Grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammatical categories of words
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, a morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of a language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of changing words and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing a statement. According to the duality of the object, traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form refers to morphology. All phenomena related to the syntagmatics of a word, as well as the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the attribution of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the categories of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of a language, therefore grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of a language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: just fragments
in reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying glass
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
“deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
magnifying glass vision; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2.Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a series of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed 3) expression in the language. For example, in the sentence Petrov - student The following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present tense (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a series of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning unconditional reality fact, masculine).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic connections of the word
information about the paradigmatic connections of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glokka kuzdra shteko budlanula bokr and curls the bokrenka. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the entire complex of grammatical meanings. For example, it is clear to the listener which parts of speech all the words of this phrase belong to, what between budlanula And bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, and the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if nouns, for example, have the meaning of number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence over a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in the Russian language express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
Closedness of the list: if the lexical system of each language is open in nature and is constantly replenished with new units and new meanings, then grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, for Russian nouns these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typical expression: grammatical meanings are conveyed in languages in strictly defined ways - using specially assigned means: affixes, function words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings. So, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English languages, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of definiteness/indeterminacy is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and ungrammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of particular varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: going - going);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - white in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (Idu - Shel)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically unchangeable lexical units and service elements (function words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let him go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a auxiliary element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in a language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: a synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and an analytical type (in which the tendency towards analytism predominates). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance of a tendency towards analyticism or synthetism in a language. In synthetic languages, a word retains its grammatical characteristics outside of a sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires grammatical characteristics only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of contrasting one linguistic unit with another. Thus, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical oppositions or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, function words, intonation, etc.) In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for meanings to be contrasted on some basis, they must also have some common attribute. Thus, the present tense can be contrasted with the past and future, since they all relate to the sequence of events being described. In this regard, we can give another definition of a grammatical category: it is a unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in a language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammemes, and means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-term categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-term (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammemes there are in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationships between them, the more features there are in the content of each grammeme.
Formative and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong various forms the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot be changed according to the classifying criterion. For example, the category of gender for nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine gender; but bed, beds, bed is feminine. However, the gender of a noun is important from a grammatical point of view, since it determines the forms of agreeing adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc.: big table, this table, the table stood; but: there was a bed, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the angle from which reality is viewed, for example, the voice of a verb: workers are building a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate the connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammatical categories of words
It is necessary to distinguish from grammatical categories grammatical categories words A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. In the lexico-grammatical category such a system of forms is not traced. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
A semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and influence the grammatical features of words in this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within parts of speech, smaller groups are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way the grammatical forms of the words included in them are formed. These are groupings of words by type of conjugation (conjugative classes), by type of declension (declination classes). In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
Words act as building material for the tongue. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be combined into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The branch of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its modification.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies combinations of words and sentences.
Thus, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of a word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar studies a word from the point of view of generalizing its signs and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house And smoke, table And chair, then for grammar all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same case forms and numbers, and have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.
For example, words smoke And house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collective) people living in it; smoke– an aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). But the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be defined by an adjective, change according to cases and numbers, and act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using function words, alternating sounds, changing the place of stress and word order, and intonation.
Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): read– verb in the past tense form.
When grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, it is formed complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with a service word): I will read, let's read! In the Russian language, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural meanings are combined into a number meaning system. In such cases we talk about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.
Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, and that of adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm happens:
universal– all forms (full);
incomplete– there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings interact: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning and form. For example, adjective voiced in a phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: sonorous, more sonorous, most sonorous). This is the same adjective in the phrase media is relative adjective(voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, verb run in the meaning of “to move quickly” is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite a long time until he fell completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning – the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
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MORPHOLOGY. PART I.
TOPIC 1. MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE
Subject of morphology
Morphology (from the Greek morphe - form and logos - study) is the grammatical study of words. The word is the main object of morphology. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of words, establishes what grammatical meanings certain words and classes of words have, and identifies the specifics of grammatical categories for words belonging to different parts of speech. For example, both nouns and adjectives have the categories of gender, number and case. However, for nouns these categories are independent, and for adjectives they are syntactically determined, depending on the gender, number and case of the noun with which the adjective is combined (cf.: big house, big house, big house and so on.; the big one is ours; large building; big houses and so on.).
The tasks of morphology include determining the range of words that have one or another grammatical category. Grammatical categories either cover the entire lexical base of a certain part of speech, or apply only to the main body of words belonging to it. So, nouns pluralia tantum (scissors, twilight, yeast etc.) do not have a gender category, impersonal verbs do not have “categories of persons.” One of the most important tasks of morphology is to identify and describe the specific functioning of grammatical categories in the lexicon various parts speech.
Morphology establishes the composition of the grammatical forms of various types of words, identifies the rules for changing words, and distributes words according to types of declension and conjugation.
Morphology includes the study of parts of speech. It examines the semantic and formal features of words of various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words by parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of parts of speech, studies the lexical and grammatical features of words of each part of speech, and identifies patterns of interaction between parts of speech.
