Stonehenge is undoubtedly Britain's greatest national landmark, symbolizing mystery, power and authority. The original purpose of building Stonehenge is not clear to us, but some believe that it served as a temple for the worship of the ancient deities of the earth. It was named an astronomical observatory for marking significant events on the prehistoric calendar. Others claim that it is a sacred burial site for high-ranking citizens of ancient society.
Construction of Stonehenge
In its time, the construction of Stonehenge was an impressive feat of engineering, requiring commitment, time and a huge amount of manual labor. The first phase of Stonehenge's construction, about 5,000 years ago, involved heavy excavation work to dig a ditch. It is believed that the ditch was dug using deer antler tools and possibly wooden objects.
Blue stones
Around 2000 BC, construction began on the first stone circle, which is now the inner circle, consisting of small blue stones. The stones used in this are believed to have been quarried from the mountains located approximately 240 miles on the southwestern tip of Wales. During construction, about 80 stones weighing up to 4 tons were used, given the distance they had to travel, this presented a rather difficult transport problem.
Modern theories suggest that the stones were dragged by rollers and sleds down the mountain to the headwaters of the Milford Haven River. There they were loaded onto rafts, barges or boats and sailed along the south coast of Wales and then to the River Avon and Frome to a point near modern Somerset. From this point of view, so the theory goes, the stones were then dragged overland to Warminster in Wiltshire, about 6 miles away. From there they were slowly transported along the River Villiers to Salisbury, then up the Salisbury Avon to West Amsbury, and a further 2 miles to the site of Stonehenge.
Construction of the outer circle
The giant Sarsen stones that form the outer circle weighed up to 50 tons each. Transporting them from the Marlborough Hills, about 20 miles north, is an even bigger problem than moving the bluestone. For most of the route, they could traverse with relative ease, but at the steepest part of the route, on Red Horn Hill, modern research estimates that at least 600 men would have been needed to get every stone over this obstacle.
Who built Stonehenge?
The question of who built Stonehenge is largely unanswered, even today, but the most fascinating theory is that the Druids built it. This erroneous claim was first made about 3 centuries ago by the antiquarian John Aubrey. Julius Caesar and other Roman writers tell of the sacred Celts who flourished at the time of their first conquest (55 BC). By this time, however, the stones had been standing for 2000 years, and were, perhaps, already in a ruined state. In addition, the Druids worshiped in forest temples and did not have the need to build stone structures.
According to the 17th-century architect Inigo Jones, Stonehenge is a gigantic remnant of a Roman temple. This theory, according to contemporaries, is pure fiction.
In the 19th century, there was an opinion that Stonehenge was built by giants who could carry huge stones weighing several tons. The ancient Greeks believed that this megalithic monument was built by one-eyed Cyclops. The Saxons even thought that giant stones could move independently, only with the help of a “magic word.”
Recently, astronomers who consider themselves to be the “discoverers” of the mystery of Stonehenge have formulated a hypothesis that the megalithic monument is an ancient computing mechanism - an astronomical calendar or an astronomical calculator. Its arrangement of stones is directly related to the movement of the Sun and other planets.
Undoubtedly, Stonehenge is an amazing structure that can easily be classified among other wonders of the world and mysterious monoliths, such as mystical ones. In recent decades, millions of people around the world have visited Stonehenge. Enterprising Americans even thought of making an exact copy of the miracle in New Jersey.
STONE WOMEN - SCYTHIAN STATUES?
Stone sculptures on the hills have long been a characteristic feature of the southern steppe. These silent idols were called “boobs”, “balbals”, “mamai”, “lighthouses”, but most often - “stone women”. Where and how did they come from? Which people do they belong to? In honor of whom were they installed, and what do they symbolize?
