Historical knowledge is retrospective (from the Latin retro - back and specio - look) in the sense that it is addressed to how events developed in reality - from cause to effect. The historian goes from effect to cause; this rule of knowledge applies in any case without exception. In its removed form, the subsequent contains the previous, or more precisely, some elements of a structure that has gone into oblivion, and in a twofold form: either in the form of remnants, remnants of the past, or as an integral part of another, more developed stage (step) of the same line of development reality.

Patriarchal slavery is a relic of slaveholding relations of the era of Antiquity. It is not an element of the emergence of something new in the life of the ancient Germans and Slavs in the Middle Ages. On the contrary, the development of family and marital relations from the clan through the separation of a large family and the formation of a small individual family represents a different type of evolution in the relationship between the past and the present. The same can be said about the development of capitalist relations from simple cooperation through manufacture to the factory, about the development of capitalism from the stage of free competition to the monopolistic stage and to the dominance of transnational corporations.

The essence of the retrospective method is to rely on a higher stage of development in order to understand and evaluate the previous one. This is done not only because of a possible lack of factual data and sources, although this in itself is important. The fact is that in order to understand the essence of the event or thinking process being studied, it is necessary to trace its development from end to end, but this is not enough. Each previous stage can be understood not only through its connection with other stages, but also in the light of the subsequent and higher stage of development as a whole, in which the essence of the entire process is most fully expressed. This helps to understand the previous stages. French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. developed along an ascending line, if we bear in mind the degree of radicalization of demands, slogans and programs, as well as the social essence of the strata of society that came to power. The last, Jacobin stage expresses this dynamics to the greatest extent and makes it possible to judge both the revolution as a whole and the nature and significance of its previous stages.

With any other logic of thinking, an adequate understanding of this event is impossible.

The essence of the retrospective method was best expressed by K. Marx. We are talking about understanding very specific phenomena and history in general. About the method of studying the medieval community by the German historian G.L. Maurer K. Marx wrote: “But the stamp of this “agricultural” community is so clearly expressed in the new community that Maurer, having studied the latter, could restore the first.” A kind of pinnacle of the application of the retrospective method are the studies of L. G. Morgan. In his work “Ancient Society,” he showed the evolution of family and marriage relations from group forms to individual ones.

L.G. Morgan recreated the history of the family in reverse order down to the primitive state of the dominance of polygamy. According to F. Engels, L.G. Morgan "...found the key to the most important, hitherto insoluble mysteries of ancient Greek, Roman and German history." What did he mean? Along with recreating the appearance of the primitive form of the family, L. G. Morgan proved the fundamental similarity in the development of family and marital relations among the ancient Greeks and Romans and the American Indians. What helped him understand this similarity? This is, in essence, the idea of ​​the unity of world history, which manifests itself asynchronously, and not only within the time horizon.

The historian expressed his idea of ​​unity as follows: “Their (forms of family and marriage relations in Ancient Greece and Rome with the relations of the American Indians. - N.S.) juxtaposition and comparison indicates the uniformity of the activity of the human mind under the same social system.” Discovery of L.G. Morgan reveals the interaction of retrospective and comparative historical methods in the mechanism of his thinking. The interrelation and interaction of various methods in cognition is a common and characteristic feature of thinking.

In Russian historiography, the retrospective method was successfully used by I.D. Kovalchenko when studying agrarian relations in Russia in the 19th century. The essence of the method was an attempt to consider the peasant economy at different system levels: individual peasant farms (yards), a higher level - peasant communities (villages), even higher levels - volosts, counties, provinces. The system of provinces represents the highest level; it was at this level, according to the scientist, that the main features of the socio-economic system of the peasant economy were most clearly manifested. I.D. Kovalchenko believed that their knowledge is necessary to reveal the essence of structures located at a lower level.

The nature of the structure at the lowest (household) level, being correlated with its essence at the highest level, shows to what extent the general trends in the functioning of the peasant economy were manifested in the individual.

The retrospective method is applicable to the study of not only individual phenomena, but also entire historical eras. This essence of the method is most clearly expressed by K. Marx. He wrote: “Bourgeois society is the most developed and most versatile historical organization of production. Therefore, the categories that express its relations, the understanding of its organization, at the same time make it possible to penetrate into the organization and relations of production of all outdated social forms, from the fragments and elements of which it is built, partly continuing to drag along the still unresolved remnants, partly developing to its full meaning , which previously was only in the form of a hint, etc.

Human anatomy is the key to ape anatomy. On the contrary, hints of something higher in lower species of animals can only be understood if this itself is already known at a later date.” K. Marx gave examples of the use of this method. One of them is an analysis of the reasons for Aristotle’s lack of a single concept of value: “... the fact that in the form of commodity values ​​all types of labor are expressed as the same and, therefore, equivalent human labor - Aristotle could not calculate this fact from the very form of value , since Greek society rested on slave labor and therefore had as its natural basis the inequality of people and their labor forces.

The equality and equivalence of all types of labor, insofar as they are human labor in general - this secret of the expression of value can be deciphered only when the idea of ​​human equality has already acquired the strength of popular prejudice. And this is possible only in a society where the commodity form is the universal form of the product of labor... Aristotle’s genius is revealed precisely in the fact that in expressing the value of goods he discovers relations of equality. Only the historical boundaries of the society in which he lived prevented him from revealing what “this relation of equality really consists of.”

In concrete historical research, the retrospective method is very closely related to the “method of vestiges,” by which historians understand the method of reconstructing objects that have passed into the past based on the remains that have survived and reached the modern historian of the era.

