Jochi, the son of Genghis Khan, became known in Rus' before other Mongol conquering khans.
In the infamous battle of Kalka, he faced the Russian army for the only time.
The memory of his cruelty, even in those far from humane times, was preserved in the annals National history. But otherwise, researchers leave Jochi in the shadow of his father, Genghis Khan, and his son, Batu Khan.
Meanwhile, the biography of the hero of the story is replete with intriguing mysteries.
Mystery of origin
IN historical sources There is information that Temujin's first wife, Borte, captured by the Merkit tribe, gave birth to a son, Jochi, in 1182, upon her return, whom her husband recognized as his first-born.
The story turned out to be so dark that despite Temukin’s recognition of paternity, rumors circulated throughout the steppe, casting serious doubt on this public statement. From the outside, no one noticed that the problematic origins of the eldest son particularly worried him, like almost his entire large family.
Only a separate unpleasant episode of a quarrel between the brothers Jochi and Chagatai at a military council before the campaign against Khorezm, described in the “Secret Legend,” suggests that the issue was not finally closed. In addition, no one hastened to refute Chagatai’s claims to Jochi related to unclear origins.
The quarrel was hushed up, but the sediment remained. Medieval historians paid more attention to the intrigue of birth. TO XIV century In the countries of Central Asia, once conquered by the Mongols, cult veneration of the figure of Genghis Khan was established. There were many retellings, here are just a few of them:
- “Collection of Chronicles”, in the most striking historical work of the Middle Ages by the encyclopedist Rashid ad-Din detailed description circumstances surrounding the birth of Jochi. Here is described the epic story of the pregnant Borte with her capture and almost miraculous deliverance from captivity and the birth of her son on the way home.
- “Genealogy of the Turks”, here the unknown author repeated the narrative of Rashid ad-Din in development, in relation to his circumstances. At the same time, not a shadow of doubt was shown about the illegal origin of Jochi.
- The history of Khiva's Abu-l-Ghazi Khan added to the known circumstances the origin of the name of his eldest son from the lips of Genghis Khan. When he met, he called the baby “new guest,” which in Mongolian sounds “jochi.”
- Modern researchers have not ignored the issue either. Thus, Lev Gumilyov claimed that Borte’s return from captivity was crowned with the birth of a son. Despite the recognition of paternity, doubts gnawed at Genghis Khan and Jochi. However, no negative consequences these doubts did not bring both Jochi himself and his descendants. The Chingizids, in their frequent quarrels with each other, allowing themselves gross insults against each other, never even hinted at this episode from the history of the “noble family.”
Activities of Jochi
In 1207, Jochi, at the behest of his father, set off with an army to conquer the tribes in the west of Lake Baikal. This campaign ended successfully, the peoples submitted without a fight and brought gifts.
In 1213, Genghis Khan and his son went to Jin. The army was divided into three groups, one (western) was led by Jochi and his brothers, the second (main) by Genghis Khan with his youngest son, and the third (eastern) was led by Genghis Khan’s brother Khasar. The groups went on a campaign in divisions, conquering cities. The military campaign was successful, but bloody. Jin paid a large ransom for the truce.
In 1218, Jochi suppressed the uprising of the Kirghiz, who opposed Genghis Khan's order to suppress the Tumats, who defeated the Mongol army.
The mystery of Jochi's death
- Just like birth, Jochi’s death is surrounded by hidden circumstances. There is no unambiguous description of this event in historical sources and studies by modern authors. Chroniclers identify at least three explanations for Jochi’s death:
- Firstly, the official one: being ill, Jochi did not go on a campaign against Nordic countries as Genghis Khan ordered. He also did not appear when summoned to his father’s headquarters, after which he was declared a rebel. The announced campaign was canceled by the news of Jochi's death.
- Secondly, the enemies of the Mongols put forward the version that Jochi, suspected of treason, was killed on the orders of his father. The veracity of this legend is questionable due to the bias of the authors.
- Thirdly, the legends of the Great Steppe attribute his death during a hunt. Modern researchers suggest that most likely Jochi died of illness. Despite the difficult relationships with close relatives, this version seems to be the most preferable in light of subsequent events. The Juchi ulus was not divided, but passed to the eighteen-year-old Batu Khan.
Since, according to the Great Yasa of Genghis Khan, all conquered lands and peoples were considered the property of the khan’s family, Genghis Khan divided the territories conquered under him into inheritances among his sons.
The eldest son, Jochi, inherited Dasht-i-Kipchak (Polovtsian steppe) and Khorezm. His inheritance was also to include all the lands in the west that had yet to be conquered. The second son, Chagatai, received Transoxiana, Semirechye and the southern part of East Turkestan. The destiny of the third son, Ogedei, became the northern part of East Turkestan. According to Mongolian custom, his father's native yurt - Central Mongolia, as well as Northern China - passed to his youngest son Tuluy. Chinggis Khan appointed Ogedei, who was distinguished by restraint, gentleness and tact, as the head of the entire empire - the great khan (kaan). Ogedei pursued a policy of reviving agriculture and cities and rapprochement with the settled nobility of the conquered peoples.
Genghis Khan died in 1227, at the age of seventy-two. "In 1229, at the kurultai on the banks of Kerulen, Ogedei was proclaimed Great Khan.