According to legends, not long ago in the steppes beyond the Dnieper rapids lived velikdons - gigantic creatures, under whose heavy steps even the rocky slopes of the mountains groaned. Their life passed in darkness as thick as tar, because the light in the sky had not yet shone. When the sun suddenly appeared, the Velikdons became alarmed and, rising to the tops of the steppe mounds, began to spit on the fireball above their heads. But the gods cursed the Velikdons for this and turned them into stone idols, which remained standing on the mounds.
Scythian sculptures, as a rule, date back to the 6th-3rd centuries BC. e. Their distribution area is quite significant - from Romania to the Caucasus. Mostly all images of Scythians show bearded men. In compositional and artistic terms, they are made primitively.
Scythian statues are surprisingly varied in style. Among them there are archaic steles and more advanced statues, almost examples of round sculpture. Despite the stylistic diversity, they have one thing in common: they all depict warriors with weapons: swords, daggers, bows. Moreover, not just warriors as such, but, given the stylish nature of the statues, the progenitor of all Scythian warriors, the “Scythian Adam” - Targitai.
On the stele-like bodies of Scythian statues, as usual, three or four objects are depicted: a horn, a burn, a dagger or a sword. The horn is placed in the right hand at chest level, the fire is on the left side, and the dagger or sword is in the left hand at waist level. Similar attributes are also found in Turkic stone statues found in Siberia. They hold a cup in their right hand and a dagger in their left. The absence of a beard and, on the contrary, the image of a mustache also emphasizes the similarity of the Scythian statues with the Turkic ones.
For example, Cuman statues depict both female and male warriors in sitting and standing poses. A mandatory attribute of each statue is a bowl with a sacred drink in hands, pressed to the stomach. The statues carefully depict hairstyle, clothing, jewelry and weapons in all details. The sacred character of the Polovtsian women is beyond doubt. They stood in groups of two, three or more on mounds and hills that served as temples.
Stone women from the collection of the Dnepropetrovsk Historical Museum |
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The collection of ancient stone sculptures, or “stone women,” as they are popularly called, is undoubtedly one of the most striking and original collections of the Dnepropetrovsk Historical Museum. This is one of the largest collections of ancient stone sculpture in Ukraine - 80 statues! It is not only the number of sculptures that is striking, but also their chronological and cultural diversity.
The collection contains anthropomorphic steles from the Chalcolithic era (3rd millennium BC), both simple and unique, which have no analogues in any European museum - the Natalevskoe and Kernosovskoe sculptures. Original Scythian statues of the 6th - 4th centuries. BC.
But the collection is dominated, of course, by medieval Polovtsian statues - 67! It is their appearance and peculiar features that, first of all, remain in the memory of museum visitors; it is to them that all the stone statues of the southern Ukrainian steppes owe their name - “women” (from the Turkic “vava” - ancestor, grandfather).
The most unique monument in the museum’s collection of stone sculptures is the Kernosov sculpture, or Kernosov idol, an anthropomorphic stele from the Chalcolithic era (mid-3rd millennium BC). It is unique in all respects: the antiquity of its origin, the perfection of the manufacturing technique, the amazing elegance of the outlines, the proportionality of the proportions, and, finally, the extraordinary richness of images on the surface. The Kernosov idol deserves not even a separate article, but a whole book, which has yet to be written by future researchers.
If you try to talk about it briefly, then, apparently, this is an image of a proto-Aryan deity imprinted in stone - the creator of the world, the giver of life and prosperity. The face of the deity is indicated, strict and ascetic, hands raised up with the attributes of supreme power are shown. On the edges of the stele, in individual drawings and entire compositions, scenes from myths, dedicated to the times of creation and exploration of the world, are depicted, in all likelihood. In the appearance of the Kernosov idol, zoomorphic features can be traced: a tail on the back, a frequently encountered image of a bull on the surface of the statue itself.
In the pantheon of ancient Aryan gods, the features of the image of a bull, fierce, strong, were most often endowed with Indra - a formidable warrior, guardian and multiplier of herds, the god of thunderstorms.
Scythian statues are surprisingly varied in style. There are both archaic steles and more advanced statues, almost examples of round sculpture.