The famous researcher of primitive society E. Taylor (1832-1917) wrote: “Among the evidence that helps us trace the actual course of civilization, there is a large class of facts for which I would consider it convenient to introduce the term “survival.” These are those customs, rituals, views, etc., which, being by force of habit transferred from one stage of the culture to which they were characteristic, to another, later one, remain a living testimony or monument of the past.” E. Taylor operated mainly with ethnographic material, which affects his understanding of the survivals. He wrote the following about their significance for the study of this era: “Vestiges scattered along the entire path of a developing culture, like road signs, full of meaning for those who know how to decipher their inscriptions, are still preserved in our environment, serving as monuments of primitiveness, monuments of barbarism. thoughts and life. Their study invariably confirms that the European can find among the Greenlanders and Maoris many features to reconstruct the picture of the life of his own primitive ancestors.”

In the broad sense of the word, we can include monuments and information of a relict nature as relics. If we are talking about written sources dating back to a certain era, then data or fragments included from more ancient documents may be relicts in them. The most striking example of sources containing information from the era contemporary to their origin (recording) and remnants of more ancient eras are barbaric truths. Recording in the form of legal decrees the emergence of the state and the privileges of its officials, these sources contain a lot of information related to the rules of tribal relations, i.e. to common law. The manuscripts of Salic truth, dating back to the 9th century, contain information of an archaic nature - legal norms that, in their content, reflect much more ancient eras. Titles of archaic content include, for example, title 45 “On Migrants.”

The “method of survivals” was widely used in German historiography of the 19th century. in connection with the study of problems of agrarian history of the Middle Ages, and in the works of individual historians it was the decisive method of agrarian-historical research. In the application of these historians, this method reveals a close connection with the starting methodological principles of their research: with the belief in the evolutionary nature of historical development, in which the past is reproduced in the present and is its simple continuation, and in the absence of deep qualitative changes in the communal system throughout its existence etc.

These provisions determined the attitude of these historians to survivals, their understanding, and, consequently, the nature of the application of the method itself, which in their works is closely connected with comparative historical, retrospective methods: survivals are not relics of the past in conditions of a qualitatively different reality, but in general, phenomena of the same type are with it.

A.I. Danilov writes about this: “That is why Meitsen, for example, considers the cumulus village as a form of population in general. Regardless of who inhabited such a village: free members of the neighboring community - marks, serfs, peasants - private land owners or peasants renting land from a bourgeois owner. Naturally, forgetting the fundamental features of social relations that existed, for example, among the population of the same cumulus village throughout its long history, could not but lead Meitsen to an ultimately ahistorical approach to the relics of the past that have been preserved in modern conditions.”

In accordance with this, such remnants of a bygone reality, such as topographic and boundary plans and maps of a more recent origin in relation to the phenomena under study, are declared to be a reliable source of paramount importance.

The excessive generalization of the data obtained by Meitzen using the “remnant method” was expressed in the fact that without proper critical verification he illuminated the agricultural practices of one region on the basis of boundary maps of another region and transferred the evidence of German boundary maps to the agricultural system of France, England and other countries.

Those historians who more consistently followed the principle of historicism than Meitzen were able to more effectively use the “method of survivals.” This applies, in particular, to K. Lamprecht, who, when studying household communities that took place in the first half of the 19th century. in the area of ​​the city of Trier, discovered in them features that were not a direct relic of the ancient free community.

Historicism, largely inherent in the views of the French historian M. Bloch and representatives of his school, allowed him to successfully apply the “method of survivals” to the analysis of French boundary maps of the 18th century. Historicism expanded the possibilities of scientific application not only of this, but also of the retrospective method, which M. Blok widely used in the study of agrarian relations.

The practice of the considered historians shows that the main methodological requirement that is presented to the “method of vestiges” is the need to determine and prove the relict nature of the evidence on the basis of which the historian wants to scientifically reconstruct the picture of a long-vanished historical reality. The condition for the scientific application of this method is genuine historicism in assessing the phenomena of the past. There is also no doubt about the need for a differentiated approach to relics of the past that are different in nature.

THE PLACE OF PEDAGOGY IN THE SYSTEM OF HUMAN SCIENCES

Humanity has long tried to generalize and use the successful experience of preparing the younger generation for independent life and work. Over time, these efforts were embodied in the emergence of pedagogical and psychological sciences. Psychology studies and explains the inner, spiritual world of a person, conditions, factors and features of regulatory influences on it; pedagogy develops models, systems, methods and content-technological support for purposeful training, upbringing, education, personal development. The German philosopher I. Kant (1747–1804) once wrote: “If there is a science that a person really needs, then this is the one ... from which one can learn what one must be in order to be a person”. Experience convinces us that success in a person’s personal life and professional activity, among other reasons, depends on whether he knows the essence of the pedagogical reality around him, the psychological, age, and gender characteristics of the individual; understands the influence of psychological and pedagogical phenomena and factors on a person’s life, his personal and professional development; Is he able to take them into account in everyday life and work when resolving problem and conflict situations? Psychological and pedagogical culture of the individual is the totality of those psychological and pedagogical knowledge and means with the help of which a person consciously, purposefully and freely creates and realizes himself, organizes his interaction with others in the process of improving activity and communication. In the structure of psychological and pedagogical culture, two components are distinguished - psychological and pedagogical, which are implemented at two levels: general, providing a person with a decent existence in society, and professional, contributing to the achievement of success in his chosen work activity.