During the reign of Ogedei-kaan (1229-1241), conquests continued. In 1231-1234. The conquest of the Jinye Empire (Northern China) was completed and a long struggle began, which lasted until 1279, with the South Chinese Song Empire. In 1241 Korea was subjugated. The largest military events under Ogedei were the campaign against Rus' and Europe (1236-1242) led by Batu, son of Jochi, and Subutai.
In 1246, at the kurultai of the Mongolian nobility, Ogedei's son Guyuk-kaan (1246-1248) was elevated to the throne of the Great Khan.
Despite the enormous destruction caused by the Mongol conquest in Asia and Europe, trade ties between these countries did not cease. The conquerors, for military-strategic purposes, took care of the construction convenient roads with a whole network of postal stations (pits). Caravans also traveled along these roads, in particular from Iran to China. To their advantage, the Mongol Great Khans patronized large wholesale caravan trade, which was in the hands of powerful Muslim (Central Asian and Iranian) trading companies, whose members were called Urtak (Old Turk: “comrade in share”, “companion”). The great khans, especially Ogedei-kaan, willingly invested in and patronized the Urtak companies. It was a wholesale international trade in expensive fabrics and luxury goods, catering primarily to the nobility.
The Mongol conquests led to the expansion of diplomatic relations between the countries of Asia and Europe. The popes especially tried to establish connections with the Mongol khans. They sought to gather information
Therefore, in 1246, the pope sent the monk John de Plano Carpini to the Kaan's headquarters in Karakorum in Mongolia. In 1253, the monk Wilhelm Rubruk was sent there. The travel notes of these authors serve as a valuable source on the history of the Mongols.
The Mongol shamanistic khans, who attributed supernatural power to the clergy of all religions, treated the pope's envoys kindly. Upon leaving Karakorum, Plano Carpini was given a letter of response to Pope Innocent IV, in which Guyuk-kaan demanded that the pope and the kings of Europe recognize themselves as vassals of the Mongol Great Khan. This document was written in Persian and sealed with a Mongolian seal, which was made for Guyuk by the Russian captive master Kuzma.
After Guyuk's death, a fierce struggle began among the Mongol nobility for a candidate for the throne of the Great Khan. Only in 1251, with the help of the Golden Horde ulus Khan Batu, Tuluy’s son, Munke-kaan (1251-1259), was elevated to the throne!
Chinese chroniclers highly appreciate the reign of Mongke Kaan. He tried to revive agriculture and crafts, patronized large wholesale trade. For these purposes, Munke-kaan issued a decree, which was intended to streamline the taxation system and somewhat alleviate the situation of peasants and townspeople. In Iran, however, this decree remained a dead letter. Conquests in China and the West continued under him.
The Mongol conglomerate empire created by conquest united under its rule many tribes and nationalities, countries and states with completely different economies and cultures. As a single whole, it could not exist for long. After the death of Mongke Kaan (1259), it finally broke up into several Mongol states (uluses), headed by ulus khans - descendants of Genghis Khan. -These states were: Golden Horde which included North Caucasus, Crimea, South Russian steppes, Lower Volga region and was under the rule of the descendants of Jochi; The Chagatai state, which covered Central Asia and Semirechye and received its name from the son of Genghis Khan - Chagatai; the Hulaguid state, created in Iran by Mongke-kaan's brother Hulagu Khan; a state in Mongolia and China (the inheritance of the Great Khan), ruled by Mongke's brother, Kublai Kaan, this state received the Chinese official name of the Yuan Empire. The development of these states took different paths.
Marcel ZeinullinColumnist "TM"
Grandson of Genghis Khan, Chinese Emperor
His power extended over a vast space and a great multitude of people. The entire East Asian world feared him. Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, laid the foundation for the first foreign dynasty in Chinese history; his reign is considered the “golden age” of the great Mongol Empire. At the end of his life, this man found himself lonely, lost interest in government affairs, and drank a lot. There was an empire - there was no happiness... His dynasty fell after 97 years. No one knows where Kublai's grave is.
1 December 8, 1271 in the city of Zhongdu - now Beijing the fifth Mongol great khan, Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan proclaimed the Genghisid family the Da Yuan dynasty. The name of the dynasty meant the beginning of an endlessly long reign. However, it lasted less than a hundred years...
In the summer of the same 1271, Marco Polo set off on a journey from Venice. In three many years He found himself at the luxurious gates of Kublai's summer residence, became his courtier and lived in China for about 17 years. From the book written from the words of Marco Polo, Europeans learned a lot about China for the first time. They also learned about the valor of Kublai.
Kublai's conquest of China was ferocious: at the beginning of the 13th century, the population of China numbered about 100 million people, under Kublai it was less than 60 million. But there was also reason for the admiration of Marco Polo, and later for the amazement of Europeans who read his book, at the wisdom of the reign of Genghis Khan’s grandson. Kublai restored traditional Chinese forms of government, encouraged Chinese culture (in particular, under him, the Chinese theater reached an unprecedented flowering), encouraged religious tolerance (Buddhists, Taoists, Muslims and Christians equally professed their religions in the empire), under him, the communications network of the north was updated and expanded and the south of the country, the Grand Canal, which connected the basins of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers...