Despite the stylistic diversity, they have one thing in common: they all depict warriors with weapons: swords, daggers, bows. Moreover, not just warriors as such, but, given the stylish nature of the statues, the progenitor of all Scythian warriors, the “Scythian Adam” - Targitai.
But still, “the tone” is set, as mentioned above, by medieval Turkic Polovtsian statues. All of them, except one sculpture, date back to the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries, the time of the highest flowering of Polovtsian monumental art.
The large number of Polovtsian statues can be explained very simply - in the Middle Ages, in the 11th-14th centuries, the steppes of the Dnieper Nadporozhye became a refuge for Polovtsian (or Kipchak) nomadic tribes who came to Eastern Europe from across the Volga from Asia. In the area of the rapids along the banks of the Dnieper, there was the largest association of Polovtsians - the Dnieper Horde. It was here, in the tall grasses of Desht-i-Kipchak - Polovtsian Land (as the Polovtsian-Kipchaks called their new homeland), the smoke of nomads smoked, the rounded stone hills of ancestral burial mounds, like the backs of turtles, rose, on the tops of which stone statues of ancestors were installed .
Among the Turkic tribes, the names of stone sculptures that still exist today arose - women, blockheads (from the Iranian “palvan” - hero, athlete), balbals (“bal-bal” - stone with an inscription).
D.I. Yavornitsky, in the article “Stone Women”, published in the “Historical Bulletin” in 1890, reported that in Ukraine for a long time, right up to the 18th century, there were such names for stone statues as “Mamai”, “Maryina stones” .
He retells the legend about the origin of the stone women: “Once upon a time there lived giant heroes. They got angry at the sun and started spitting on it. The sun became angry and turned the giants into stones.”
Indeed, many Polovtsian statues represent male warriors in helmets, armor, and weapons: sabers, bows, quivers. The same expressive female statues are in hats, richly decorated suits, with mirrors and handbags at their waists. All Polovtsian statues hold a vessel in their hands, apparently intended for ritual libations.
The faces of the statues are very expressive - all men with mustaches, some have stern, gloomy faces, while some have a dazzling smile imprinted on them. The women's faces also do not leave you indifferent: the expression of timidity, humility and then the faces of proud greatness.
Polovtsian statues, like all the stone sculptures of the “Kurgan peoples” that preceded them, are dedicated to ancestors, progenitors, givers of life, prosperity, and fertility. Despite the clearly portrait features, the statues do not depict specific people, but legendary individuals with the features of gods and heroes, and, perhaps, in some cases, directly, gods and heroes.
The statues were installed on mounds or near them, that is, in sacred places, such as family burial grounds, where the ashes of ancestors rested and the cycle of life and death took place.
Stone women did not stand out of nowhere; they were an organic part of memorial and burial sanctuaries, the architecture of which from the Chalcolithic era (the time of their appearance on the mounds) to the Middle Ages was distinguished by simplicity and expressiveness.
It was a system of stone fences with rectangular outlines (squares, trapezoids, etc.), often surrounded by a ditch, with sacrificial pits and pavements inside. Here they made sacrifices, ritual libations and incense - the aroma of sacred herbs mixed with the aroma of sacrificial food and rose up into the sky, to the gods and ancestors along the trunks of sacred trees through stone statues (the latter were the equivalent of cosmic trees). The idea of a connecting link between the worlds of people and gods can be clearly seen in the semantics of stone statues of all times and peoples.
Not only the history of the origin and purpose of the stone statues in the museum’s collection deserves attention, but also the biography and history of the origin of the entire collection as a whole. Its age, like the age of the Dnepropetrovsk Historical Museum, is 150 years!
Stone women began to arrive at the museum in the middle of the 19th century. Even then, in the first years of the museum’s existence, the collection was quite large. At least the Ekaterinoslav Museum allowed itself to make a generous gift to the Odessa Archaeological Museum - 13 Polovtsian statues.