“Pedagogy” is a word of Greek origin (peida - child, gogos - to lead), literally it is translated as “childbirth”, “childbearing” or the art of education. In Ancient Greece, "pedagogos" was the name of a slave who taught and raised his master's child. In Russia this word appeared along with the pedagogical, historical and philosophical heritage of ancient civilization and the pedagogical values ​​of Byzantium and other countries. It is known that ancient Russian book literature had its own canonical genre "educational literature", which included edifying texts. In Rus', as in other countries, it has been created for centuries original educational culture, developing pedagogical self-awareness and the need to develop certain rules and instructions and pass them on to children. Thus, at the very early stage of the emergence of society, the need arose to pass on experience from generation to generation. Therefore, the practice of education was originally defined as the transfer of people's life experience from the older generation to the younger in order to prepare for independent life.

At first, pedagogical thought was formalized in the form of individual judgments and statements - unique pedagogical commandments. Their topic was the rules of behavior and relationships between parents and children, people. Thus, pedagogy is based on ideas about the purposeful process of transmitting human experience and preparing the younger generation for life and activity. The history of the development of Russian pedagogical self-awareness according to P.F. Kapterev, an outstanding Russian teacher of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, goes through three periods: church, state and public.

The origins of theoretical pedagogical thought are contained in the works of the great ancient philosophers - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

The Renaissance (XIV–XVI centuries) gave a powerful impetus to the development of pedagogy. In 1623, the Englishman Francis Bacon (1561–1626) isolated pedagogy from the system of philosophical sciences as an independent science. Since the 17th century, pedagogical thought begins to rely on data from advanced pedagogical experience. The German educator Wolfgang Rathke (1571–1635) developed meaningful concepts of education and corresponding methodology, establishing a criterion for educational research.

A huge contribution to the creation of the scientific foundations of pedagogy was made by the great Czech educator Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). He substantiated the need for training and education in accordance with the nature of the child, developed a system of teaching principles based on objective laws, created a classroom-lesson system of teaching, and laid the foundations of classical or traditional education.

Many progressive ideas were introduced into pedagogical science and practice through the works of Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469–1536) in Holland, J. Locke (1632–1704) in England, J.J. Rousseau (1712–1778), K.A. Helvetia (1715–1771) and D. Diderot (1713-1784) – in France, I.G. Pestalozzi (1746–1827) – in Switzerland, I.F. Herbart (1776–1841) and A. Disterweg (1790–1866) – in Germany, J. Korczak (1878–1942) – in Poland, D. Dewey (1859–1952) – in the USA, etc. The religious nature of education was gradually overcome, the content of classical education expanded, and the native language, history, geography, and natural science began to be thoroughly studied. In the 19th century real (with a predominance of subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle) and vocational schools, including those for training teachers, are emerging. Thus, pedagogy was formed as an academic discipline.

A notable milestone in the development of domestic pedagogy was the theoretical and practical work of Simeon of Polotsk (1629–1680), under whose supervision Peter I was raised as a child. He opposed the “innate ideas” that allegedly determine the development of children, and attached decisive importance in education to the example of parents and teachers , believed that the development of feelings and reason should be carried out purposefully.

Russian pedagogical thought fruitfully developed in the works of M.V. Lomonosov (1711–1765), N.I. Novikova (1744–1818), N.I. Pirogov (1810–1881), K.D. Ushinsky (1824–1870), L.N. Tolstoy (1828–1910), P.F. Kaptereva (1849–1922) and others.

During the period of socialist development In our country, school became free, publicly accessible (regardless of the nationality and social status of the children), secular (freed from the influence of the church), and general secondary education became compulsory. The education system was built on the ideas of forming a comprehensively developed personality, continuity and continuity of education, combining education with work and social work, education in a team and through a team, clear organization and management of the pedagogical process, combining high demands with respect for the personal dignity of students, and the teacher’s personal example etc. The foundations of such education were developed in the works of N.K. Krupskaya (1869–1939), S.T. Shatsky (1878–1934), P.P. Blonsky (1884–1941), A.S. Makarenko (1888 –1939), V.A. Sukhomlinsky (1918–1970), etc. In the last decades of the 20th century. interesting pedagogical ideas for enhancing learning, problem-based and developmental learning, pedagogical cooperation, and personality formation were developed by scientist-teachers Yu.K. Babansky, V.V. Davydov, I.Ya. Lerner, M.I. Makhmutov, M.A. Danilov, N.K. Goncharov, B.T. Likhachev, P.I. Pidkasist, I.P. Podlas, M.N. Skatkin, V.A. Slastenin, I.F. Kharlamov, innovative teachers Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, E.N. Ilyin and others.

1 The background to the development of Russian small business is connected with the 70-80s. Soviet period of socio-economic development of society. In those years, small enterprises developed on the basis of the resources of state-owned enterprises and were part of the shadow semi-criminal economy. In the context of radical market reforms, small businesses went through the following stages .

The first stage (1985-1991). During the period of perestroika, small businesses joined the general government-supported process of rapid development of the co-operative movement. Both denationalization and training of the broad masses of the population in the basics of entrepreneurship took place through the development of cooperation and small business. The central government tried to somehow limit the possibilities of obtaining inflated income from the difference between fixed prices of the public sector and free prices of non-state enterprises, to regulate the activities of small enterprises, to use taxation levers, while demonstrating the obvious incapacity of the state apparatus.

Second stage (1992-1994) characterized by the advancement of economic problems of small businesses. The importance of the role and place of small business in creating a competitive economic environment of the new economic system is stated. The contours of the concept of supporting small businesses are maturing, and priorities for its development are being determined. Regulations are issued to regulate the relations of enterprises with other participants in the market economy. However, these decisions remained only a declaration. And although at the beginning of this stage there was a process of mass founding of small enterprises, their share in the sphere of material production in the overall structure of domestic small business decreased sharply. In addition, there was an increase in the criminal nature of many processes in small businesses, which is associated with the lack of stable, established norms and rules of business ethics, the presence of “state racketeering” and criminal racketeering.