His power extended over a vast space and a great multitude of people. The entire East Asian world feared him. He was praised as a god.
Emperor Kublai Da Yuan died on February 18, 1294, in his eightieth year. There is no greater consolation for an old man than to see the full power of his wisdom embodied in works that will not grow old like himself. In his old age, the emperor, like the nightingale, did not have his own evening songs. His beloved wife Chabi and his son, the heir to the throne Zhen Jin, died, Kublai lost interest in state affairs and drank a lot...
Looking at his new grandson, Genghis Khan said: “All our children are red-haired, but this one is black!”
The father of the newborn was Genghis Khan's son Tolui. He died when Kublai Khan was about 17 years old. According to one version, he died from drunkenness, according to another, romantic, from taking upon himself the death of his brother - the successor of Genghis Khan Ogedei, the conqueror of Northern China, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, who sent Batu on a campaign against Eastern Europe. Ogedei fell seriously ill, and Tolui asked Heaven to take his life in exchange for the life of his older brother. Ogedei recovered, but Tolui died.
Khubilai's mother Sorghagtani was the niece of Genghis Khan's main rival in the struggle for power over the Mongols, Tooril Kagan. Genghis Khan married his son to her after the defeat of his rival. Historians write that Sorghagtani was a Christian by religion, was distinguished by great intelligence, and devoted her life to raising her four sons.
A year before his death, Genghis Khan personally greased the thumb of 14-year-old Kublai with fat and meat so that his grandson would grow up to be a good hunter. Like all Mongol princes, he grew up to be an excellent hunter, and a warrior too. From a young age he also learned the kitchen of politics.
Ogedei's death in 1241 marked the beginning of the struggle of Genghis Khan's descendants for the throne. Only four years later, Ogedei's son Guyuk was finally installed as the Great Khan. Before that, together with Genghis Khan’s other grandson Batu, he took part in the campaign against Rus'. The cousins quarreled during this trip. Having become the Great Khan, Guyuk went on a campaign against Batu, but died on the way to the Golden Horde. Batu and Khubilai's mother Sorghagtani, who warned him about Guyuk's campaign, assembled a kurultai, which elected Khubilai's brother Mongke as great khan. Guyuk's widow organized a rebellion, but Mongke suppressed it. Kublai saw how his brother dealt with the leaders of the rebels - they stuffed their mouths with stones until they gave up the ghost in agony - and understood: if you want to be a ruler, be able to make them fear you. Time will pass, and he will force it. It is not known whether Kublai himself was the author of sophisticated methods of executing his enemies or his accomplices, but when many years later he suppressed the rebellion of the Chinese, he ordered its leader Li Tan to be sewn into a sack and trampled under horses, and even later the leader of another uprising, at his command, was wrapped in the carpet was so tight that he suffocated.
Kublai Khan was 36 years old when his elder brother, the Great Khan Mongke, sent him to conquer the state of Dali in southwest China. Kublai conquered this state and next year he was ordered to conquer another one - the Southern Song.
Successful campaigns allowed Kublai to become the owner of his own vast estate in Northern China. He built his capital Kaiping (later Shandu) here and ordered “to build a large palace of stone and marble. The halls and chambers are gilded... and around the palace there is a sixteen-mile wall, and there are many fountains, rivers and meadows here, the great khan keeps all kinds of animals here.” (Marco Polo).
Then Khubilai ordered the issue of paper money. He did not invent them (in the 13th century the first banknotes were already in circulation in Southern China), but sufficient numbers of their samples have reached us since the time of Kublai Kublai. “Bits of paper,” as Marco Polo called this money, “by order of the Great Khan are distributed... throughout all regions... and no one dares, under pain of death, not to accept them. All his subjects everywhere willingly accept these papers in payment, because wherever they go , they pay for everything with pieces of paper... When a piece of paper gets torn or spoiled from use, they take it to the mint and exchange it, however, with the loss of three per hundred, for a new and fresh one.”
The “passion for the Chinese” to the detriment of the Mongolian, the construction of a city that rivaled Karakorum, the capital of all the Mongol possessions, in splendor, aroused the displeasure of the Great Khan Mongke. An inspection came to visit Kublai. The matter took such a dangerous turn that I had to go to Karakorum and explain myself to my brother.
By this time, a serious conflict had arisen in Northern China between Buddhists and Taoists. Both sought the protection of the Mongols and proved the primacy of their faith. Taoists argued that Buddha was none other than one of the reincarnations of the Chinese philosopher, a contemporary of Confucius Lao Tzu, who retired to the west and appeared in India to enlighten the barbarians. However, according to written sources, Buddha lived before Confucius and Lao Tzu, and therefore his adherents declared the latter to be disciples of Buddha. By order of Mongke, Kublai, as an expert on China, held a debate in Kaiping between Buddhists and Taoists. The Taoists lost. Some of their books were burned, more than two hundred temples along with their property were transferred to Buddhists, and seventeen leading Taoists were shaved and forcibly converted to Buddhism. Such a sad outcome of the dispute for the Taoists was not accidental. Kublai's closest advisor in those years was the Buddhist Liu Bingchun, and Kublai's wife Chabi, about whom the medieval Iranian scholar Rashid ad-Din wrote that “she was very beautiful and gifted with charms and was loved by him,” was known as a zealous Buddhist.
