What kind of walls are there in houses? Frame house walls

Walls (vertical fences) can be load-bearing and when, in addition to their own gravity, they take the load from other parts of the building; self-supporting, if they bear the load only from the own gravity of the walls of all floors of the building; non-load-bearing (hinged), when they perceive their own weight only within one floor.

Rice. 1. Architectural and structural elements of walls: 1 - base; 2 - cordon; 3 - saidrnk; 4 - window sill; 5 - main cornice: 6 - corner pier; 7 - intermediate cornice; 8 - pier; 9 - jumper; 10 - window opening; 11 - pediment; /2 - cornice; 13 - doorway; 14 - pilaster; 15 - buttress; 16 - parapet; 17-edged wall; 18-niche; 19 - bracing.

External walls, being the main structural and architectural elements of the building, form its facades: main, side, rear.

The walls must be strong, stable, have sufficient heat-insulating and sound-proofing properties, and be fire safe. In addition, the walls must be frost-resistant, moisture-resistant and bio-resistant, have minimal weight and the lowest cost.

The walls are made of stone and wood. Stone walls can be made of bricks, stone blocks, lightweight concrete small stones, ceramic stones, large-sized elements (panels or large blocks).

A wall usually consists of a plinth, piers, openings, cornices, trims and other parts (Fig. 1).

The plinths of the walls are laid out of ordinary baked clay bricks.

To cover openings in brick walls, prefabricated reinforced concrete lintels are most common.

The cornices are made with a small extension (no more than 1/2 of the wall thickness) from the same brick as the wall masonry, with the gradual release of rows of masonry. When the projection is more than 300 mm, the cornice is made of reinforced concrete slabs.

Walls made of stone blocks. The nature of the masonry of walls made of stone blocks, lightweight concrete small stones and ceramic stones does not differ significantly from brickwork. Only the thickness of the walls and the system of dressing the stones change.

Wooden walls are divided into chopped logs, cobblestones, frames, and panel walls.

Log walls are made of logs (220-260 mm thick in the upper section), laid in horizontal rows with notches in the corners.

Cobblestone walls are made from horizontally laid wooden beams with a section of 180X180 or 150x150 mm.

Frame walls require less wood and labor. Saving wood is achieved by the fact that the frame, which performs load-bearing functions, consists of racks or pillars, purlins, and, if necessary, braces that increase rigidity, and the fencing and thermal insulation is a filler made of various insulation materials (slag, sawdust, slag wool, etc.). The insulation is covered with boards on the outside and inside.

Rice. 2. Lightweight brick wall with well masonry: 1 - transverse brick wall: 2 - external and internal longitudinal walls of 1/2 brick; 3 - insulation.

Rice. 3. Prefabricated reinforced concrete lintels: a - block lintels with a section of 65X120 mm (type B); b- lumber with a section of 140X120 mm (type B); c - slabs with a section of 65X580 mm (type BP); g - lumber with a section of 220X120 mm (BU type).

Panel walls consist of enlarged parts - panels, prepared in factories. Construction comes down to installation and finishing only.

Walls made of large elements. The most economical and industrial are walls made of large elements - blocks and panels. They are installed using cranes.

Large blocks are made in factories from lightweight concrete (slag concrete, expanded clay concrete, cellular concrete, etc.).

The thickness of the block is taken equal to the thickness of the wall - 400, 500 and 600 mm.

The main structural scheme of buildings made of large blocks is a scheme with external and internal load-bearing walls. The spatial rigidity of these buildings is ensured by a system of transverse walls. The method of dividing a wall into separate blocks is called cutting; the most common is two-row cutting. There are wall blocks, lintel blocks, window sill blocks, and internal wall blocks.

The most vulnerable point in block (as well as in large-panel) construction are the joints. They require careful sealing with various materials (sealants, rubber or polymer gaskets, coating with a solution).

A large wall panel is an element of larger area and smaller thickness compared to a large wall block. Figure 15 shows the most common type of panel and the pairing of the outer and inner panels.

Rice. 4. Some types of cornice designs: 1 - inlaid brick, with a small offset; b - from a reinforced concrete slab, with a large offset; c - from ceramic figured face stones (1-mauerlat; 2 - twist, 3 - pin, 4 - fence, 5 - roof, 6 - anchor).

Rice. 5. Wall made of single-layer expanded clay concrete panels: a - panel design; b - pairing of the outer panel with the inner; c - the same, internal to each other (1 - lifting loop, 2 - expansion joint, 3 - heating panel, 4 effective insulation. 5 - finishing layer, b - decorative concrete, - steel connecting rods, 8 - embedded steel parts, 9 - panel of the inner wall, 10 - the same for the outer wall).

Wall panels arrive at the construction site almost completely finished, externally lined with ceramic or glass tiles, painted or prepared for painting.

In housing construction in the USSR, the most common design schemes are those with load-bearing walls. In this case, cutting of external walls and panels of 1 or 2 rooms is used.

Panels of internal walls, partitions and ceilings are made the size of a room.

Wall panels are made from lightweight concrete or reinforced concrete using effective insulation. They can be single-layer (made of lightweight concrete) or layered (made of reinforced concrete).

Balconies, bay windows, loggias. Elements of the walls are also balconies, consisting of a load-bearing slab and fencing; bay windows, which are part of the room protruding beyond the plane of the building facade; loggias-balconies built into the overall dimensions of the building.

- Building walls

There is still no clear answer to the question of what material is best to make the walls of a residential building from. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Builders and designers cannot come to the same opinion regarding the choice of the most optimal product for making walls. The thing is that in each specific case the best material must be selected based on the purpose of the building, its configuration, the climatic conditions of the area and the financial capabilities of the owner. In our article we will look at the most common wall materials, describe their properties, pros and cons, and you yourself can choose the best one based on construction conditions.

Factors influencing choice

A quarter of all construction costs go towards the construction of walls. Since incorrectly selected material for wall construction can lead to even greater expenses in the future, when choosing it, it is worth considering the following factors:

If you want to save on arranging the foundation by making a shallow, lightweight version, then choose a lightweight material for the walls. Additional savings in the case of using lightweight elements for the walls of the house will be during transportation and installation, because it can be done with your own hands without the use of expensive lifting equipment.
Choose building materials with good thermal insulation characteristics. Otherwise, cold walls in winter will cost you dearly in heating costs.

Advice: it is best to perform a thermal engineering calculation taking into account the climatic conditions of the construction region. This is the only way to be sure that you have chosen the right material and wall design. Thus, in the northern regions of our country, even walls made of materials with high thermal insulation properties require insulation.

If you use piece materials, for example, brick, to build the walls of a house, then a significant share of the costs will be the cost of paying masons. Even if you do all the work yourself, take into account the time and physical costs. It is much more profitable and faster to build from large-sized elements. The highest speed of wall construction is found in houses built using frame-panel and frame-panel technology.
When choosing building materials for walls, it is worth considering how easily they can be finished and whether they need it at all. For example, the walls of a frame house made of OSB can not be finished at all, but simply painted, while a house made of logs needs thorough finishing outside and inside.