At the third stage (1995-1998) the focus of economic policy on creating a concept for the development of small business in our country is clearly visible. Specific measures of real assistance to small businesses throughout the country are being developed, providing regions with independence in solving these problems. However, small production with its unique entrepreneurial potential still remains an outsider in the economic field of our country and does not adequately solve those problems in the economy that could be solved with the help of small business. This situation is explained by the peculiarities of the general state of the domestic economy, which is characterized by a severe crisis, investment hunger, and the collapse of economic ties.

Another feature of economic life is the processes of concentration and centralization of capital, which lead to the absorption of small enterprises and their merger. The level of activity of large enterprises has not yet been formed when they become economic entities interested in and initiating the creation of small enterprises.

The problem of obtaining loans, which are vital for entrepreneurs, remains very acute. Moreover, the lack of finance for a beginning entrepreneur often becomes the main problem.

A significant factor hindering the civilized development of domestic small businesses remains crime and the criminalization of small businesses themselves.

Small enterprises are actively diversifying their economic activities and strengthening their investment policy. Shifts can also be observed in the overall business culture. There is an intensification of the activities of small enterprises in regions where conditions are clearly ripe for the effective use of the potential of small businesses in the interests of economic growth, and the restoration of economic and business activity of the population throughout the country.

However, it was still premature to talk about the true development of entrepreneurship in Russia. The position of most manufacturers was monopoly; a truly competitive environment for the activities of small enterprises was never formed, especially in the production sector.

If we evaluate the process of development and functioning of small businesses as a whole, we can say that it was quite successful. The events of August 1998 became a milestone for the development of domestic small business. Small and medium-sized enterprises can be considered the main victims of the August crisis. According to official data, after August 1998, from 25 to 35% of small businesses actually ceased their activities.

Today, analyzing the causes of the crisis, experts come to the conclusion that during 1997, causes accumulated that formed a “debt trap,” which slammed shut in August 1998. Among these reasons are the unevenness and incompleteness of reforms, the lag in structural transformations and the formation of the institutional framework of a market economy. A negative role was also played by the deterioration of the global market situation - a significant drop in export revenues, rising costs of capital, caution and outflow of foreign investors, and a risky borrowing policy. At the same time, political instability and changes in ministerial cabinets did not contribute to a clear analysis of the threats and the scale of potential losses. Based on all this, the country's descent into crisis could have been predicted.

The crisis, which had been brewing for a long time and, in the end, broke out, has already been recognized as the most acute cataclysm at least since the fall of 1991. Its immediate consequences were significant financial losses suffered by many economic entities, temporary paralysis of the payment and settlement system, the virtual cessation of external lending to Russian companies and the state, a sharp acceleration of the decline in real production, a large-scale curtailment of activities in the most market-advanced sectors of the Russian economy (banking, information and publishing , advertising, trade), a noticeable increase in unemployment, among the most qualified, energetic and enterprising part of the population, a significant reduction in real income, and a decline in the standard of living of the population. The profits of enterprises and organizations in 1998 decreased by more than 40%.

During the default, the goal of many businessmen was not to make a profit, but at least to maintain their own business in conditions of severe inflation and impoverishment of the majority of the population. However, entrepreneurs managed not only to “survive” during the crisis, but also to soon regain their lost positions. In addition, they have accumulated significant experience in dealing with crisis situations.

During the Russian reforms and, especially, as a result of the August 1998 crisis, business representatives developed certain negative behavior patterns from the point of view of the development of the country's economy as a whole: distrust of large private banks; preference for storing savings in cash and abroad; distrust of domestic government securities. The 1998 crisis and the methods for overcoming it dispelled the hopes of some representatives of these strata to withdraw their activities from the sphere of the shadow economy and, accordingly, to legalize their income and savings. However, in 1999 - 2000 there was an economic recovery, which had a positive impact on the middle strata, whose representatives are associated with growing industries.

For the fourth stage (1999 - 2003) It is becoming typical to provide favorable conditions for the development of small businesses based on improving the quality and efficiency of government support measures at the federal level.

At the moment (2004) in Russia, entrepreneurship does not yet fulfill its functions fully, since it arose in the conditions of an unformed market society. Modern Russian entrepreneurs, as a rule, do not have the appropriate professional training; moreover, they have to carry out their activities in conditions of an insufficiently stable economy, imperfect legal and tax systems, corruption, and bureaucracy. Therefore, Russian business bears a number of negative features: lack of entrepreneurial culture, low law-abidingness, focus on quick personal enrichment, sometimes to the detriment of the company. Although, in my opinion, by creating favorable conditions for the development of small and medium-sized businesses in Russia, it is possible to obtain a stable base for the formation of the middle class, which will later include traditional middle-class groups such as non-production intelligentsia, highly skilled workers, managers, and technical workers and others.

As world experience shows, small business is a powerful lever for solving a whole range of socio-economic problems: the formation of a middle class of owners; creating a progressive economic structure and competitive environment; ensuring employment of the population by creating new enterprises and jobs; saturating the market with a variety of goods and services, etc.