The collection of stone women experienced a special flourishing under D.I. Yavornitsky, the former director of the Ekaterinoslav Museum in the first half of the 20th century (1902 - 1933). A photograph has been preserved in which D.I. Yavornitsky is captured in his office, surrounded by stone women.
The growth of the collection and the addition of new statues continues to this day. In recent years, the museum has received more than 10 new sculptures from different times and peoples, but serious difficulties with storing the collection have stopped its growth. The difficult environmental situation in the city turned out to be equally disastrous for both people and the creations of their hands: the statues began to collapse catastrophically quickly. There was an urgent need for their restoration (this began in the 80s, but was suspended due to lack of funds), and for the construction of a special pavilion - a lapidarium - to store the stone women. Unfortunately, at present the museum is not yet able to solve any of these problems for well-known reasons. Now we can only state: the largest collection of stone women in Ukraine is under threat of death, it needs emergency help - said L. N. Churilova, senior researcher at the Dnepropetrovsk Historical Museum, back in 1999.
There are other legends that explain the appearance of stone idols in the southern steppes. The most common version is that they are a kind of steppe lighthouses.
« We passed seven lighthouses - more than twenty images carved from stone that stood on mounds or graves...“These are lines from the travel diary of the ambassador of the Austrian Emperor Erich Lasota, who in 1594 passed along the Dnieper.
Other travelers of the past also mentioned stone sculptures on steppe mounds as a kind of road storytellers and milestones. Perhaps, in ancient times, people specifically installed stone sculptures in the most conspicuous and remarkable steppe places to make it easier to navigate the deserted boundless space? The statues seemed to map the monotony of the steppe plane and mark the places of camps and settlements...
It is possible that the giant stone statues were kind of steppe lighthouses, past which roads later ran. In this regard, the obelisk steles of the Cimmerians are noteworthy. They have almost no sculptural or ornamental details. Actually, these are just pillars that can be called memorial, mileposts. One of these Cimmerian obelisks (only about a dozen of them were discovered in Ukraine) was found near the village of Verkhnyaya Khortitsa (Zaporozhye city). At the top of the stele there are beads with large diamond-shaped and oval beads. Perhaps the beads symbolize the expanses of the steppe, and the beads indicate noticeable and memorable tracts or, say, the number of days required to move from one area to another...
These are, so to speak, “earthly” versions of the origin of stone women. But along with them, there are also legends that the giant stone idols, which were worshiped by the steppe peoples, before which even powerful leaders and shamans trembled, are deified statues of space aliens.
From generation to generation, legends were passed down among the steppe people about strange creatures that descended from the sky in a large closed boat. And supposedly ancient sculptors left us images of space aliens in stone. Indeed, some sculptures surprisingly resemble an astronaut packed in a spacesuit - a massive straight body, a large head - a helmet without a neck.
Archaeologists identify a whole group of such specific large-headed, neckless sculptures. One of them (perhaps the most characteristic) was found on a small mound in the Dnieper region, near the village of Georgievki, Zaporozhye district, Zaporozhye region.
It is curious that on the flat front part of the head there are no indications of ears, nose, mouth, eyes - facial features that are usually difficult to see behind the glass of a helmet. The arms, lowered down and fused with the body, are highlighted by two slightly rounded lines. It seems that it is not the hands themselves that are shown, but a detail (sleeves) of some unusual costume. The sculpture belongs to the Sarmatian period. There are “space” statues from an earlier period. For example, researchers identify a separate group of stele-statues from the Copper Age of the so-called non-standard type. The large head is not clearly defined in them, and the shoulders are not shown. It seems that there is some kind of protective shell on top of the body. It is not surprising that the steppe people saw in these sculptures the heavenly gods who once visited the Earth.
The most mysterious are the oldest stone statues dating back to 4 - 3 thousand BC. Their legs were almost never carved. Instead, foot prints are clearly visible in the lower part (sometimes they are tucked into the belt). But we can only guess what meaning the ancient sculptors of the Eneolithic (Copper Age) put into their image.