To understand what to build your house from, you need to understand the characteristics of building materials, so next we will describe the properties of each of them, list the advantages and disadvantages.

Brick

A house built of brick can last a century, or even a century and a half. There are many varieties of bricks, differing in important operational and technical characteristics.

Thus, silicate and ceramic types of bricks are used to build walls. Let's look at their features:

Ceramic brick made from baked red clay. This is a durable, moisture-resistant, environmentally friendly material. There are solid and hollow bricks on sale. The more voids there are in a brick, the higher its thermal insulation performance.
Sand-lime brick made on the basis of lime, sand and some additives. It can also be solid or hollow. The latter option is lightweight and has improved thermal insulation properties. Solid silicate products have good sound insulation properties, but high thermal conductivity.

This wall material is also divided into front and ordinary:

It is better to build the walls of a house from ordinary brick. Products may have minor defects in the form of cracks and chips, but due to this their price is more reasonable. In addition, for interior wall masonry, the appearance of the product is not as important as for exterior masonry.
Facing brick (facing)- This is the wall material used to decorate the facade. All products must have the correct geometric shape, smooth or textured surface, and be free from flaws and defects. The price of facing brick is higher than that of its ordinary counterpart.

The strength of this wall material is directly related to its grade, which can be from M 75 to M 300. The number indicates the load that one square centimeter of the product can withstand. The higher the brand, the greater the specific gravity of the product. To build a 2- or 3-story house, grade 100-125 brick is enough. To make the foundation and plinth, products with grade 150-175 are used.

Also, when choosing a brick, it is important to take into account its frost resistance, that is, the number of freezing and thawing cycles that the product can withstand without damage and reducing strength by no more than 20%. This indicator is marked with the letter F and a number from 15 and above. For warm regions, you can use products with a frost resistance grade of 15; in colder latitudes, bricks of the F25 grade are used. For facing work, a brick with a frost resistance of at least 50 is suitable.

Advantages and disadvantages of brick

Among the advantages of this wall material, it is worth listing the following:

Impressive service life.
Aesthetic appeal.
Unlimited possibilities in terms of design and implementation of complex projects.
The material is not susceptible to corrosion, damage by fungi and microorganisms.
The product does not burn.
High sound and heat insulation characteristics.

The disadvantages include the following:

Due to their small size and high specific gravity, laying brick walls takes a long time and costs a lot.
Under brick walls, it is necessary to build a solid, buried foundation, and this entails increased costs for materials and excavation work.
In most cases, brick walls need to be additionally insulated.

Ceramic blocks

Ceramic block is a material made from a mixture of clay and sawdust, after which the element is fired in a kiln. This is a fairly durable product that allows you to quickly build the walls of a house. The strength of ceramic block is so high that it can be used to make a multi-story building. The inside of the material has a porous structure, and the outer surface is corrugated. For a hermetic connection, the ends of the material have grooves and ridges.

The height of the ceramic block is a multiple of the rows of brickwork, and other dimensions can be different. Thus, it is possible to build from ceramic block according to projects that are designed for brick. But the speed of construction is much higher, since one ceramic block measuring 238x248x500 mm, which weighs 25 kg, is equivalent to 15 bricks, each of which weighs 3.3 kg. In addition to increasing the speed of construction, the cost of mortar is reduced, because less of it will be needed.

Important: the width of the ceramic block can be 230, 240 and 250 mm, and the length can be in the range of 250-510 mm. Along the long side of the product there is a tongue-and-groove lock.

Walls with a thickness of 380 mm or more made of this material do not need insulation, since the thermal conductivity of the product is only 0.14-0.29 W/m²x°C. Marking of wide blocks is M 100. If you need to make thin but strong walls, you can take elements marked 150. The frost resistance of ceramic blocks is at least 50 cycles.

Pros and cons of ceramic blocks

The advantages include:

Low specific gravity and high strength significantly expand the scope of use of this material.
Installation of large-sized products is carried out quickly and without unnecessary labor costs.
Saving mortar due to the size of the elements and the absence of the need to make vertical seams.
The frost resistance of ordinary ceramic blocks is higher than that of ordinary bricks.
Good fire resistance. The product is fire resistant for 4 hours.
An optimal microclimate is created in a room made of ceramic blocks, since the walls can “breathe” and regulate air humidity.
A house can last a century and a half without losing its thermal insulation characteristics.

This material also has disadvantages, among which the following are worth mentioning:

The price of ceramic blocks is quite high.
Since these products are relatively new on our market, it is difficult to find a good mason to do the masonry.
This fragile material must be stored and transported very carefully.

Gas blocks

This material has excellent thermal insulation characteristics. In terms of thermal conductivity, a wall made of an aerated block with a width of 300-400 mm is not inferior to a multilayer brick structure. Walls made of aerated blocks maintain optimal temperature and humidity conditions indoors. The material is not susceptible to rot and has an impressive service life. The thermal insulation qualities of an aerated block are 3 times greater than those of a brick wall.

Aerated concrete is quite lightweight, so it is easy to transport and lay. It can be easily cut with a regular hacksaw to the desired size. The laying of elements is carried out using mortar or special glue, of which a little is required. The smooth, even surface of aerated concrete blocks is easy to finish. Aerated concrete is considered environmentally friendly and non-flammable. It has fairly high frost resistance.

Attention: density characteristics are important for aerated concrete. This figure can be in the range of 350-1200 kg/m³. For an ordinary residential building, it is enough to take elements marked 500-900.

Advantages and disadvantages of gas blocks

This wall product has many advantages:

Laying walls from aerated blocks is 9 times faster than laying bricks.
The low thermal conductivity of the product is a big plus in its favor.
Aerated concrete has high fire resistance; even when burning, it does not emit harmful substances.
The porous structure of the material contributes to high frost resistance.
In terms of vapor permeability, aerated concrete is comparable only to wood.

Disadvantages of aerated concrete:

Low bending strength.
The material is susceptible to cracking.
Hygroscopicity. After moisture is absorbed, the thermal insulation performance of aerated concrete decreases, so the facade needs a protective finish.
Floor slabs and beams cannot be laid directly on gas blocks, so before laying them you will have to make a monolithic reinforced belt. This entails additional costs and time.

Tree

Many people who decide to build a house choose wood. This natural material is environmentally friendly. It creates a favorable microclimate in the house, maintains optimal humidity and saturates the air with healing phytoncides. A wooden house is warm in winter and not hot in summer, since wood has good thermal insulation characteristics.