Bibliographic link

Bogadelina I.A. RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA // Advances in modern natural science. – 2005. – No. 1. – P. 42-43;
URL: http://natural-sciences.ru/ru/article/view?id=7803 (access date: 01/15/2020). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences" 1

Various aspects of the problem of managing the quality of education are widely presented in the specialized literature; the problem of quality management of an educational organization in the context of modernization of the education system of the Russian Federation is analyzed most often in the aspect of assessing quality or studying the role of the manager in organizing the management process. The object of the study is the quality of education in an educational organization. The subject of the study is the process of managing the quality of education in a modern educational organization from the perspective of retrospective analysis. The scientific, practical and theoretical-methodological literature presents a variety of interpretations of the concept of quality of education and approaches to solving the problem of assessing the quality of education. Analysis of existing approaches allows us to identify existing trends in solving this problem and the essential features of the concept in different historical periods. A retrospective look at the problem of managing the quality of education in the higher education system allows us to highlight its complexity, versatility, and ensures a systematic approach to solving the existing problem.

modernization of the education system

social management

Quality Management System

management of pedagogical systems

education system

process-oriented management

process approach

effectiveness of education quality management

retrospective analysis.

1. Akvazba E.O. Features of social management of an educational organization // Fundamental Research. 2015. No. 2 (part 16), pp. 3436-3438.

2. Akvazba E.O., Ukhabina T.E. Designing a quality management system in an educational organization: modern approaches // Modern problems of science and education. – 2015. – No. 1; URL: www..07.2015).

3. Akvazba E.O., Ukhabina T.E., Cheremisina E.V. Quality of education in a modern educational organization: problems and prospects // Modern problems of science and education. – 2015. – No. 5; URL: http://www..08.2015)

4. ISO 8402:1994 Quality management and quality assurance // [Electronic resource] // Access mode: http: // www.iso.staratel.ru.

5. Subetto A.I. State policy for the quality of higher education: concept, mechanisms, prospects. // [Electronic resource] // Access mode: http:// www.trinitas.ru

6. Ukhabina T.E., Cheremisina E.V. Quality of education at a university: practice of management and modeling [Text]: monograph. Tyumen:, 2011. – 149 p. P.30-31.

The problem of managing the quality of education in a modern educational organization, the creation and implementation of a quality management system, assessing the effectiveness of the existing management system as a tool and guarantor for ensuring a high level of education and adaptability of subjects of educational activity today is becoming especially significant, since the main goal of education is the formation of an individual ready for life in a constantly and rapidly changing world. The quality management system of educational organizations is currently one of the most important mechanisms for internal guarantees of the quality of education. The presence and effectiveness of such a system is among the indicators of state accreditation used in a comprehensive assessment of, for example, educational institutions of vocational education.

The most significant difficulties that existing management teams in functioning educational organizations have to overcome are: the discrepancy in interpretations of concepts in the social management system leads to a simplified understanding of forecasting, planning, design, modeling and, as a consequence, provokes ineffective use of social management tools; the lack of competencies in the field of social management creates the preconditions for errors in the strategic planning of an educational organization, which provokes inadequacy in operational planning; lack of knowledge about the variability and adaptability of all methods of social management and strategic planning technologies makes it difficult to choose universal means of solving the problems of a particular educational organization; the lack of experience in adapting modern approaches to the quality management system of an educational organization (directly at school) leads to the “greenhouse effect of social management”, formalization of the process and complication, duplication, bureaucratization of the management system instead of the expected effective management.

We studied various aspects of the problem of management in the field of education using materials from the works of the following authors: S.Ya. Batysheva, N.P. Glotova, A.T. Glazunova, A.B. Leibovich, D.A. Novikova, A.M. Novikova, M.V. Nikitina, M.M. Potashnik, P.I. Pidkasisty, E.I. Rogova, V.A. Slastenina, I.P. Smirnova, G.L. Frisch, T.I. Shamova. The problem of leadership in the aspect of social management is reflected in the studies of the following authors: O.S. Vikhansky, V.V. Goncharova, A.P. Egorshina, A.V. Molodchik, E.B. Morgunova, K. Morozova, N.N. Moiseeva, Ya.Sh. Palyu, V.P. Pugacheva, E.A. Utkina, L.V. Fatkina.

In the practical aspect of solving the problem of managing the quality of education in modern educational organizations, we have identified the following contradictions: between the need of an educational organization for highly professional, experienced personnel and the overabundance of specialists in the labor market with sufficient qualifications, but without experience in the field of education; between the need to create an effective motivational policy and the limitation of the resource component to meet this need; between the need for certification, advanced training and the problem of choosing a quality base to meet this need; between the need to improve approaches to ensuring the quality of education and the overabundance and inadequate implementation of various updated pedagogical technologies in the education system, primarily in the educational process, and as a consequence, inattention and decline in interest in traditional ways of organizing education.

Our goal was to analyze existing approaches to the problem of quality of education in a modern educational organization from the perspective of a retrospective look at solving this problem, to highlight the main difficulties that modern management teams face, and to determine the prospects for the development of an education quality management system. The object of the study is the quality of education in an educational organization. The subject is the process of managing the quality of education in an educational organization from the perspective of a retrospective look at solving this problem.

In accordance with the purpose, object, subject and hypothesis, we have identified the following tasks: to conduct a theoretical and methodological analysis of special, scientific, methodological, regulatory literature on the problem of quality of education; reveal the essence of the concept of quality of education, consider the main approaches to solving the problem of managing the quality of education in an educational organization; develop practical recommendations for improving the process of managing the quality of education.