As well as why on the steppe mounds there are so many stone statues that look like a phallus carved from stone.
On the first map of the Russian Empire - the “Book of the Larger Drawing” - when marking roads in the southern steppes, ancient stone idols are marked as “stone girls”. There really was something feminine in the appearance of the stone sculptures, so first travelers, itinerant traders, Cossacks, and then scientists began to call them “women.”
Most of all, the stone women of the Polovtsians have survived (some medieval authors called them Komans or Kipchaks). “The Komans build a large mound over the deceased and erect a statue of him, facing the east and holding a cup in his hand in front of the navel,” noted the Dutch monk William of Rubruck, who visited the Ukrainian steppes in 1250 on his way to Mongolia.
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The largest number of Polovtsian sculptures was found there - more than two hundred. These are fully formed, standing or seated sculptures made of sandstone, limestone, granite or chalk. Almost everyone is wearing expensive clothes, jewelry, weapons, and household items. The arms of most statues are folded under a large, drooping belly.
There seems to be no doubt that these are women, with prominent convex breasts and braids, and some other details. But since the same female “elements” are also indicated on male statues, researchers are inclined to think that the majority of Polovtsian “women” still belong to the “peasant” clan-tribe. They were installed in honor of the leaders of the nobility and great warriors. By the way, in Turkic dialects the word “baba” means father.
However, the special, far from secondary role of women in the life of wild nomads cannot be denied. It’s not for nothing that the proud, warlike Amazon tribe also comes from the southern steppes.
The most famous stone historical and archaeological monuments created by man include the pyramids of Giza, Stonehenge, dolmens, idols of Easter Island and stone balls of Costa Rica.
Today I would like to bring to your attention a selection of not so famous, but no less interesting stone historical and archaeological structures of antiquity.
Valley of the Jars in Laos
The Valley of Jugs is a group of unique sites that contain unusual historical and archaeological monuments - huge stone jugs. These mysterious objects are located in Xiang Khouang province, Laos. Thousands of gigantic stone vessels are scattered among the dense tropical flora. The size of the jugs ranges from 0.5 to 3 meters, and the weight of the largest reaches 6 thousand kg. Most giant stone pots are cylindrical in shape, but oval and rectangular jars are also found. Round disks were found next to the unusual vessels, which were presumably used as lids for them. These pots were made from granite, sandstone, rock and calcined coral. Scientists suggest that the age of the stone bowls is 1500 – 2000 years.
The territory of the valley includes more than 60 sites on which groups of gigantic vessels are located. All the platforms are stretched along one line, which may be evidence that there used to be an ancient trade route here, which was served by platforms with jugs. The largest number of jars is concentrated in the city of Phonsavan; this place is called the “First Site”, on which there are about 250 vessels of various sizes.
There are a huge number of theories and assumptions regarding who created such unique vessels and for what purposes. According to scientists, these jugs were used by the ancient people living in southeast Asia, whose culture and customs still remain unknown. Historians and anthropologists suggest that the huge jars could have been funerary urns and were used in funeral rituals. There is a version that food was stored in them, another version says that rainwater was collected in the vessels, which was used by trade caravans. Laotian legends say that these gigantic jugs were used as ordinary utensils by the giants who lived here in ancient times. Well, the version of local residents says that rice wine was made and stored in megalithic jugs. No matter how many versions and theories are put forward, the Valley of the Jugs undoubtedly remains an unsolved mystery.
National Historical and Archaeological Reserve "Stone Grave"
The historical and archaeological reserve “Stone Grave”, which is located near the city of Melitopol on the banks of the Molochnaya River and is a world monument of ancient culture in Ukraine. These are the remains of sandstone of the Sarmatian Sea; as a result of natural transformations, a unique stone monolith gradually formed in this place, in which caves and grottoes were formed over thousands of years, which ancient people used for religious purposes. Rock paintings and stone tablets with ancient writings, mysterious signs and images dating back to the 22nd – 16th millennium BC have survived to this day.