A wooden house can be built from the following products:

The log can be natural or rounded. In the latter case, the material has the correct shape and smooth surface, but requires additional protective treatment, since the natural protective resin layer, which is located under the bark, is removed during the rounding process.
You can use glued (profiled) and sawn or planed timber. Better houses are made from laminated veneer lumber, which has special grooves and ridges for a tight fit of the elements. Sawn timber is more often used to make frame houses.
Frame-panel houses are made of OSB, chipboard, and moisture-resistant plywood, which are attached to the frame. Insulation is installed inside the wall.

The main advantages of wooden houses are their environmental friendliness, comfort and reasonable price. A lightweight foundation can be made for such a house. Disadvantages - fire hazard, shrinkage.

Modern frame houses are a natural continuation of the technologies developed by our ancestors. For a long time, people living sometimes in the most unfavorable conditions have appreciated the reliability of frame houses and the simplicity of their design.

Remember European houses. They are built according to classic half-timbered construction, when the frame ribs are visible both outside and inside. I met a lot of old framers in Finland. The walls of a frame house are much lighter than walls made of other materials. Accordingly, they do not require heavy foundations. They do not have such an unpleasant feature as shrinkage.

This means that finishing the walls can begin immediately after their construction. In terms of wood consumption, they significantly outperform log houses. At the same time, it is not inferior, and sometimes even superior, in heat capacity. And finally, the simplicity of the design makes it possible to build such houses without using heavy equipment and large human resources.

So, what are these wonderful walls made of?

The walls of any house can be divided into two types: external and internal. Frame houses in this sense are no exception. And depending on what kind of wall it is, they have a different structure.

A classic external wall in a frame is a sandwich consisting of external finishing, wind protection, OSB boards, insulation, vapor barrier, interior finishing and, of course, the frame itself.

But there are many variations - from various finishes to the material of the frame itself. Let's take a closer look at each of the components of a classic frame and touch on the variations of the materials included in its composition.

It should also be taken into account that the walls of a frame house are mainly load-bearing. This imposes certain restrictions on changes in projects. If in the future you want to make a window where there was none, this is possible, but you must first strengthen this section of the wall.

When assembling the frame, make sure that there are no differences between the frame boards in the plane of the wall. If such differences do appear, they will have to be eliminated, especially from the OSB side. Otherwise, when installing OSB boards, cracks will form. All edges of the wall must be aligned in the same plane. Otherwise, you will then get a wave on the exterior finish.

In order to avoid this, you need to build a frame wall from dry and planed wood.
If there is tension with such a material, we build from wood of natural moisture, but on a flat surface we must plan the boards “to size.”

Exterior wall decoration of a frame house

Siding

Currently, the market offers two main types of siding. These are vinyl siding and metal siding. Metal siding is distinguished by its durability and ease of installation. Thanks to special coatings, it has excellent anti-corrosion properties. Vinyl siding is lighter than metal siding, but is slightly less resistant to negative temperatures and direct rays of the sun. But the metal heats up more and does not sound very pleasant in slanting rain.

As a rule, good vinyl siding has a large number of color options. When purchasing siding, bring your home design with you. A company that sells siding will not only calculate the required number of panels for this project, but will also select all the fittings.

When installing siding, check the installation plane of the panels. Since the panels are long, it is very easy to collapse one of the corners. This is only visible if you move further away from the wall. The easiest way to control is a laser level. Or even better, a device that can build a plane. In places where you will lay the panel on the ground for marking or before installation, lay down the film. Light-colored panels get dirty very easily and it’s easier not to get them dirty than to wash them later.

Wood finishing

Block houses are now increasingly used as wood finishing. These are calibrated boards with a transverse profile in the form of an oval sector. The use of a block house gives the impression that the walls are made of rounded logs. All panels have a locking connection, which greatly simplifies their installation and prevents the facade from blowing through. After installation, the wood must be coated with a fire-retardant compound.

A similar type of panel is the so-called imitation timber. In this case, the panel has a rectangular cross-section with beveled corners. Their use makes the house look like it is made of chamfered timber. As a rule, high-quality and dry wood is used for such panels. But naturally, wood in finishing will require periodic maintenance and renewal of the protective coating.

Plaster and acrylic coatings

The wall of a frame house can be improved using decorative plaster. Modern plasters, if technological nuances are observed, last a very long time. And if you show your imagination and use different colors, then even an ordinary standard project will sparkle with new colors. You can also use acrylic-based decorative coatings as finishing. With skillful use of the material, you can even create an imitation of stone.

Fake diamond

With this type of cladding you can create the impression that the wall is made of real stone. Considering that artificial stone belongs to the class of tile materials, there are no problems with its installation. This is a wonderful material that can be washed and easily restored if the wall is damaged.

Recently, there are even ready-made panels with cladding. Such panels can be simply installed on the accessories supplied with them.

Wind protection and insulation

Wind protection

Wind protection, also known as wind insulation, protects the house from being blown by the wind. As a rule, this is a rolled material resembling film. The main task of this layer is to prevent the wind from blowing through the entire sandwich. But at the same time, the wind protection must be vapor-permeable, otherwise the insulation will be without ventilation and will freeze in the winter when it picks up moisture. Which will naturally affect its thermal conductivity. When installing windproof film, try not to damage the canvas. It is advisable to glue all joints with reinforced tape. It is necessary to calculate the laying of the canvas so that the seams between the plates do not coincide with the seams of the film. It is more convenient to carry out work of this type together.

Insulation

Next comes one of the most important layers - insulation. It varies in material and shape. Insulation nowadays is produced in the form of slabs or rolls. Spraying technology also appeared - this is the so-called. But the most common is mainly mineral wool.

It is obtained by melting mineral raw materials at high temperatures. One of the advantages, in addition to thermal insulation, is its resistance to rotting and burning. But if you are not building a house, but let’s say a utility room or a garage, you can use ordinary polystyrene foam as insulation. If you plan to use roll insulation, it will be easier if you have two assistants. In the case of insulation in the form of mats, all the work can be done alone.

When using ecowool, be prepared for the fact that there will be a lot of waste when spraying. Therefore, it is advisable to cover all surfaces that may be damaged.

And of course, when using any of these materials, it is necessary to ensure that the insulation fills the space intended for it evenly and without gaps.

Vapor barrier

On the inside, the wall is covered with a vapor barrier, which is made in the form of a rolled sheet. The canvas is attached to the frame posts using a stapler. Finally comes the finishing layer. The main purpose of a vapor barrier is to protect the insulation from moisture in the interior.

If you neglect this important layer, the insulation will pick up moisture and cease to perform its function. Care must be taken when installing this layer. All seams and joints must be without breaks.

When choosing a material for vapor barrier, pay attention to several important parameters.

The material must be durable, otherwise damage to the canvas during installation is possible, but this is not desirable.

Interior decoration of frame house walls

The interior finishing of a frame wall is done in the same way as finishing regular walls. The only thing that needs to be taken into account is that first you will need to form the inner surface of the wall from any sheet material. But this is only true for preparing walls for painting or wallpapering. Otherwise, you can decorate the wall with panels or the same clapboard.