The problem of the quality of education has existed in Russia for a long time. For example, the quality of education and achievements of science in Tsarist Russia, according to various researchers, can be considered high. The libraries were well equipped and the method of knowledge transfer was attractive. Knowledge of Latin made it possible to move on to the study of foreign languages. Scientific exchanges with foreign colleagues and internships for young teachers in Western, mainly German, universities were widely practiced. Many scientific schools have emerged that have received worldwide recognition. The high quality of Russian universities is evidenced by the large number of outstanding scientific discoveries and technical achievements. The names of scientists who received their education in Russia speak for themselves: D. Mendeleev, N. Zhukovsky, N. Pirogov, K. Timiryazev, I. Sechenov, P. Lebedev, A. Popov, I. Pavlov, I. Mechnikov, P .Chebyshev and many others.

In the pre-revolutionary period in Russia, higher education developed successfully, but there were difficulties in the following indicators: comparison with Western universities could not be maintained; the economy’s need for specialists with the required qualifications was not met; class character; higher education was localized in Moscow and St. Petersburg; restrictions on gender and nationality; underfunding of the existing education system.

The development of Soviet higher education was determined by the poverty of the state and the presence of priority needs, on which the survival of the state and government depended. The needs of higher education were not a priority. However, obtaining higher education, thanks to its free nature, has become truly public.

Soviet higher education of the initial period ensured the successful mastery of the initial general cultural foundations of the population's education, provided the need for well-trained professionals, but did not create the prerequisites for scientific and technological progress.

Period 1950-60s. - this was the best period in the development of Soviet higher education. There were dozens of high-quality universities that trained first-class specialists who amazed the whole world with their successes in science, technology, and economics. The number of universities has expanded by profile and geographical location. The quality of training during this period consisted of practical readiness to begin professional activity immediately after receiving a diploma, which was determined by well-organized practical training during the period of study at the university. A powerful means of attracting young people to creative activities were scientific and scientific-technical Olympiads organized on a state scale, the experience of which was later borrowed, for example, from the USA.

Late 1960s noted in the history of the development of higher education as a period of decline in the quality of higher education, a period of emigration of teachers of Jewish nationality, due to growing anti-Semitism and their inability to realize their scientific potential due to censorship obstacles. The politicization of the system and the political regime with a single totalitarian state ideology also negatively affected the content of education. Socio-economic disciplines had an ideological orientation, and there was no pluralism of opinions.

The increase in the number of students, primarily in correspondence courses, entailed a decrease not only in the volume of scientific work of students, but also in the level of requirements for the quality of student preparation.

The nomenclature approach to the formation of scientific and pedagogical personnel, dogmatism in the formation of curricula and programs, weakening attention to the problems of higher education in the 1970-1980s. became the most important factors in the decline of not only the development of higher education, but also the country’s economy as a whole.

The next reform of the system of higher professional education in the 1990s was aimed at: expanding the independence of teachers in choosing educational material and teaching methods; implementation of a personal approach to learning; autonomy of educational institutions in choosing programs and content of training; development of self-government; involving the public in monitoring the quality of education, expanding the accessibility of education and improving its quality.

The modernization of the education system in modern Russia is based on the following regulatory and legislative framework. The main documents regulating the activities of higher education and determining its quality are: the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993); Law of the Russian Federation “On Education” (2012); Federal State Educational Standards; Regulations on a comprehensive assessment of the activities of a higher educational institution, including accreditation and licensing procedures (Order of the Ministry of Education No. 864 of November 12, 1999), etc.

The criteria for assessing the modern quality of education and state policy in the field of education are: the mass character of higher education; equal accessibility of higher education for various social strata of the population and the rate of its progressive dynamics over the years; the share of free education in the higher education system and the pace of its change.

However, the research by T. E. Ukhabina and E. V. Cheremisina gives grounds for the conclusion that laws were violated in the process of their implementation. On the one hand, we can note the expansion of higher education, its accessibility, and the increase in the number of universities, but this growth is due to an increase in the number of non-state institutions. Nevertheless, the government declares that the basis of education, including quality education, is intended to be the state education system, and paid forms of activity will only be additional forms of development of the education system.

The most widespread in the theory of pedagogical management is the so-called process approach. So, A.I. Subbeto proposes to evaluate the quality of education through managing the quality of processes in the pedagogical system, while ensuring the quality of results. Proponents of the process approach are also V.M. Sokolov, G.A. Bordovsky, A.A. Nesterov, S.Yu. Trapitsin, V. Panasyuk, Yu. Yakovlev and others. It should be noted that the quality of education depends on a number of factors: directly on its content; on the effectiveness of the technology through which the educational process is implemented; from the professionalism of the teaching staff carrying out the educational process; on the compliance of the implemented educational process with the requirements of the educational standard, etc.

In Russian and foreign practice, three main models of education quality management are most often used: the evaluative method of managing the quality of a university’s activities; management based on the principles of Total Quality Management (TQM); approach to management based on the requirements of ISO international quality standards.

The design of a quality management system for an educational organization must be carried out on the basis of scientific and methodological support aimed at developing the potential of the personnel of an educational organization. Designing a quality management system for an educational organization may consist of the following cycles: first, the birth of an idea and the validity of the need to implement this idea; secondly, drawing up a project background (analysis, study, diagnosis of real problems of an educational institution, environment, related industries); thirdly, development of a quality management system for an educational organization; fourthly, testing and adjustment and implementation of the developed system; fifthly, assessing the effectiveness of the implemented quality management system; sixth, control of the implemented system and improvement. In the process of designing a quality management system for an educational organization, a number of stages should be followed: pre-project orientation (studying the problem, formulating the subject of analysis and design, goals, objectives, drawing up a working hypothesis, defining a strategy, drawing up a project structure); forecast background (analysis of the internal and external environment); development of an initial model of a management system that allows a schematic representation of the organizational structure of management of an educational organization at the current moment before the implementation of a quality management system; a normative model of the quality management system of an educational organization, developed taking into account the specifics of a particular educational institution in accordance with the specified goals and criteria for assessing the effectiveness of this system; strategic decision and practical recommendations for the implementation of the developed system; Direct implementation of the quality management system, control, adjustment based on monitoring results.