In 1258, four Mongol armies rushed into southern China, one of them commanded by Kublai Kublai. During the campaign, the great Khan Mongke died: he was hit in the head by a stone fired from a stone thrower.
Three lay claim to the vacated throne younger brother the deceased - Kublai, Khulegu and Arik-Bug. Khulegu, who lived in Iran for a long time, decided to return to the Middle East. When choosing the Great Khan, he sympathized with Kublai. Arik-Buga was assisted by the highest officials empire and he and his army went to the possessions of Kublai Kublai. Chabi, his wife, had to organize the defense herself and urgently call her husband back from the campaign in southern China.
Kublai returned to Kaiping, where he convened a kurultai of “his people” who proclaimed him great khan. In response to this, his brother’s supporters in Mongolia elected Arik-Bugu as great khan. Kublai declared Arik-Bugu a usurper, and himself the Emperor of China, announced, following the example of the Chinese rulers, his first motto of the reign: Zhong-tong - “Center of Control”, stopped the supply of food to Mongolia and moved with his troops to Karakorum.
Arik-Buga was defeated in the battle, and two years later he decided to surrender to Kublai and arrived in Kaiping. “And so it is customary,” reports the Persian scholar, author of the “Collection of Chronicles” (1311) Rashid ad-Din, “that in such cases, during a reception, the door canopy of the tent is thrown over the shoulders of the offender and, covered in this way, he is presented to the sovereign. An hour later they gave permission, he entered... After some time, the Kagan looked at him and awakened in him family honor and brotherly feelings. Arik-Buga began to cry, the Kagan also had tears in his eyes..." Kublai forgave Arik-Buga, but executed most of him those close to you. He did not receive his brother for a year, and in 1266 Arik-Buga died (according to one version, he was poisoned).
Khubilai's troops continued to conquer southern China. In 1276, the Southern Song Emperor recognized himself as a vassal and gave state seal: "North and South have become one family." Former ruler exile to Tibet and monasticism were expected.
Khubilai took one city of southern China after another. A boy was placed on the Chinese throne, the paternal brother of the emperor taken to the north, the son of a concubine. Soon the ship on which the boy emperor sailed sank. Those who survived later testified during interrogation: the devoted dignitary Lu Xiufu took his sovereign in his arms and rushed into the sea with him. The Song Empire perished, all of China lay at the feet of Kublai Kublai.
...Following the example of the Great Xia sovereigns, Kublai presented his teacher, the Tibetan hierarch of the Sakya sect, Pagba Lama with the title di shi - mentor of the emperor, but he paid honors to him only in private, and at official meetings Pagba Lama behaved like an ordinary subject. Khan handed the scroll to Pagba Lama. On the smooth paper pasted onto the silk was written: “As a true follower of the Great Buddha, the most merciful and invincible ruler of the world... I have always shown special love for the monasteries and monks of your country... Receiving instructions from you... and as a reward for what I have learned from you, I must give you a gift. So, this letter is my gift. It grants you power over all of Tibet... Since I have been chosen to be your patron, it is your duty to carry out the teachings of the divine Buddha. With this letter, I assume the responsibility of your patron religion. The ninth day of the seventh month of the year of the water-tiger" (1254).
Historians say that the newly-minted ruler of Tibet expressed his gratitude for the high favor:
“Great Khan, I know for certain that you are the reincarnation of the Bodhisattva Manjusri, and this will be announced to Buddhists throughout the country. You are a bodhisattva great ruler Chakravartin, king of faith, turning a thousand golden wheels!
The emperors of the past, who owned only part of China - the Khitans, Tanguts, Jurchens, created their own writing. Kublai ruled all of China. He needed his letter all the more. He commissioned Pagba Lama to create it.
Paghba Lama presented Kublai with a forty-one letter script based on the Tibetan alphabet. Its letters, like Chinese characters, resembled squares. Hence the name of the letter - “square”. Its advantage was that it quite accurately conveyed both Mongolian and Chinese languages. The new state letter - vertical, was used in the preparation of official documents, texts on seals and credentials, on banknotes, and porcelain. And in addition, when writing some Chinese classical works, in particular, "Xiao Jing", a book about honoring parents and elders. But it was not accepted, and it did not supplant either the Uighur-Mongolian script or Chinese characters.
Kublai Khan is already 72 years old. He had just defeated the rebellious Nayan, a distant relative who had encountered Khaidu, driven into the northwest corner of Mongolia. Grandfather was always afraid of his own people more than strangers: there was no friendship in his grandfather’s uruk, all his relatives quarreled.
How long ago was he, in the words of Marco Polo, “of good stature, neither small nor large, of average height”; “He is moderately fat and well built, his face is white and rosy like a rose.” Now he is fat beyond any measure, flabby and caustic, like the residue of a glorious wine that has turned into vinegar. Three enemies mar his reign: bad legs, booze and disorganized finances. As for the legs, neither the doctors nor the boots made of fish skin, specially delivered from the shores of the Eastern Sea, helped. As he grew older, he consumed intoxicating drinks more and more often, violating Genghis Khan’s commandment not to get drunk again. three times per month.