The stone grave is located 2 km from the village of Mirnoye, Melitopol district, Zaporozhye region and is a pile of stones with an area of about 30,000 square meters. meters, up to 12 meters high. The shape of the pile resembles a mound (Ukrainian grave), hence its name. The stone grave at first was probably a sandstone shoal of the Sarmatian Sea, the only sandstone outcrop in the entire Azov-Black Sea depression, which makes it a unique geological formation
No human settlements that can be associated with the monument were found either in the Stone Grave itself or in the immediate vicinity of it. Based on this, the researchers conclude that the stone grave was used exclusively for religious purposes, as a sanctuary
Arkaim
Arkaim is a fortified settlement of the Middle Bronze Age at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., related to the so-called. "Land of Cities" Located on an elevated cape formed by the confluence of the Bolshaya Karaganka and Utyaganka rivers, 8 km north of the village of Amursky, Bredinsky district and 2 km southeast of the village of Aleksandrovsky, Kizilsky district, Chelyabinsk region. The settlement and the adjacent territory with a whole complex of archaeological monuments of different times is a natural landscape and historical and archaeological reserve - a branch of the Ilmensky State Reserve named after V. I. Lenin, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The monument is distinguished by the unique preservation of defensive structures, the presence of synchronous burial grounds and the integrity of the historical landscape.
In the summer of 1987, archaeologists from Chelyabinsk State University conducted routine surveys of archaeological sites in the Bolshekaragan Valley, in the southwest of the Chelyabinsk region. The valley was supposed to be flooded in order to create a large reservoir there for neighboring state farms. The builders were in a hurry, and archaeologists hastily compiled a map of ancient monuments for posterity, so as never to return here again. But the attention of the researchers was attracted by the ramparts, which, as it turned out, surrounded the settlement of an unusual type - these had not been found in the steppe zone before. During the study, it became clear that the monument was a settlement created according to a pre-thought-out plan, with a clear urban planning idea, complex architecture and fortification.
Over the next few years, another 20 such settlements were discovered, which made it possible to talk about the discovery of an interesting ancient culture, which received the code name “Land of Cities.”
In science, this archaeological culture is called Arkaim-Sintashta. The significance of the discovery of Arkaim and other fortified settlements of this type is indisputable, as it provided completely new data on the migration routes of the Indo-Europeans and made it possible to prove that 4 thousand years ago a fairly highly developed culture existed in the South Ural steppes. The Arkaim people were engaged in metallurgy and metalworking, weaving, and pottery. The basis of their economy was cattle breeding.
The fortified settlements of the Arkaim-Sintashta culture date back to the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. They are five to six centuries older than Homeric Troy, contemporaries of the first dynasty of Babylon, the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the Cretan-Mycenaean culture of the Mediterranean. The time of their existence corresponds to the last centuries of the famous civilization of India - Mahenjo-Daro and Harappa.
Stone monuments in the Ulytau mountains
Archaeologists have discovered groups of stone sculptures and rock paintings with images of sabers, daggers, dishes and much more.
Particularly unique are the stone sculptures - balbals, which were placed in front of the stone statues of warriors; a string of balbals is placed in front of the commanders. Sometimes their number reaches 200.
Along with male statues, female ones were also installed. Depending on the age of the person, they are called “girl-stone”, “woman-stone”, “old woman-stone”. That is why there is another Slavic name for balbals - stone women.
Archaeological site of Gunung Padang
The sacred mountain Gunung Padang is located in Bandung, West Java. The “Mountain of Light” (or “Mountain of Enlightenment”) is a mountain on the top and slope of which a multi-tiered complex of structures with a main pyramid on top was discovered.