Grammatical meanings of words
A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. For example, the word lamp means "lighting or heating device" different devices" This is its lexical meaning. Into the semantic content of the word lamp also includes feminine meanings, nominative case and singular. These are its grammatical meanings.
The lexical meaning of a word is an individual semantic feature that distinguishes it from other words. Even words that are close in meaning (cf.: lamp, lamp, lantern) have different lexical meanings. Lamp -“a small vessel with a wick, filled with oil and lit in front of the icons”; flashlight has three meanings: 1) “ lighting fixture as glass ball, boxes with glass walls"; 2) special: “a glass skylight in the roof, as well as a glazed projection in the building”; 3) figurative: “bruise from a beating, from a contusion.”
Grammatical meanings are characteristic of a whole class of words. Thus, the meanings of the feminine gender, singular number, nominative case unite the words lamp, water, fish, room, mermaid, thought and others, which have nothing in common in their lexical meanings. Wed. also: 1) I run, I fly, I read, I lift, I write, I jump; 2) sang, drew, read, thought, danced, shot; 3) run, read, take, fly, wipe, buy. The words of the first row denote different processes, but they all express the grammatical meanings of the 1st person, singular. The words of the second row are united by the meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine. gender, words of the third row - with the meanings of the imperative mood, units. numbers. Thus, grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning, abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.
Grammatical meanings are not unique. One grammatical meaning necessarily presupposes the presence of another (or others), homogeneous and correlative with it. For example, the singular number implies the plural (bird - birds, nagi - pasha); the meaning of the imperfect form is paired with the meaning of the perfect form (take off- remove, accept - accept); meaning to them pad. enters into relationships with all other case meanings.
Grammatical meanings are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to be layered on the lexical (real, material) meanings of words and rely on them. Therefore, they are often called accompanying. Thus, the grammatical meanings of gender, number and -case in a noun book accompany its lexical meaning; grammatical meanings of the 3rd person, units. numbers, nes. aspect in verb draws based on its lexical meaning. A. A. Shakhmatov wrote about this: “The grammatical meaning of a linguistic form is opposed to its real meaning. The real meaning of a word depends on its correspondence as a verbal sign to one or another phenomenon of the external world. The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning it has in relation to other words. The real meaning connects the word directly with the outside world, the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words."
Grammatical meanings reflect either certain features of phenomena in the external world, or the attitude of the speaker to the thought he expresses, or intralingual connections and relationships between words. They, notes A. A. Shakhmatov, “can be based (1) partly on phenomena given in the external world: for example, plural. h. birds depends on the fact that we mean the idea of not one, but several birds... (2) Partially, the accompanying meanings are based on the speaker’s subjective attitude to a certain phenomenon: for example, I walked means the same action as me I'm walking but taking place, according to the speaker, in the past tense... (3) Partially, finally, the accompanying meanings are based... on the formal, external reason given in the word itself: so, the feminine gender of the word book depends only on the fact that it ends in -a.”
MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR. SUBJECT OF MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is one of the sections of grammar. The term “grammar” is used in linguistics in a double meaning: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of a language and in the meaning of the doctrine of the grammatical structure of a language, i.e. as a designation of the corresponding scientific discipline. IN in the last sense grammar is a collection of rules about changing words and combining words in a sentence. In accordance with this, grammar is divided into two sections: morphology – a collection of rules about changing words, i.e. the doctrine of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms (Greek morphe – form, logos – word, doctrine), and syntax – a collection of rules about combining words, i.e. the doctrine of sentence construction (Greek syntaxis – combination, construction).
Grammar(morphology and syntax) gives rules for changing words and combining words in a sentence, meaning not specific words and sentences, but words and sentences in general. Grammar abstracts from the particular and concrete in words and sentences and takes what is common to them.
The object of study in morphology is individual words. However, in morphology words are studied differently than in lexicology. Lexicology studies the lexical meaning of a word, its origin, functional and stylistic properties, and usage. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of a word. For example, in the word aerobatics lexicology is interested in the fact that it is of French origin (pilotage), is an aviation term and denotes the art of control aircraft. What is important for morphology is that this word is a noun, inanimate, common noun, masculine, in plural not used, can be defined by an adjective ( aerobatics) and change by case ( aerobatics, aerobatics, aerobatics, aerobatics, aerobatics, about aerobatics).
The tasks of morphology are not limited to the study of only word forms and the general grammatical meanings they express. Morphology includes the study of parts of speech as lexical and grammatical categories of words.
In addition, it is traditional in Russian linguistic science to refer issues of word formation to morphology. individual parts speech ( general issues word formation, types of word formation, changes in the morphological composition of a word, and others are included in a separate section).
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Under grammatical category the systemic opposition of all homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical formal means is understood. There are grammatical categories morphological and syntactic.
Morphological category is a two-dimensional phenomenon, this is the unity of grammatical semantics and its formal indicators; within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word are not studied in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verbal aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect forms, the category of the person is made up of homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.
When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is missing, then this phenomenon cannot be considered as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is also not a category, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of conjugations I and II do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.
Inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of person of a verb is inflectional, since to detect it it is enough to compare different shapes one verb (I’m going, you’re going, going).
Non-inflectional(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the contrast of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-verbal categories, vocabulary language can be divided into grammar classes(therefore morphological categories of this type and are called classification). For example, the categories of gender and animate/inanimate nouns are non-inflectional.
The main morphological category (and a category of classification type) is the category of parts of speech (category partiality ). All other categories are distinguished within the framework of parts of speech and are private morphological categories in relation to parts of speech.
Grammatical category- these are meanings of a generalized nature inherent in words, meanings abstracted from specific ones lexical meanings of these words. Categorical meanings can be indicators, for example, of the relationship of a given word to other words in a phrase and sentence (case category), relationship to the person speaking (person category), the relationship of the message to reality (mood category), the relationship of the message to time (category of time) and etc.
Grammatical categories have varying degrees abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. Thus, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not each of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: teacher - teacher, actor - actress, but teacher, linguist, director.
One or another grammatical category (category of gender, category of number, category of case, etc.) in each specific word has a specific content. So, for example, the category of gender, characteristic of nouns, in the word book is revealed by the fact that this noun is a feminine noun; or aspect category, for example, in a verb paint has a certain content – This is an imperfective verb. Similar meanings of words are called grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), necessary mainly to connect the given word with other words in the text.
The lexical meaning of a word is specific and individual, and the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized nature. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole denote various items and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.
Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. The general grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, a feature of an object - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).
The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb in the heat of the moment), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).
The ability of a word to form a paradigm consisting of two or more word forms is called inflection. The following inflection systems operate in modern Russian:
By cases (declension);
By persons (conjugation);
By numbers;
By birth;
By inclination;
From time to time.
The ability of a word to form special forms is called shaping. This is how they are formed short form and degrees of comparison of adjectives, infinitives, participles and gerunds of verbs, etc.
So, word form - This is a specific use of the word.
Token- this is a word as a representative of a group of specific word forms that have the same lexical meaning.
Paradigm- this is the entire set of word forms included in a given lexeme.
Word form is a word form with certain morphological characteristics in abstraction from its lexical features.
Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain language means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in a verb writing expressed using the ending -y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case in the word forest expressed using the ending - ohm. This expression of grammatical meanings by external linguistic means is called grammatical form. Consequently, forms of a word are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. There is no grammatical meaning outside of grammatical form. Grammatical meanings can be expressed not only with the help of morphological modifications of a word, but also with the help of other words with which it is associated in a sentence. For example, in sentences He bought a coat And He was wearing a coat word form coat is the same, but in the first case it has the grammatical meaning of the accusative case, and in the second - the prepositional case. These values are created different connections this word with other words in the sentence.
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical, mixed and others.
At synthetic way grammatical meanings are usually expressed affixation , i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often – alternating sounds and stress (mind e howl–mind And army; m A sla– special oil A ), and suppletive , i.e. formations from different roots ( person - people, child - children:unit values and many more numbers; take - take: meanings of imperfect and perfect form; good - better: positive and comparative degree). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress ( water - water), as well as with alternating sounds ( dream - sleep).
At analytical way grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words. For example, the meaning of the future tense of a verb can be expressed not only synthetically – using a personal ending ( played Yu, played eat, played no ), but also analytically – using a verb link be(will play, you will play, will play).
At mixed, or hybrid, way, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending ( in the house), grammatical meaning of the first person - pronoun and ending ( I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb eid ut ending -ut expresses both person, number, and mood.
Thus, the one-word paradigm can combine synthetic, analytical and suppletive word forms.
The grammatical meaning of a word can be expressed syntactic way, i.e. using another word form combined with a given word form ( strong th coffee– the meaning of the masculine gender of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the word form of the masculine adjective; To coat– the meaning of the dative case of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the preposition k).
Sometimes a way of expressing grammatical meaning is logical-semantic relations in the text. For example, in the sentence Summer gives way to autumn noun autumn is the subject and is in the nominative case form, and summer– an object and is in the accusative case.
Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology it is general values words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.
Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.
If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.
For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).
1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.
3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.
4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.
All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n so s i c h e s k o g o ( syntactic functions words)
. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:
1. Name words, or parts of speech;
2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;
3. Modal words;
4. Interjections.
1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.
2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).
3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.
4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.
In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,
2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow
Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
| Noun | Who? What? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. | |
| Verb | what to do? what to do? | To saw, to saw, to know, to find out. | |
| Adjective | Which? whose? | Nice, blue, mom's, door. | |
| Numeral | How many? which? | Five, five, five. | |
| Adverb | How? When? Where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. | |
| Pronoun | Who? Which? How many? How? and etc. | I, he, so, my, so much, so, there. | |
| Participle | Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. | |
| Participle | How? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding. |
Notes
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.
Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.
- Functional words cannot be questioned.
- Function words are not parts of the sentence.
- Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
- The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:
- pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
- union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
- particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).
6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.
- Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
- Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.
Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.
Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.
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Noun
The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.