LETTERS OF THE GOLDEN HORDE KHANS (1393-1477)->TEXT
3. Grigoriev A.P. Official language Golden Horde XIII-XIV centuries//Turkological collection 1977. M, 1981. P.81-89."
4. Tatar encyclopedic dictionary. - Kazan: Institute of the Tatar Encyclopedia of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, 1999. - 703 pp., illus. ISBN 0-9530650-3-0
5. Faseev F. S. Old Tatar business writing of the 18th century. / F. S. Faseev. – Kazan: Tat. book published, 1982. – 171 p.
6. Khisamova F. M. Functioning of Old Tatar business writing of the XVI-XVII centuries. / F. M. Khisamova. – Kazan: Kazan Publishing House. University, 1990. – 154 p.
7. Written languages world, Books 1-2 G. D. McConnell, V. Yu. Mikhalchenko Academy, 2000 Pp. 452
8. III International Baudouin Readings: I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and modern problems of theoretical and applied linguistics: (Kazan, May 23-25, 2006): works and materials, Volume 2 Page. 88 and Page 91
9. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages ​​Nikolai Aleksandrovich Baskakov Higher. school, 1969
10. Tatar Encyclopedia: K-L Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov, Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov Institute of Tatar Encyclopedia, 2006 Page. 348
11. History of Tatar literary language: XIII-first quarter of XX at the Institute of Language, Literature and Art (YALI) named after Galimdzhan Ibragimov of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, Fiker publishing house, 2003
12. http://www.mtss.ru/?page=lang_orda E. Tenishev Language of interethnic communication of the Golden Horde era
13. Atlas of the history of Tatarstan and the Tatar people M.: Publishing house DIK, 1999. - 64 pp.: ill., maps. edited by R. G. Fakhrutdinova
14. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries.
15. Golden Horde Archived copy from October 23, 2011 on the Wayback Machine
16. Pochekaev R. Yu. Legal status of Ulus Jochi in the Mongol Empire 1224-1269. . - Library of the “Central Asian Historical Server”. Retrieved April 17, 2010. Archived August 23, 2011.
17. Cm.: Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M.: Nauka, 1985.
18. Sultanov T. I. How the Jochi ulus became the Golden Horde.
19. Meng-da bei-lu ( Full description Mongol-Tatars) Trans. from Chinese, introduction, comment. and adj. N. Ts. Munkueva. M., 1975, p. 48, 123-124.
20. V. Tizenhausen. Collection of materials related to the history of the Horde (p. 215), Arabic text (p. 236), Russian translation (B. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky. Golden Horde, p. 44).
21. Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Rus' = The Mongols and Russia / Transl. from English E. P. Berenshtein, B. L. Gubman, O. V. Stroganova. - Tver, M.: LEAN, AGRAF, 1997. - 480 p. - 7000 copies. - ISBN 5-85929-004-6.
22. Rashid ad-Din. Collection of chronicles / Trans. from Persian by Yu. P. Verkhovsky, edited by prof. I. P. Petrushevsky. - M., Leningrad: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1960. - T. 2. - P. 81. (unavailable link)
23. Juvaini. The history of the conqueror of the world // Collection of materials related to the history of the Golden Horde. - M., 1941. - P. 223. Note. 10 . (unavailable link)

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