The Dutch were the first to notice it in 1914. In their report, the colonial Archaeological Service referred to it as Mount Gunung Padang (Mountain of Enlightenment), to the top of which local residents climb for meditation. She flashed for the second time in 1949, after which she disappeared for exactly 30 years. Only in 1979 did scientists – geographers and geologists – climb to its summit.
At the top of the mountain they found hundreds of stone blocks of regular shape, arranged in a certain order.
In addition to the obvious division of Mount Padang into five levels, megaliths scattered throughout the entire height of the mountain, an area of 900 square meters, andesite columns, etc., research has shown the presence of a hollow chamber. The chamber measures 10 m in width, height and length.
It is widely believed that it is located in the “heart of the Mountain”.
The distance to the cavity is 25 meters from the rotation. Soil samples recovered by drilling indicate the age of the structure in the range from 20,000 to 22,000 BC.
Ancient stones of Great Britain
Men-En-Tol, Cornwall - a mysterious stone that has seemingly stood forever in the Penwith swamps.
Callanish, located on the Isle of Lewis in the Great Hebrides archipelago, is currently the largest monument of megalithic culture in the British Isles. The reconstructed form of the "Callanish stones" was established presumably during the Neolithic period, approximately between 2.9 and 2.6 thousand years BC. Experts note that previously (until 3000 there was a sanctuary here).
Callanish is formed by thirteen vertically standing monuments or groups of stones that form circles up to thirteen meters in diameter. The average height of the stones is 4 meters, but can vary between 1-5 meters. The stones are cut from local gneiss. In terms of popularity, the Callanish stones can compete with Stonehenge.
Avebury, Wittshire. Local farmers routinely herd sheep among Stonehenge's coeval sites, which date back to 2500 BC.
Circle of Brodgar, Stromness, Orkney - Britain's answer to the pyramids of Egypt. The Stones period dates back to 3000 BC. Only 27 of the 60 sculptures remain.
Rolleith Stones, Oxfordshire.
Bryn Selley, Anglesey, Wales. Wales is rich in ancient stone deposits, but the most famous pagan structure is, of course, Bryn Seley (“Dark Room Mound”). On the island of Anglesey it appeared during the Neolithic period (4000 years ago).
Arbor Low, Midleton-on-Yolgreave, Derbyshire. 50 stones stand silently on the Arbor Low plateau, a short drive from Bakewell.
Castlerigg, Keswick, Lake District
Nine Stones, Dartmoor.
Megaliths of the Urals
Vera Island on Lake Turgoyak.
Megaliths of Vera Island - a complex of archaeological monuments (megaliths - chamber tombs, dolmens and menhirs) on an island in Lake Turgoyak (near Miass) in the Chelyabinsk region. The island is located near the western shore of the lake and, at low water levels, is connected to the shore by an isthmus, turning into a peninsula.
The megaliths were presumably built about 6000 years ago, in the 4th millennium BC. uh
Cult site Island of Faith.
The largest structure on the island is megalith No. 1 - a stone structure measuring 19x6 m, cut into the rocky ground and covered with massive stone slabs. The walls of the structure are made using dry masonry from massive stone blocks. The megalith consists of three chambers and corridors connecting them. In two chambers of the megalith, rectangular pits were found carved into the rock. The connection between the building and the main astronomical directions has been recorded. The building is tentatively interpreted as a temple complex.
Architectural complex at the bottom of the Chinese Lake Fuxian
The pyramid was found at the bottom of the Chinese lake Fuxian (southwestern Yunnan province).
Its height is 19 m, the length of the side of the base is 90 m. The structure is built of stone slabs and has a stepped structure. At the bottom of the lake there are about a dozen more similar objects and about 30 structures of other types. The area of the entire architectural complex is about 2.5 square meters. km. From the bottom of the lake, archaeologists recovered a clay vessel, which, according to experts, was made during the Eastern Han Dynasty, which ruled from 25 to 220 AD, Xinhua reports.
In the stone circle of an ancient cemetery, in a place of worship of old, forgotten and eternal gods, pulsating with ancient magic and power, the Wall Crawler raised his hands and a bloody knife. And he screamed. Jubilantly. Wild. Inhuman.