The interior walls have a simpler design. As a rule, both planes of internal walls have decorative finishing. Only sound insulation is laid inside the walls. The same mineral mats are used as it.

Usually, in all types of walls, the necessary communications are laid before the cladding. There is one nuance in Russia. According to SNiPs, electrical wiring in this type of wall is only allowed externally.

This prohibition is often ignored, however, you should still think about whether you really want to lay the electrical cable inside the wall, now you can choose a cable box that will harmoniously fit into the interior of the room and will not spoil its aesthetic appearance.

Electrical cables are hidden in metal corrugated hoses. The installation sites of distribution boxes, switches and sockets are reinforced separately using spruce metal profiles; this is necessary. All installation elements are installed after the walls are covered.

Special attention should be paid to the walls in the bathroom. It is necessary to protect the wooden structural elements from moisture. To do this, you can use a special primer for tile cladding. In case of leakage, the floor must be made with small sides and, if the design allows, a drain hole. In any case, it is worth covering the tree with an extra layer of protective coating.

Now a few words about openings. Almost every frame wall includes an opening. This could be a door or a window. As a rule, such places need to be given special attention. The fact is that in addition to disturbing the uniformity of the structure, there is a risk of cracks and leaks. Window sills and thresholds must be tightly fitted to supporting structures.

And in conclusion, I would like to say that if you plan to contact a construction company or hire a team, in this case you will still have to supervise the work. Moreover, control should not be at the stage of handing over the house, but at each stage of construction. If your insulation is installed incorrectly, then without monitoring this stage, you will only find out about the defect in the winter. All construction errors are easily corrected, but only at a certain stage. If the wall is already ready, then correcting errors will turn into a real headache.

If you are planning to build everything but are not confident in your abilities and knowledge, find a builder or technologist associated with frame construction and ask him to supervise your work.

If you purchase a ready-made home kit that was manufactured at the factory, all you have to do is control the correct assembly and installation of the kit.

But in any case, the house in which you invest a part of yourself will delight you and your loved ones for many years.

Discussion: 15 comments left.

In our country there seems to be no idea at all what a frame house is. Remove these diagrams. Firstly, there is a vapor barrier membrane on top of OSB. This is nonsense, but let's classify it as a typo. Secondly, why do they draw so many membranes on all sites, but forget about the ventilation of the facade and internal walls? If you build according to these drawings, the house will rot in 10 years! There is no drainage for moisture. We call it “Russian frame.” Don’t fool people!

Why weren't you satisfied with the vapor barrier on top of the OSB?
And yes, facade ventilation is, of course, a Russian specificity of frame housing construction, it is important to understand this.
In Canada, this is not even described in the building code.

I’ve been reading about the construction of frame houses for almost three weeks now and I understand... I’m on the same page :)
Each article recommends its own insulation. I'm confused, help me figure it out, please!
The house will have up to 70 sq.m of living area. I want a 2nd frame (is this advisable?). I hope that over the years it will be completed. And lastly, which organization should I contact?

The best insulation for frame walls is basalt slabs. This insulation is obtained by melting basalt stone at a temperature of more than 2000 degrees, producing basalt wool, similar to cotton candy. The wool is then glued into slabs. In the vastness of Russia, there are a great many factories producing basalt insulation. There is also a significant amount of foreign basalt insulation. The quality is the same as Russian, only the price is higher. So don’t bother, take the Russian one. and good luck.

Good afternoon.
Interesting portal. But. You have given an example of a frame wall. In which there is an OSB board on the outside of the basalt insulation. I understand perfectly well that it performs an important load-bearing function. But. The installation of this slab contradicts the recommendations of mineral wool insulation manufacturers for the use of their products in frame walls. (see Rockwool website). What am I talking about. About the fact that if you install a mini-slab in a frame, there must be a ventilation gap and no OSB outside the insulation. If you install OSB, then only polyurethane or ecowool as insulation, moisture behaves differently there. By the way, when insulating with ecowool: if applied dry, then there is no waste at all. If wet spraying all waste into the attic. Those. no waste either. If you don’t believe me, compare the design of an insulated roof (mandatory ventilation gap) and the design of a frame wall. There is no difference. And you do it differently. You can say that you yourself are discrediting frame houses.

The main structural part of a building is the walls. Walls are load-bearing structures that are designed to have sufficient strength and stability under vertical and horizontal loads.

Wall is a vertical fence that separates a room from the outside environment or from another room.

The walls are divided:

depending on the load perception - on carriers, self-supporting And non-load-bearing;
by type of material - stone, wood, walls made of local materials, as well as combined

In this article we will look at the main types of walls by type of material - wooden And stone.

Wooden walls

For the walls of low-rise buildings, wood is a traditional material. The most comfortable in terms of sanitary and hygienic requirements are paving walls And chopped walls from coniferous trees. Their disadvantages are sedimentary deformation in the first 1.5-2 years and low fire resistance.

Frame walls justified in the presence of lumber and effective insulation. Note that frame walls do not require massive foundations, unlike log walls, they do not cause post-construction deformations. The fire resistance and strength of frame walls increases when facing with brick.

Logs It is advisable to harvest in winter, since the wood is less susceptible to rotting and warping during drying. Wood moisture content should be 80-90%. Logs must be free of cracks, rot, and not affected by bark beetles and fungi. The quality of the material can be determined by hitting the butt of an ax; a clean and clear sound indicates good quality. Wooden houses are built no more than two floors high.

By design wooden walls of heated buildings are divided into chopped from logs or beams, frame, panel and frame-panel.

Chopped log walls

Characteristic

Chopped log walls They are a structure made of logs stacked on top of each other in horizontal rows and connected at the corners by notches. The thickness of the logs in the upper cut for the external walls of heated buildings located in the central zone of Russia is 22 cm, in the northern and north-eastern regions it is 24-26 cm. The diameter of the logs is chosen to be the same, with the difference between the upper and lower cuts not exceeding 3 cm.

Technology

Each row of logs in the wall is called crown. The crowns, laid sequentially one on top of the other from the bottom to the top of the wall, form a frame. The first lower crown is called the frame; it is made 2-3 cm thicker than the other crowns.

The crowns are placed with their butts alternately in different directions and connected along the length by means of vertical ridge(Fig. 10), and the joints of the crowns are spaced apart along the height of the wall. The crowns are held together using grooved grooves and insert tenons measuring 25x50x120.

The crowns are stacked groove down, thereby eliminating the possibility of water flowing into it. Tow is placed in the grooves between the crowns to seal the seam and insulate it. Depending on climatic conditions, the width of the groove is taken from 12 to 15 cm.

Spikes placed every 1.5-2.0 m along the height of the log house in a checkerboard pattern, rectangular (8x2 cm) or round (3-4 cm) cross-section, 10-12 cm high. In the piers, spikes are placed in each crown, one above the other in quantity at least two and located 15-20 cm from the edges of the wall.