What about finances? This is how he talks about the problem of shortages state budget Doctor of Historical Sciences E.I. Kychanov: “Whoever you trust, everything is wrong. For twenty years, the irrepressible womanizer Muslim Ahmed was in charge of the business. He squeezed taxes from the Chinese, but stole without measure. He even stole gem for the crown. We found this stone in his house. What if they planted it? Anything is possible. He, the emperor, was leaving the capital and the swindler was killed without him. When he returned, he had to deal with Ahmed’s body and his people. The corpse was removed from the ground, the head was cut off and displayed in the market square to the delight of the Chinese. The rest was thrown to the dogs. He executed Ahmed's sons and expelled his henchmen from service. Do not steal! I gave the finances to the Chinese Lu Shizhun. And what? Taxes became heavier, but there was still not enough money. A little over a year ago he executed this one too. Now Sanga is in charge of finances. Either Uyghur or Tibetan. He was a translator for the late Pagba Lama. Knows almost all languages. Cunning and dexterous, for some reason he loves only Korean girls. He takes bribes, but so far it seems to be in moderation. And he steals, one must think, in moderation? Oh Heaven, how to live further? He tossed and turned for a long time until he fell into a heavy sleep.
Sanga persuaded Kublai Kublai in 1287 to exchange paper money at the rate of five old banknotes for one new one. The people grumbled, taxes rose. Sang's enemies treated him as they did Ahmed. Following a denunciation, government-issued pearls were found in his house. And Sanga was executed in 1291.
Where did the money go - the taxes levied on a huge and rich country? They were devoured by the wars that Kublai waged throughout his reign. Conquest of Southern China. Confrontation with our own, with the Mongols: Arik-Buga, cousin Khaidu, nephew of Tog-Timur - they constantly disturbed the western borders of the empire. Tog-Timur was captured and executed, and Khaidu sat as a thorn in the northwestern borders.
Kublai wanted to be recognized as the ruler of all Mongol khans and the emperor of China. However, he never became the Great Khan of the Mongols. In 1256, Khubilai placed his protege Wang Jon on the throne in Korea, which he saw as a base for subjugating Japan. The Koreans knew a lot about building ships and maritime affairs. But two campaigns against Japan, which cost enormous amounts of money, ended in nothing. In 1274, a storm scattered Kublai's fleet. On the island of Kyushu, at the enemy landing sites, the Japanese erected protective walls. In 1280, Khubilai's army came ashore, but most of it was again destroyed by a typhoon. The wind, sent, as the Japanese believed, by the gods, saved Japan. And after that the East Asian world stopped believing in the invincibility of the Mongols.
The campaigns in Burma (1277, 1287), although they brought success, were so expensive! The wars in Vietnam, expeditions to Java - all this constantly drained the treasury of the Yuan Empire."
Kublai laid the foundation for the first foreign dynasty in the history of the country, which ruled all of China. After 97 years she fell. The memory of her has been carried over by the “dust of history.” As well as the grave of the founder of the dynasty. Khubilai was buried in his native Mongolia. Where exactly he found peace is unknown. It is believed that he was buried in the same place as Genghis Khan and his immediate descendants. Not once in the means mass media it was announced that this place had been discovered. But every time the sensations burst. "The Mystery of the Second Millennium" has passed into the third.
It just so happens that we all look at history, as they say, from our own bell tower. For us, Batu (in Mongolian - Batu) is a merciless conqueror, the conqueror of Rus', from whom the Horde yoke begins. However, the campaigns against Rus' were only episodes in the biography of this man. And far from the most important episodes.
Batu Khan is a man of mystery.
We don't know exactly when he was born and when he died. We don’t know why Batu led his father’s ulus, although he was not the eldest son. We can't even imagine what Batu looked like.
The only description of Batu's appearance was left to us by Guillaume de Rubruk, an envoy of the French king Louis IX. “In terms of height,” writes Rubruk, “it seemed to me that he looked like Monsieur Jean de Beaumont, may his soul rest in peace. Batu’s face was then covered with reddish spots.” And period. Unfortunately, we have no idea how tall Monsieur Jean de Beaumont was.
Mysterious lord
It is difficult for us to judge Batu's personal qualities. In Russian sources he is an undoubted fiend of hell. He is cruel, cunning and endowed with all the vices that exist. But if we take Persian, Arabic or Armenian sources, then a completely different person will appear before us. “It is impossible to count his gifts and generosity and to measure his generosity and generosity,” writes Juvaini, a Persian historian of the 13th century.
Finally, we cannot say with certainty that Batu was Genghis Khan’s own grandson. Jochi, Batu's father, was born when Genghis Khan was having some problems. His wife was captured by the Merkits, and immediately after her liberation she gave birth to a son, Jochi. Of course, there is a suspicion that she did not give birth to Genghis Khan.
“Conqueror of the Universe” recognized his son. He claimed that his wife got caught. captivity, already being pregnant. Not everyone believed. The Jochi brothers, Chagatai and Ogedei, doubted the most. One day at a feast, Chagatai began to download his license.
Do you command Jochi to be the first to speak? - Chagatai turned to his father with indignation. - How can we obey the heir of the Merkite captivity?