Bibliographic link

Akvazba E.O., Ukhabina T.E. RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM OF EDUCATIONAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN A MODERN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION // Modern problems of science and education. – 2015. – No. 6.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=23522 (access date: 01/15/2020). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

Historical (retrospective) analysis of development factors of the municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO"

Based on the results of an excursion into the history of the economic development of the territory (Appendix A) and an analysis of indicators of the level of socio-economic development of the Tomarinsky GO, the following can be noted. Following the stage of industrial collapse caused by the Second World War and subsequent events, the municipal economy of the Tomarinsky GO experienced a period of sharp industrial growth during the Soviet period: new buildings of industrial, agricultural and service enterprises were built, housing, buildings of medical and educational institutions were erected, the level of life of the population.

But after this came the 90s, which brought dramatic political and economic changes. Suddenly it turned out that enterprises of both industry and agriculture were uncompetitive in the new market conditions and, therefore, unviable. The base enterprise for the region, the Tomarinsky pulp and paper plant, equipped with outdated low-power equipment, was one of the first of seven similar Sakhalin enterprises to cease to exist. Its liquidation led to the collapse of other partner enterprises that ensured the functioning of the pulp and paper plant: a motor transport enterprise, a port point, and a timber industry enterprise. The closure of enterprises led to a sharp depopulation - a massive outflow of the population to the southern regions of the region and to the mainland regions of Russia.

But, not having significant competitive advantages, over the past 20 years Tomarinsky GO has not yet been able to enter a new development cycle, remaining in the lowest stage of the life cycle of a municipality - the stage of decline.

The study of statistical data, archival documents and publications in print media allowed us to identify the following stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality (Fig. 2.11):

I. The stage of the emergence of the municipal economy - the period of initial economic development (1890 - 1905).

development

1900 1940 1945 1990 1994 2010 Year

Rice. 2.11. Dynamics of development of municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO"

II. The stage of development of the municipal economy is the period of Japanese management (1906 - August 1945).

III. The recession stage is the period of transfer of the economic system from Japanese to Soviet (1945 - 1948).

IV. Growth stage (1948 - 1985).

V. Maturity stage (1985 - 1990).

VI. Decline stage (1990 - present).

We believe that at all stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality, common features can be traced, formulated by us as:

• 1) (the main goal of municipal authorities);
• 2) (industry affiliation of municipal enterprises);
• 3) economic growth rate (absent, low, medium, high);
• 4) population dynamics (growth, decline);
• 5) ecology (degree of environmental pollution).

In table Figure 2.48 reflects the characteristics of the stages of the life cycle of the municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO", each of which has its own characteristics.

At the birth stage municipal economy (1890 - 1905), in the complete absence of a material and technical base for production, management was focused on the discovery and exploration of newly discovered territories. During this period of time, military and civilian researchers traveled to the territory of the current Moscow Region in order to study its flora, fauna, geology, etc. At this stage, in conditions of an untouched natural environment, the emerging economy was represented by the subsistence economy of an extremely small indigenous population and fisheries, which functioned through the employment of those who had served hard labor and free settlers.

Identified general features characterizing the development of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality at the stages of its life cycle

	at stages of its life cycle
	Management Concentration Center	Degree of diversification of the industry structure	economic growth	Dynamics number population	Ecology
I. Stage of origin of the municipal economy	Discovery and exploration of territories and resources	Undiversified quoted			Natural environment
II. Stage of development of municipal economy	Creation of MTB, production and sale of goods, services and works
III. Decline stage	Transfer of a market economic system to a socialist one		stop	Decline	due to stop production
IV. Growth stage	Production and sale of goods, services and works, increasing business efficiency, ensuring improved living conditions of the population				High degree of pollution of rivers, sea coasts, and air

Selected stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality	Formulated features characterizing the development of the municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO" at stages of its life cycle
	Management Concentration Center	Degree of diversification of the industry structure	economic growth	Dynamics number population	Ecology
V. Maturity stage	Production and sale of goods, services and works, the problem of equipment obsolescence and the introduction of innovations			Decline	High degree of pollution of rivers, sea coasts, and air
VI. Decline stage	Solving socio-economic problems			Decline	Improving the environmental situation due to lack of production

At the stage of development municipal economy (1906-August 1945) during the period of Japanese management, the main goal of local authorities was to create conditions for the development of entrepreneurship. During this period, there was a sharp increase in population due to Japanese citizens and workers from Korea arriving from the metropolis.

Entrepreneurship developed in many areas: transport (construction of a seaport, railway and dirt roads), communications (publishing newspapers, laying telephone and telegraph cables), industry (pulp and paper mill as a city-forming enterprise, furniture factory, oil refinery, bakeries, etc. .d.), trade, public catering, service sector and diversified agriculture (fish production and fish processing, fur farming, crop farming and livestock farming).

The development of Tomarioru's economy was based on backward technologies that contributed to environmental pollution. Thus, the pulp and paper mill discharged waste from the most harmful pulp production directly into the Tomarinka River. Fish processing waste was dumped directly into the sea and rivers located on the territory of the current municipality. There was also no city sewerage system, not to mention treatment facilities.