Within 1-2 years after construction, the log house gives a settlement amounting to 1/20 of its height, due to shrinkage of the wood and compaction of tow in the seams. Due to draft of the log house nests for tenons should exceed the height of the tenons by 10-20 mm, and gaps of 6-10 cm are left above the openings, which are filled with tow and covered with platbands.

Seams between logs to reduce airflow, caulk with tow for the first time immediately after the construction of the walls and a second time 1-2 years after the end of settlement. In the corners of the building, the crowns are matched with a notch with the remainder in the bowl or without the remainder - in the paw. With the method of joining the crowns in the corners into a paw, i.e. without any residue, less wood is consumed, so this method is more appropriate. In Fig. Figure 11 shows a section of a chopped log wall from the cornice to the foundation.

Advantages and disadvantages

Chopped log walls are highly durable and have good heat-protective qualities, under favorable operating conditions, durability. Processing logs and building walls is a labor-intensive process that requires a lot of wood consumption.

Cobblestone walls

Characteristic

Cobblestone walls erected from horizontally laid beams. The use of beams makes it possible to eliminate manual processing of logs, cutting of corner joints, wall junctions and move on to mechanized preparation of wall elements.

Procurement of material

Bars for walls are prepared at the factory with all notches for mates and sockets for tenons. Compared to log houses, the labor intensity of constructing log houses is significantly less, and wood consumption is reduced. Unlike log walls, block walls are assembled immediately on ready-made foundations.

Technology

Section of beams for external walls, 150x150 mm and 180x180 mm are accepted. Depending on climatic conditions, for internal walls - 100x150 mm and 100x180 mm. The beams are laid on top of each other with resinous tow placed between them and the seams caulked. For better drainage of water from the horizontal seam between the beams, a 20x20 mm chamfer is removed from the upper edge of the front part of the beam.

Rows of beams are connected to each other cylindrical dowels with a diameter of 30 mm and a length of 60 mm, placing them at a distance of 1.5-2 m from one another. The crowns of the mating paving walls are at the same level and connect them at corners, junctions and sections in various ways. The conjugation of the corner and the junction of the walls using dowels is shown in Fig. 12 using spikes measuring 35x35 mm and 35x25 mm.

Protection of paving walls

Effective protection of paving walls from atmospheric influences is planking or brick cladding, which protects walls from moisture, increases thermal protection, reduces exposure to wind, and fire resistance increases with brick cladding of walls. Brick cladding must be installed with a gap from the paving walls at a distance of 5-7 cm; vents must be left at the bottom and top of the brick cladding to ensure ventilation.

Frame walls

Advantages

Frame walls require less wood than log or block walls, are less labor-intensive, and therefore more economical.

The basis of the frame walls is load-bearing wooden frame, sheathed on both sides with sheet or molded materials. Frame walls, due to their lightness, are practically not subject to shrinkage, which allows them to be sheathed or covered immediately after construction.

Wall protection

Frame walls must be protected from atmospheric moisture by external cladding with overlapped vertical and horizontal joints and arranging drains from the protruding elements of the walls. Protection against water vapor is provided by installing a vapor barrier made of synthetic film, glassine, or using other types of vapor barrier, laying them between the inner lining and the insulation.

Technology

For frame manufacturing 50 mm thick boards are used for external and internal walls, as for rafters and beams. With a thickness of 50 mm, load-bearing wall posts are recommended to be used with a width of at least 100 mm.

Width of frame posts in external walls is determined by the calculated thickness of the insulation, depending on the efficiency of the insulation itself and the calculated temperature of the outside air. The supporting frame posts are placed at a distance of 0.5 m, depending on the size of the window and door openings. The basement beams are placed at a distance of 0.5 m. The corner posts of the frame are made of beams or composite boards, and the row posts are made of boards 50x100, or 60x120 mm.

The frame is sheathed on the inside with boards of any profile and section, and plasterboard; typesetting, sheet wall panels and other finishing materials. On the outside, clapboard, siding, planks, thermal brick panels and other materials are used to cover the frame.

Insulation

Insulation of frame walls carried out using mineral and organic materials with a density of up to 500-600 kg/m³. Mineral, glass wool boards, and expanded polystyrene are effective modern insulation materials, because they are fire-resistant, lightweight, not susceptible to rotting, exposure and penetration of bacteria, fungi, and are not destroyed by rodents. Organic insulation materials are susceptible to destruction by rodents, are flammable, and subject to rotting; in addition, before backfilling, they must be treated with an antiseptic and mixed before use with a mineral binder - cement, lime, gypsum, then laid in a wet state in layers of 15-20 cm, compacting. This backfill dries within 4-5 weeks, so pre-prepared slabs and blocks of lightweight concrete should be used to fill the frame. The materials for backfilling are: pumice, sawdust, gilak, shavings, peat and others, which are significantly inferior in their properties to modern mineral insulation.

Panel walls

Advantages

Difference panel wooden houses from frame ones is that their main structural parts consist of enlarged panel elements, manufactured, as a rule, at the factory. The process of constructing panel houses comes down to installation at the construction site and finishing work. The construction of panel wooden houses reduces the labor intensity of work and ensures high installation rates.

Technology

In panel wooden houses, the basis of the walls is the lower frame made of wooden antiseptic bars, laid on the base of the building and attached to it using anchor bolts. Wall panels are installed on the frame. Above wall panels they are fastened with the top trim laid on them, on which the attic floor rests. Wall panels are made internal and external, which, in turn, are divided into blind, window and door. The height of the boards is equal to the height of the floor, the width is assumed to be 600-1200 mm. The panels consist of paving frames and sheathing, internal and external, between which insulation is placed.

Mattresses made from mineral felt. A vapor barrier is laid under the sheathing on the inside of the shield in order to prevent the formation of condensation of water vapor inside the shield penetrating into it from the side of the room. To reduce airflow, paper is placed under the outer skin.

The panels are placed vertically and connected with nails. When making joints between panels, it is necessary to ensure sufficient density and airtightness of the joint. In Fig. 14b shows the recommended design of vertical joint of panels. The joint must be covered with continuous layers of air and vapor barrier.

Mineral felt 20 mm thick is placed in the joint, gluing it cold bitumen mastic. Then, using a lever device, the joint is compressed. In panel houses, the floors are made of panels or beams.

Wall protection

When installing the basement and cornice units, it is necessary to take measures to protect them from freezing by installing insulated base and an insulated frieze belt at the eaves, as well as from humidifying the internal air with vaporous moisture, arranging a vapor barrier for this purpose. The underground under the basement floor is not insulated. The underground should be cold and well ventilated, and the structure ceilings above the underground and especially the basement unit must have reliable insulation and vapor barrier laid on top under the finished floor structure. To protect against freezing, an insulated belt is installed outside at the ceiling level.