Jochi, of course, was offended. He and Chagatai grappled, but were separated.
“Don’t dare to utter such words in the future,” Genghis Khan concluded. But he did not make his eldest son Jochi his heir, but his third son, Ogedei.
Steppe nomads are touchy people. Resentment passes from generation to generation. The heirs of Jochi will be at enmity with the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei. But they will be friends with the heirs of Genghis Khan’s fourth son, Tolui.
In the meantime, Jochi died. According to some reports, he quarreled with his father, and he got rid of his negligent son. But the Jochi ulus remained.
Who saved Europe?
At one time, Genghis Khan allocated an ulus to each of his four sons. Ulus Jochi is the territory of present-day Kazakhstan. The lands to the west also belonged to Jochi. But they had to be conquered first. This is what Genghis Khan ordered. And his word is law.
In 1236, the Mongols began their Western Campaign and eventually reached the Adriatic Sea, conquering Rus' along the way.
We are usually interested in the invasion of Rus'. This is understandable - we live in Rus'. But the Mongols were interested in it, so to speak, only because. It, of course, needs to be conquered and imposed with tribute - that goes without saying. But there was nothing to do there. There are forests and cities. And the Mongols live in the steppe. And they were primarily interested in the Polovtsian steppe - Desht-i-Kipchak, which stretched from Hungary to the Irtysh. We call Batu's invasion the Western Campaign. And in Mongolia it was called the Kipchak campaign. 
In 1242, the Mongols finished their campaign. We don't know exactly why. Our historians often write that Batu turned east, since in his rear he had Rus' that was not completely conquered, where almost partisan movement. Thus, we saved Western Europe from the Mongol invasion.
This point of view, of course, flatters our national pride. But, alas, it is not based on any historical data.
Most likely, the Eurasian historian Georgy Vernadsky is right. Batu's army learned that the great Khan Ogedei had died in Mongolia. According to rumors, he was poisoned by some woman. This woman Western Europe and owes her salvation.
There were many Chingizid princes under Batu. They had to go to the kurultai to choose a new khan. There is no time for Western Europe here.
The campaign lasted from 1236 to 1242. Six years. After this, Batu lived another 13 or 14 years. But he did not make any more trips. He devoted these years to the development of his ulus and, let’s say, general Mongolian politics.
The capital of the Mongol Empire was, naturally, in Mongolia, in Karakorum. Batu, once he left for the Western Campaign, never returned to Mongolia. But his fate was decided there.
Power struggle
Still during Western campaign Batu had a huge quarrel with some of the princes. Here is how it was. They feasted. We drank too much. And Buri, the grandson of Chagatai, began to swear. He was supported by Guyuk, son of Ogedei, and the influential emir Argasun.
How dare Batu, who is trying to be equal to us, drink chara before anyone else? - Buri shouted. - You should hit with your heel and trample with your foot these bearded women who are trying to be equal!
Let's chop wood on the chests of these women armed with bows! - Guyuk inserted. 
Guyuk and Buri left Bata and returned to Karakorum. But Ogedei gave them a good time, even though Guyuk was his eldest son. Ogedei was so offended by Guyuk that he did not make him heir. And he ordered to transfer power to his grandson Shiramun.
After Ogedei's death, power was seized by his widow Tu-rakin. She wanted to continue to rule herself. But this is not the case when women rule. She had to convene a kurultai to elect a new khan. They chose Guyuk. That is, they violated the will of Ogedei, who wanted Shiramuna.
As we remember, Guyuk is Batu’s enemy. His election did not bode well for Batu. But he could not prevent this election - he did not have enough strength. And authority.
Batu sent his brothers to the kurultai, but he himself did not go, “citing poor health and leg disease.” Illness is, naturally, an excuse. Batu hated Guyuk; he did not at all want to kneel before him and pay other due honors. In addition, it was dangerous to travel: in Karakorum, poisoning a person is a piece of cake.
In general, Guyuk began to rule. Batu formally recognized his authority, but flatly refused to come to Karakorum and pay his respects. And Guyuk was offended. He gathered an army and moved west. Batu also gathered an army and moved east.
The Mongol Empire was on the brink of civil war. It's hard to say how it would have ended. But Guyuk died unexpectedly. Unexpectedly and very opportunely for Batu. There is every reason to suspect that Batu contributed to the death of the Great Khan. As we have already said, poisoning an opponent is a common thing for the Mongols.
Now Guyuk's widow has come to power. She was a quarrelsome and stupid woman. “More despicable than a dog,” the Mongols themselves would later say. She quarreled with everyone she could. Even with my sons.
Batu is the eldest in the Chingizid family. He is offered to become the Great Khan himself. He refuses. Not because he is modest, but because he is wise. Batu decided that a bird in the hand is better than a pie in the sky. It is better to rule your own ulus than to be a great khan in Karakorum, where there is too much intrigue and too often people die under mysterious circumstances.
But the great khan must be his own man. And Batu found such a person - Mongke, the son of Tolui, his old friend.
In essence, Batu carried out a coup d'état. He convened a kurultai not in Mongolia, as expected, but in his possessions. And his troops kept order. It should not be surprising that the one he wanted was chosen as khan - Mongke.