In decline(1945 - 1948) during the period of transfer of the economic system from Japanese to Soviet in conditions of the exodus of the Japanese and a slight increase in the Soviet population (mainly from the military), management tasks included: the creation of first transitional and then permanent authorities; attracting specialists (first Japanese and then Soviet) to restore enterprises and put them into production; ensuring acceptable living conditions for the population living and arriving in the territory of the Moscow Region. During this period, due to the complete stop of production at almost all enterprises, there was a significant improvement in the environmental situation.

At the growth stage(1948 - 1985), the main targets of the authorities were the production and sale of goods, services and works, increasing business efficiency, and ensuring improved living conditions of the population. At this period of time, a high (but somewhat lower) degree of economic diversification is noted: the economy of the urban district developed on the material and technical base that existed before the war (rather backward and outdated). As a result, some businesses were closed. Nevertheless, significant funds were financed for the development of the economy, which led to high rates of economic growth with significant population growth. At the same time, the use of outdated MTB again led to pollution of rivers, sea coasts, and air.

At the maturity stage(1985 - 1990), the main targets of the authorities remained the production and sale of goods, services and works, increasing business efficiency, and ensuring improved living conditions of the population. This period of time also marks a high degree of economic diversification. But the deterioration of the macroeconomic situation in the country (the era of total deficit) led to a deterioration in the conditions for financing plans for the development of production, housing construction and the solution of other social problems, a significant decrease in growth rates and a decrease in population. The lack of financial opportunity to update technologies and finance the improvement of social infrastructure, improvement of the environmental situation, by definition, could not be ensured.

At the stage of decline which began in the early years of the nineties, during the period of total destruction of the previously existing economic complex (liquidation of almost all industrial enterprises, transport, consumer services, etc.), mass exodus of the population, the goal of management was to solve the socio-economic problems of the municipality (reducing unemployment, social protection of the population, education, healthcare, etc.). Almost the only consequence of the radical change was an improvement in the environmental situation due to the lack of production.

The conducted study of the stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality made it possible to identify certain features that are repeated at each stage of its life cycle, which we will call the patterns of its development (Table 2.49):

• 1) form of ownership of resources;
• 2) market model;
• 3) development goal;
• 4) type of management influence from the state;
• 5) ideology;
• 6) type of development.

It should be noted that the identified stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality need to be further regrouped due to the fact that the identified development patterns are repeated, respectively, in the historical periods of economic development of the Russian Empire, Japan, the USSR and the Russian Federation.

The results of a comparative analysis of the stages of the life cycle of the municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO" (Table 2.49) in the context of the identified patterns of development allow us to conclude that the proposed grouping of patterns characterizes in sufficient detail the process of socio-economic development of the municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO" throughout its entire historical path .

Results of a comparative analysis of the stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality in the context of identified patterns of development

	by historical periods of Russian history
	Russian Empire (Stage I)	Japan (stage II)	(III, IV, V stages)
1. Form of ownership of resources			Formally nationwide, in fact - state	Federal, regional, municipal, private, public organizations
2. Market model		Market, free market development	State monopoly	State-regulated market development
3. Development goal	Science, scientific research, development of the territory and resources		Development of resources and territory, improvement of living conditions of the population, generation of income by enterprises, organizations and budgets of various levels	Improving living conditions of the population, generating income enterprises, organizations and budgets of different levels
4. Type of control action from the state	Lack of management and control with state side		Directive: planning, organization, regulation and control by state and public structures	Creation of a legislative framework for development and monitoring of compliance with adopted legislative and by-laws

Identified patterns of municipal municipality "Tomarinsky GO"	Selected stages of the life cycle of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality, grouped by historical periods of Russian history
	Russian Empire (Stage I)	Japan (stage II)	(III, IV, V stages)	Russian Federation (stage VI)
5. Ideology	Lack of ideology	The presence of elements of ideology (the development of patriotism, Shintoism and	Using ideology to achieve economic development goals (propaganda of Marxism-Leninism, patriotism, military sports training, atheism, fight against alcoholism, etc.)	The presence of elements of ideology (development of patriotism, improvement of the environment and
6. Type of development	Extensive type of development through the use of new resources and territories with narrow differentiation and low quality of goods and services for mass consumer		Extensive type of development through the use of new resources and territories with narrow differentiation and low quality of goods and services for the mass consumer	Intensification of development and increase quality of goods and services to the population with their wide differentiation using economic methods based on the application of a marketing approach

MO "Tomarinsky GO" developed in certain changing conditions. In this regard, the next stage of our research will be to identify factors of both positive and negative influence that influenced the development of the municipality throughout its entire life cycle (Table 2.50).

Summarizing the data in table. 2.50, we can highlight the following factors in the development of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality in retrospect.

• 1. Positive factors exerted their influence in the period under study: the state’s interest in economic development at all levels of government; growth in the well-being of the population and the population's needs for goods and services.
• 2. Negatively influencing factors political crisis; economic crisis; socio-demographic crisis; geographical distance from mass consumers of goods and services; insufficient financing for the construction of industrial and social infrastructure; the need for significant investments and their lack; lack of trained personnel; undeveloped legal framework; poor infrastructure development.

An analysis of the development factors identified as a result of the proposed grouping of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality, which exerted their influence throughout all stages of the life cycle, shows that it is valid in the present. MO "Tomarinsky GO" for almost fifty years (from the late 40s to the late 80s of the XX century) existed as a single harmonious organism.

Many enterprises located on its territory functioned quite efficiently. It was a successfully, profitably operating complex, despite the geographical distance from the mass consumer of goods and services. A brief review of the historical path of development of the Tomarinsky Municipal Municipality allows us to conclude that, under certain conditions, it is possible to create a modern economic complex on its territory, the activities of which can be aimed at sustainable development and improving the living conditions of the population.

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