Stone walls

Homogeneous walls

Material

Homogeneous walls made of ordinary hollow or light building bricks. In heterogeneous lightweight walls part of the brickwork was replaced by the thickness of the wall with thermal insulation tiles and an air gap.

Technology

Walls are erected with a thickness of 1/2, 1, 11/2, 2, 21/2, 3 bricks or more, taking into account the thickness of the vertical joints equal to 10 mm; brick walls have a thickness of 120, 250, 380, 510, 640, 770, respectively mm or more. The thickness of the horizontal joints is assumed to be 12 mm, then the height of 13 rows of masonry should be 1 m.

When constructing brick walls, two masonry systems are used: two-row - chain and six-row spoon.

IN double-row masonry system Pod rows alternate with spoon rows. Transverse seams in this system overlap by 1/4 brick, and longitudinal seams by 1/2 brick (Fig. 16).

Six-row system involves alternating five spoon rows with one back row. In each spoon row, the transverse vertical seams are tied in half a brick, the longitudinal vertical seams formed by the spoons are tied in stitched rows through five spoon rows.

Masonry using a six-row system is simpler than using a two-row system. To reduce the air permeability of the walls, the facing seams of the masonry are sealed with a special tool, giving the seams the shape of a roller, fillet or triangle. This method is called jointing.

Flaws

The disadvantage of ordinary solid brick, clay or silicate, is its large volumetric weight and, therefore, large thermal conductivity.

Crowning cornices

Technology

Crowning cornice, shown in Fig. 17, brick masonry walls with a small offset - up to 300 mm and no more than 1/2 the thickness of the wall, can be laid out of brick by gradually releasing rows of masonry by 60-80 mm in each row. When the projection is more than 300 mm, the cornices are made of prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs embedded in the walls.

The inner ends of the reinforced concrete slabs are covered with prefabricated longitudinal reinforced concrete beams, which are attached to the masonry using steel anchors embedded in it, thereby ensuring the stability of the cornice.

Classification

Lightweight brick walls are divided into 2 groups. The first group includes structures consisting of two thin longitudinal brick walls, between which thermal insulation material is laid, the second group includes structures consisting of one brick wall insulated with thermal insulation slabs.

Brick walls with insulation from thermal insulation panels

Characteristic

Brick walls with insulation of thermal insulation panels (Fig. 19) consist of a load-bearing part - masonry, the thickness of which is determined only from the conditions of the strength and stability of the wall, and a heat-insulating part - foam concrete, gypsum or gypsum slag panels.

Advantages and disadvantages

Lightweight concrete stones Compared to ordinary bricks, they have a lower volumetric weight and lower thermal conductivity, so the use of ceramic stones for the construction of external walls makes it possible to reduce their thickness. The disadvantage is that lightweight concrete stones with a lower volumetric weight have less strength and resistance to weathering.

Characteristic

Three-hollow stones with large voids have dimensions of 390x190x188 mm. In bonded rows, a bonded stone with a smooth end surface is used.

After laying stones in the wall, the voids in the climatic conditions of the middle and northern regions should be filled with slag, a material with low thermal conductivity, since when the voids are large, air exchange occurs in them, increasing the thermal conductivity of the wall. Filling voids with low-conductivity materials increases the labor intensity of masonry. To reduce air circulation in voids, three-hollow stones with blind voids are used - five-walled stones.

Exterior walls- the most complex building structure. They are exposed to numerous and varied force and non-force influences (Fig. 1). The walls bear their own weight, permanent and temporary loads from floors and roofs, exposure to wind, uneven deformations of the base, seismic forces, etc. From the outside, external walls are exposed to solar radiation, precipitation, variable temperatures and humid outside air, external noise, and from the inside - exposure to heat flow, water vapor flow, noise. Performing the function of an external enclosing structure and a composite element of facades, and often a load-bearing structure, the outer wall must meet the requirements strength, durability and fire resistance corresponding to the capital class of the building, protect premises from adverse external influences, ensure the necessary temperature and humidity conditions of enclosed premises, and have decorative qualities. At the same time, the design of the external wall must satisfy industrial requirements, as well as economic requirements for minimum material consumption and cost, since external walls are the most expensive structure (20-25% of the cost of building structures)

In the external walls there are usually window openings for lighting the premises and doorways for entrance and exit to balconies and loggias. The complex of wall structures includes filling of window openings, entrance and balcony doors, and structures of open rooms. These elements and their connections to the wall must meet the requirements listed above. Since the static functions of walls and their insulating properties are achieved through interaction with internal load-bearing structures, the development of external wall structures includes a review depending on the natural-climatic and engineering-geological conditions of construction, and also taking into account the features of space-planning solutions, they are cut by vertical expansion joints of various types: temperature-shrinkage, sedimentary, anti-seismic, etc.

Classification.

By static function a distinction is made between load-bearing, self-supporting or non-load-bearing structures.

Load-bearing walls in addition to the vertical load from their own mass, they perceive and transmit to the foundations loads from adjacent structures: floors, partitions, roofs, etc. Self-supporting walls perceive vertical load only from their own mass (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer it to the foundations directly or through plinth panels, rand beams, grillage or other structures. Curtain walls supported floor by floor or across several floors on adjacent internal structures of the building (floors, walls, frame). They bear the load from their own weight and wind within a floor no more than 6 m high. Load-bearing and self-supporting walls perceive, along with vertical and horizontal loads, being vertical elements, the rigidity of structures.

Load-bearing and non-load-bearing external walls can be used in buildings of any number of floors. The height of self-supporting walls is limited in order to prevent operationally unfavorable mutual displacements of self-supporting and internal load-bearing structures, accompanied by local damage to the finishing of the premises and the appearance of cracks.

By material There are four main types of wall structures: concrete, stone, non-concrete materials and wood. In accordance with the construction system, each type of wall contains several types of structures: concrete walls - made of monolithic concrete, large blocks or panels; stone walls - hand-made, walls made of stone blocks and panels; walls made of non-concrete materials - half-timbered and panel framed and frameless; wooden walls - chopped from logs or beams, frame-sheathing, frame-panel, panel and panel.

Constructive decisions. External walls can be of single-layer or layered construction. Single layer walls are erected from panels, concrete or stone blocks, monolithic concrete, stone, brick, wooden logs or beams. In layered walls Different functions are assigned to different materials. Strength functions are provided by concrete, stone, wood; durability features - concrete, stone, wood or sheet material (aluminum alloys, enameled steel, asbestos cement, etc.); thermal insulation functions - effective insulation materials (mineral wool boards, fiberboard, expanded polystyrene, etc.); vapor barrier functions - rolled materials (pasting roofing felt, foil, etc.), dense concrete or mastics; decorative functions - various facing materials. An air gap may be included in the number of layers of such a building envelope. Closed - to increase its resistance to heat transfer, ventilated - to protect the room from radiation overheating or to reduce deformation of the outer facing layer of the wall.

Single- and multi-layer wall structures can be made fully prefabricated or using traditional techniques.