Batu did not forget the insults. Once upon a time at a feast he was insulted by Buri, Guyuk and Argasun. Guyuk was no longer alive, but Batu and Mongke executed his widow and sent his sons into exile. Poor Buri's head was cut off - among the Mongols this was considered a shameful execution. Argasun was also executed. And at the same time, Argasun’s father. For raising a bad son.
Genghis Khan believed that the greatest happiness in life is dealing with enemies. Batu clearly shared this view.
We don't really like Bata. But in Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan, there is Batu Khan Street. Evaluating history is a difficult matter. Depending on which side you look at...
Gleb Stashkov
Name: Genghis Khan (Temujin)
State: Mongol Empire
Field of activity: Politics, army
Greatest Achievement: United the nomadic tribes of the Mongols, created the largest empire in history by territory
The Mongol warrior and ruler Genghis Khan created the Mongol Empire, the largest in the world in terms of area in the history of mankind, uniting disparate tribes in the North East Asia.
“I am the Lord's punishment. If you have not committed mortal sins, the Lord will not send you punishment in the face of me!” Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan was born in Mongolia around 1162 and was given the name Temujin at birth. He married at the age of 16 and had many wives throughout his life. At age 20, he began building a large army with the intention of conquering individual tribes in Northeast Asia and uniting them under his rule. He succeeded: the Mongol Empire became the largest in the world, much larger than the British, and existed even after the death of Genghis Khan (1227).
Early years of Genghis Khan
Born in Mongolia around 1162, Genghis Khan received the name Temujin - the name of the Tatar leader who was captured by his father Yesugei. Young Temujin was a member of the Borjigin tribe and a descendant of Khabula Khan, who briefly united the Mongols against the Jin (Chin) dynasty in northern China in the early 1100s. According to The Secret History of the Mongols (a modern account of Mongol history), Temujin was born with a blood clot in his hand—in Mongol folklore, this was considered a sign that he was destined to become ruler of the world. His mother, Hoelun, taught him to survive in the dark, turbulent Mongol tribal society and instilled in him the need to form alliances.
When Temujin was 9 years old, his father took him to live with the family of his future bride, Borte. Returning home, Yesugei encountered a Tatar tribe. He was invited to a feast, where he was poisoned for past crimes against the Tatars. Upon learning of his father's death, Temujin returned home to claim the title of head of the clan. However, the clan refused to recognize the child as ruler and expelled Temujin and his younger and half-brothers, dooming them to a miserable existence. The family had a very hard time, and one day, in a dispute over hunting spoils, Temujin quarreled with his half-brother Bekhter and killed him, thereby establishing his position as the head of the family.
At the age of 16, Temujin married Borte, strengthening the alliance between her Konkirat tribe and his own. Soon after, Borte was kidnapped by the Merkit tribe and taken in by their leader. Temujin fought her off and soon after she gave birth to her first son, Jochi. Although Borte's capture casts doubt on Jochi's origins, Temujin accepted him as one of his own. With Borte, Temujin had four sons, as well as many other children with other wives, which was common in Mongolia at that time. However, only his sons from Borte had the right to inherit.
Genghis Khan - "Universal Ruler"
When Temujin was about 20 years old, he was captured by his family's former allies, the Taijits. One of them helped him escape, and soon Temujin, along with his brothers and several other clans, assembled his first army. So he began his slow rise to power, building a large army of more than 20 thousand people. He intended to eliminate the traditional enmity between tribes and unite the Mongols under his rule.
Superbly proficient military tactics merciless and cruel, Temujin took revenge for the murder of his father by destroying Tatar army. He ordered the death of every Tatar man taller than a cart wheel. Then, using their cavalry, Temujin's Mongols defeated the Taichiuts, killing all their leaders. By 1206, Temujin had also defeated the powerful Naiman tribe, thereby gaining control of central and eastern Mongolia.
The rapid success of the Mongol army owed much to Genghis Khan's brilliant military tactics, as well as to his understanding of the motives of his enemies. He used an extensive spy network and quickly adopted new technologies from his enemies. A well-trained Mongol army of 80,000 fighters was controlled complex system alarm - smoke and burning torches. Large drums sounded commands for charging, and further orders were transmitted by flag signals. Each soldier was fully equipped: he was armed with a bow, arrows, a shield, a dagger and a lasso. He had large saddle bags for food, tools and spare clothes. The bag was waterproof and could be inflated to prevent drowning when crossing deep and swift rivers. Cavalrymen carried a small sword, spears, body armor, a battle ax or mace, and a spear with a hook to push enemies off their horses. The Mongol attacks were very destructive. Since they could only control a galloping horse with their feet, their hands were free for archery. The entire army was followed by a well-organized supply system: food for soldiers and horses, military equipment, shamans for spiritual and medical assistance, and bookkeepers for keeping track of spoils.
After victories over the warring Mongol tribes, their leaders agreed to peace and gave Temujin the title "Genghis Khan", which means "universal ruler". The title had not only political, but also spiritual significance. The Supreme Shaman declared Genghis Khan to be the representative of Monkke Koko Tengri (“Eternal Blue Sky”), supreme god Mongols. Divine status gave him the right to claim that his destiny was to rule the world. Although, ignoring the Great Khan was tantamount to ignoring the will of God. That is why, without any doubt, Genghis Khan will say to one of his enemies: “I am the Lord’s punishment. If you have not committed mortal sins, the Lord will not send you punishment in the face of me!”