Walls made of small-sized elements (stone walls): scope of application; materials and types of masonry; basic measures to ensure strength, stability, durability, heat-shielding ability; details of stone walls (plinths, openings, cornices and parapets).

Handmade walls. Material For stone walls, bricks or stones of regular shape, made of natural or artificial (burnt clay, concrete) materials, and mortar (lime, lime-cement or cement) are used, on which the stones are laid in horizontal rows with mutual bandaging of the seams. Brick (clay and silicate, solid and hollow) has a mass of up to 4-4.3 kg, stones (hollow ceramic with a density of up to 1400 kg/m3, lightweight concrete hollow with a density of up to 1200 kg/m3, from autoclaved and non-autoclaved cellular concrete with a density of up to 800 kg /m3, from natural light stone materials with a density of up to 1800 kg/m3) have a height of up to 20 cm and a weight of up to 30 kg.

Strength of the wall structure ensure the strength of the stone and mortar and the laying of stones with mutual ligation of vertical seams. In this case, bandaging of masonry seams is provided not only in the plane of the wall, but also in the plane of the transverse walls adjacent to it. The most common type of masonry is six-row, where five rows of spoon rows laid sequentially with ligation in the plane of the wall are tied (in the plane and out of the plane of the wall) with a sixth tying row. Only when there are high requirements for wall strength, more labor-intensive double-row masonry is used with ligation of all vertical seams in each row (the so-called chain masonry).

Stability of stone external walls is ensured by their spatial interaction with internal load-bearing structures - walls and ceilings. To ensure spatial interaction, the external walls are rigidly connected to the internal walls by tying the masonry, and to the floors made of reinforced concrete floorings - by inserting the latter into the wall at least 100 mm, resting on the wall through a layer of durable mortar and connecting the walls to the floors with steel anchors. When installing floors on beams, the latter are inserted into the wall 250 mm and connected with anchors to the masonry every 6 m. In multi-storey buildings, in addition, floor-by-floor reinforcement belts are provided, located in the mortar joint under the ceiling or above it (for high window lintels).

Durability stone walls ensures frost resistance of materials used for the outer part of the masonry. Accordingly, the grades of stones and facing materials for frost resistance for the external walls of medium- and high-rise residential buildings built in a temperate climate are taken to be no less than 15 Mrz, and for individual wall parts (cornices, parapets, window sills, rims, plinths, etc.) , subject to particularly intense atmospheric humidification - 35 Mrz.

Thermal protection ability When designing external walls, it is assigned in accordance with hygienic requirements and taking into account the need to save fuel resources. The wall thickness is taken according to the largest of the values obtained as a result of calculations of the required R 0 tr, economically feasible heat transfer resistance R 0 eq and static calculation. Materials and designs of stone walls have a variety of thermal properties. The thermal conductivity coefficient of solid masonry varies from 0.7 W/(m°C) for tuff masonry to 0.35 W/(m°C) for ceramic hollow stone masonry. This makes it possible, by choosing the most heat-efficient material, to significantly reduce the cross-section of a single-layer wall, its massiveness, cost and labor intensity of construction. Therefore, solid masonry of external walls is made mainly of hollow ceramic, lightweight concrete stones or bricks. To save stone and labor costs while maintaining the required heat-insulating ability, lightweight multilayer walls are used. In residential buildings, the most common are three-layer lightweight masonry structures. They contain longitudinal walls half a brick thick and an internal insulating layer between them. Sometimes, according to strength requirements, the inner layer of masonry, to which the load from the floors is transferred, is made 1 brick thick.

Differences in masonry designs lie in the methods of ensuring the joint static work of the outer layers of the masonry, as well as in the insulation material and the participation of this material in the static work of the wall. The connections between layers are designed to be flexible or rigid. Flexible connections are made in the form of steel brackets. With flexible connections, the brick layers of the wall separately perceive the loads falling on them.

Rigid connections are made in the form of transverse diaphragms connecting the outer layers. Based on the location of the transverse diaphragms, wall structures with horizontal and vertical connections are distinguished. In walls with horizontal diaphragms, the latter are performed every five rows; in walls with vertical diaphragms (well masonry), the diaphragm pitch is 0.65 or 1.17 m. For insulation of lightweight masonry, insulation materials are used from semi-rigid mineral wool slabs on a synthetic or bitumen binder, cement fiberboard, foam glass, liners made of lightweight or cellular concrete, monolithic lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1400 kg/m3 or mineral backfill with a density of up to 1000 kg/m3.

Stone wall details. Socles stone walls are made of durable solid brick of continuous masonry. Brick grade for frost resistance is 50 Mrz. At a distance of 15-20 cm from the top of the blind area, a horizontal waterproofing layer is laid to protect the ground part of the wall from ground moisture. The waterproofing layer is made of two layers of roofing felt on mastic or cement mortar. In accordance with the compositional solution, cladding of a brick plinth with slabs of natural stone or leaning ceramic tiles is sometimes used.

When making a plinth from concrete foundation blocks or plinth panels, the latter are placed with an indentation inward from the facade surface (the so-called undercut plinth). At the same time, in the outer wall hanging over the plinth, the facade stones of the lower row of masonry are replaced with reinforced concrete bars. The plinth made of concrete blocks is usually faced with ceramic tiles, and the plinth panels have a protective and finishing layer made at the factory from decorative concrete or facing tiles.

Openings window and door windows in stone walls are made with quarters installed on the outside along the vertical and top edges. The quarters protect the joint between the masonry and the joinery block filling the opening from infiltration. The size of the quarter in brickwork is 65 by 120 or 88 by 120, in stone - 100 by 100 mm. Openings are usually covered with prefabricated reinforced concrete lintels, which take the vertical load from the overlying masonry, and in load-bearing walls, from the floors.

The crowning part of the external walls is made in the form of a cornice for external drainage from the roof or a parapet for internal drainage.

Cornice in stone walls they are often laid out of brick or stone, however, the amount of extension of such cornices due to strength conditions is limited to half the thickness of the wall, and the successive overlap of bricks to form an overhang should be no more than 1/3 of a stone in each row. If it is necessary to install a cornice with a large offset, it is made from prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs anchored into the masonry.

Parapet It is a part of the wall rising above the roof, made of solid masonry. The thickness of the wall in the parapet area is assumed to be reduced (up to 1 stone). The height of the parapet above the roof surface must be at least 300 mm. The upper plane of the parapet masonry is protected from moisture by a galvanized steel drain or concrete parapet stone.

Large-block walls: scope; materials for large blocks; types of blocks depending on their location in the wall; cutting walls into large blocks; ensuring strength, stability, durability of block walls.

Large-block houses are usually designed frameless, based on two structural schemes: with longitudinal walls for 5-story buildings and with transverse walls for multi-story buildings. Sometimes (in certain areas of the building volume) a combined structural system of large-block buildings with an internal frame is used. Accordingly, large-block walls are made load-bearing or self-supporting with cutting along the height of the floor into 2, 3 or 4 rows of blocks. The choice of cutting type depends on the material and static function of the walls.

Materials for large blocks, lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1600 kg/m3 on various porous aggregates, autoclaved cellular concrete with a density of up to 800 kg/m3, solid or lightweight brickwork, natural stone (limestone, tuff, etc.) with a density of up to 1800 kg/m3 are used. .

For any of the cuts, the principle of ligating the seams and laying the blocks on the mortar is followed. Depending on the location, there are wall, lintel, window sill, basement, cornice, parapet, row and corner blocks. The lintel blocks have quarters on the inside: at the top for supporting the floors, at the bottom for installing the filling of the opening. In wall blocks for installing filling of openings, quarters are provided along the vertical side edges. On the outside, the blocks have a protective finishing layer.

Strength large-block walls are achieved by the strength of concrete blocks and mortar, ligation of masonry blocks and their adhesion to the mortar, floor tying with lintel blocks connected by steel ties. The grade of concrete in terms of compressive strength for lightweight concrete blocks is assigned according to static calculation, but not less than M 50, and the mortar - not less than M25.

Sustainability large-block external walls provide their spatial interaction with floors and internal transverse walls, combined with external walls with special steel connections.

In mid-rise buildings, the connections of intersecting walls are designed from L- or T-shaped welded mesh, from strip or round reinforcing bars laid in a solution of horizontal seams.

Durability large-block walls are ensured by the use of concrete with a frost resistance grade of at least 25 Mrz with corresponding frost resistance grades of concrete and solutions of protective and finishing layers. The frost resistance grade of concrete for cornice, parapet and plinth blocks is 35-50 Mrz.

Panel concrete walls and their elements: scope of application; main types of wall cuts into panels; material and design of wall panels; rigid and flexible connections in three-layer wall panels.

External walls made of large panels can be load-bearing or non-load-bearing. The massive use of panel walls in almost all countries of the world has determined the exceptional diversity of their designs and cuts. However, in most cases, only single-row cutting is used (without ligating vertical seams) and sometimes (for low- and medium-rise buildings) double-row, vertical, cross-shaped and T-shaped.

Panels made from concrete materials are designed both layered and single-layered. Load-bearing walls are designed from layered reinforced concrete panels made of heavy or structural lightweight concrete. Single-layer panels made of lightweight structural and thermal insulating concrete are used for load-bearing walls of a building no more than 12 floors high. Load-bearing panel walls made of autoclaved cellular concrete are used only in low-rise buildings. Non-load-bearing walls are made from panels of any design.

Single-layer concrete panels made from lightweight or autoclaved cellular concrete. The density of concrete should be no more than 1400 kg/m3. Panels of load-bearing and self-supporting single-layer walls are designed as eccentrically compressed concrete structures. Nevertheless, single-layer panels, even of non-load-bearing walls, contain structural reinforcement that protects against brittle fracture and the development of cracks during transportation and installation.

The concept of “single-layer panel” is conditional. In fact, in addition to the main structural layer of lightweight or cellular concrete, such panels contain an external protective and finishing layer and an internal finishing layer.

The facade protective and finishing layer of lightweight concrete panels is made with a thickness of 20-25 mm from vapor-permeable decorative concrete, mortars or ordinary mortars (followed by painting), the shrinkage deformations and elastic modulus of which are close in magnitude to those of the main concrete layer of the panel. For the facade layer, finishing with ceramic and glass slabs, thin slabs of sawn natural stone, and crushed stone materials is also used. On the inside of the panel, a finishing layer of mortar with a density of up to 1800 kg/m3 and a thickness of no more than 15 mm is applied.

The required density and water resistance of the façade protective and finishing concrete layer is achieved by molding the panels with the façade surface facing the mold pan “face down”. The same molding method guarantees maximum adhesion strength between the concrete panel and the slab cladding.

Concrete panels two-layer construction have a load-bearing and insulating layer: the load-bearing layer is made of heavy or structural lightweight concrete, the insulation layer is made of structural and heat-insulating lightweight concrete of a dense or cellular structure. The denser supporting layer has a thickness of at least 100 mm and is located on the inside.

Concrete panels three-layer construction have outer and inner structural layers made of heavy or light structural concrete and an insulating layer enclosed between them. The minimum grade of heavy concrete is M 150, light concrete - M 100. For the insulating layer, the most effective materials with a density of no more than 400 kg/m3 are used in the form of blocks, slabs or mats made of glass or mineral wool with a synthetic bond, foam glass, fiberboard, polystyrene or phenolic polystyrene foam

The concrete layers of the panel are combined with flexible or rigid connections, ensuring its installation unity and meeting the requirements of strength, durability and thermal insulation. The most advanced design of flexible connections consists of individual metal rods, which ensure the installation unity of the concrete layers while maintaining the independence of their static operation. Flexible connections do not prevent thermal deformations of the outer concrete layer of the wall and completely eliminate the occurrence of thermal forces in the inner layer. Elements of flexible connections are made from low-alloy steels resistant to atmospheric corrosion or from ordinary construction steel with durable anti-corrosion coatings. In three-layer panels with flexible connections, the outer concrete layer performs only enclosing functions. The load from it, just like from the insulation, is transferred through flexible connections to the inner concrete layer. The outer layer is designed to be at least 50 mm thick, made of concrete with frost resistance grade Mrz 35 and reinforced with welded mesh. These measures ensure the necessary durability and crack resistance of the façade layer. Along the joint edges of the panel and along the contour of the openings, the outer concrete layer is thickened to provide waterproof profiling of the joints and edges of the openings. The thickness of the internal concrete layer of three-layer panels with flexible connections in load-bearing and self-supporting walls is prescribed to be at least 80 mm, and in non-load-bearing walls - 65 mm. The panels are insulated with the most effective materials - expanded polystyrene, mineral wool and glass wool boards. Steel elements intended to connect the panel with the rest of the building structures are placed in its inner layer.

In three-layer concrete panels, along with flexible ones, rigid connections are also used between layers in the form of transverse reinforced ribs molded from heavy or light concrete. Rigid connections ensure joint static operation of concrete layers, protection of connecting reinforcement from corrosion, ease of implementation, and allow the use of insulation of any type. The disadvantage of the design is the through heat-conducting inclusions formed by the ribs. They can lead to condensation on the inner surface of the wall in their area. To eliminate the danger of condensation, the heat capacity of the inner concrete layer is increased, thickening it to 80-120 mm (according to the calculation results of temperature panels), and the thickness of the connecting ribs is set to no more than 40 mm.

Structural reinforcement of three-layer panels with rigid connections is performed on both sides. It consists of spatial reinforcement blocks, similar to those used in single-layer panels, but supplemented with a welded mesh with a cell of 200X200 mm, reinforcing the façade concrete layer.