The main conquests of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan wasted no time in capitalizing on his newfound divinity. While his army was spiritually inspired, the Mongols found themselves faced with serious difficulties. Food and resources decreased as the population grew. In 1207, Genghis Khan marched his armies against the Xi Xia kingdom and forced it to surrender two years later. In 1211, Genghis Khan's armies conquered the Jin dynasty in northern China, enticed not by the artistic and scientific wonders of the great cities, but rather by endless rice fields and easy enrichment.
Although the campaign against the Jin dynasty lasted almost 20 years, Genghis Khan's armies also fought actively in the west against the border empires and the Muslim world. Initially, Genghis Khan used diplomacy to establish trade relations with the Khorezm dynasty, an empire with its head in Turkey that included Turkestan, Persia and Afghanistan. But the Mongolian diplomatic caravan was approached by the governor of Otrar, who apparently thought that this was just a cover for a spy mission. When Genghis Khan heard about this insult, he demanded that he be given a governor, and for this purpose he sent an ambassador. Shah Muhammad, the head of the Khorezm dynasty, not only refused the demand, but also refused to receive the Mongol ambassador as a sign of protest.
This event could have triggered a wave of resistance that would have spread across Central Asia and eastern Europe. In 1219, Genghis Khan personally took charge of planning and executing a three-stage attack of 200,000 Mongol soldiers against the Khwarezm dynasty. The Mongols passed through all the fortified cities unhindered. Those who survived the assault were placed as human shields in front of the Mongol army as the Mongols took the next city. No one was left alive, including small domestic animals and livestock. The skulls of men, women and children were stacked in tall pyramids. One by one, the cities were conquered, and eventually Shah Muhammad and then his son were captured and killed, ending the Khorezm dynasty in 1221.
Scholars call the period after the Khorezm campaign Mongolian. Over time, Genghis Khan's conquests connected major shopping centers China and Europe. The empire was governed by a legal code known as the Yasa. This code was developed by Genghis Khan, was based on general Mongol law, but contained decrees prohibiting blood feud, adultery, theft and perjury. Yas also contained laws that reflected Mongol respect for environment: a ban on swimming in rivers and streams, an order for any soldier following another to pick up everything that the first soldier dropped. Violation of any of these laws was usually punishable by death. Advancement through the military and government ranks was based not on traditional lines of heredity or ethnicity, but on merit. There were tax incentives for high-ranking priests and some craftsmen, and there was religious toleration that reflected the long Mongol tradition of viewing religion as a personal belief, not subject to judgment or interference. This tradition had practical use, since there were so many different religious groups in the empire that it would be quite cumbersome to impose one religion on them.
With the destruction of the Khorezm dynasty, Genghis Khan again turned his attention to the east - to China. The Xi Xia Tanguts disobeyed his orders to send troops to the Khorezm campaign and openly protested. Capturing Tangut cities, Genghis Khan eventually took the capital of Ning Hia. Soon the Tangut dignitaries surrendered one after another, and the resistance ended. However, Genghis Khan had not yet fully avenged the betrayal - he ordered the execution of the imperial family, thereby destroying the Tangut state.
Genghis Khan died in 1227, shortly after conquering Xi Xia. The exact cause of his death is unknown. Some historians claim that he fell from his horse while hunting and died from fatigue and injuries. Others claim he died from a respiratory illness. Genghis Khan was buried in a secret place according to the customs of his tribe, somewhere in his homeland, near the Onon River and the Khentii Mountains in northern Mongolia. According to legend, the funeral escort killed everyone it encountered to hide the location of the burial, and a river was built over Genghis Khan's tomb, completely blocking access to it.
Before his death, Genghis Khan entrusted top leadership to his son Ögedei, who controlled much of East Asia, including China. The rest of the empire was divided among his other sons: he took central Asia and northern Iran; Tolui, being the youngest, received a small territory from the Mongol homeland; and Jochi (who was killed before Genghis Khan's death) and his son Batu took control modern Russia And . The expansion of the empire continued and reached its peak under Ögedei's leadership. Mongol armies eventually invaded Persia, the Song Dynasty in southern China, and the Balkans. When the Mongol troops reached the gates of Vienna (Austria), Supreme Commander Batu received news of the death of the Great Khan Ogedei and returned to Mongolia. The campaign subsequently fizzled out, marking the furthest Mongol invasion of Europe.
Among the many descendants of Genghis Khan is Kublai Khan, the son of the son of Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. At a young age, Kubilai showed great interest in Chinese civilization and throughout his life he did much to incorporate Chinese customs and culture into Mongol rule. Kublai rose to prominence in 1251 when his elder brother Monkke became Khan of the Mongol Empire and appointed him governor of the southern territories. Kublai is remembered for the growth of agricultural production and the expansion of Mongolian territory. After Monkke's death, Kubilai and his other brother, Arik Boke, fought for control of the empire. After three years of tribal warfare, Kublai was victorious and became the Great Khan and Emperor of China's Yuan Dynasty.