Everything around froze in horror.
Andrzej Sapkowski "God's Warriors"
Among the windy heaths, above the heather, under the low, restless sky - hieroglyphs on gray stone. Worn out by time, lost, alien to our world, thrown into it from another, unknown reality, separated by the abyss of centuries. Carrying the stamp of eternity, the wreckage of forgotten eras has survived more than one generation of legends, in which there is no longer a drop of truth. But still filled with strange strength and invincible greatness. Awe-inspiring even now. Megaliths.
Megaliths (“big stones”) are usually called prehistoric structures made of huge stone blocks connected without the use of mortar. But this definition is very imprecise. A significant part of archaeological sites classified as megaliths are not, in the strict sense, structures at all, since they consist of a single monolith or several slabs not connected to each other.
In addition, the stones of megalithic buildings are not always large. Finally, some buildings that were built already in historical times are often classified as megaliths, but either using cyclopean blocks (the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek) or without the use of mortar (Machu Picchu in Peru, 16th century).
What then unites the megaliths? Perhaps monumental and an aura of mystery. Megalith is the creation of a departed, often nameless people. This is a message from the unimaginably distant “pre-legendary” past. Monument to an unknown builder.
ETERNAL STONES
Alien, surreal, and contrary to all known principles of architecture, the appearance of megaliths feeds the vast “modern mythology” full of Atlanteans, Hyperboreans and other representatives of highly developed civilizations that have sunk into oblivion. But there are at least two reasons not to take such speculation seriously. Firstly, they still do not provide a clear explanation for the appearance of megaliths. Secondly, the real secrets of history are more interesting than the imaginary ones.
The simplest megaliths, those that cannot yet be considered structures, include the sacred stones of seida and menhirs - oblong, roughly processed blocks vertically stuck into the ground, broken off from the rock. A little later they are replaced by orthostats, distinguished by their flat shape and the presence of at least one carefully smoothed edge on which magical signs were drawn or carved.
Single menhirs and seids, as a rule, served as objects of worship. Sacrifices were made near the largest Rudston monolith in England, 7.6 meters high, decorated with fossilized dinosaur tracks. On the plains, glacial blocks always attracted attention and, quite possibly, could be considered the house of the spirit or the weapon of the ancestor. Smaller menhirs usually served as tombstones for leaders. In any case, it was for this purpose that the last of them under the camera was installed at the beginning of the last century in Indonesia. The largest cluster of 3,000 orthostats is the Carnac Stones in Brittany, a prehistoric cemetery.
In some cases, menigirs were placed in a group, forming a circle of cromlechs marking the boundaries of the cult place. Often, in the center of the decorative fence, a platform lined with stone was found, on which the bodies of the dead were burned or animals and captives were sacrificed. Ceremonies, meetings, celebrations and other public events could also be held here. Cults changed. Cromlechs are more durable than religions.
The use of megalithic structures as observatories is also possible. To accurately determine the position of the Moon and the Sun (from the shadow), unshakable landmarks were required. Menhirs placed in a circle fulfilled this role. It should be noted that in the Middle Ages, observatories had a similar structure.
Already in ancient times, people sought diversity and were not afraid of experiments. An epochal step forward, a real breakthrough in stone architecture, were thauls - structures made of a large stone mounted on a small one. Then trilithons appeared - arches of three stones - the beauty and pride of Stonehenge. The stability and durability of these structures led primitive builders to the idea of building dolmens - the first stone buildings in human history.
There are a lot of mysteries associated with dolmens, as well as with other simple megaliths. For example, they can never be associated with any specific archaeological culture - that is, with an ancient people whose migrations are tracked by scientists using characteristic ceramics, arrowheads and other finds. The stone does not reveal the age of the building and does not say anything about the creators. Determining the date of the appearance of a dolmen, as a rule, is possible only with an accuracy of several centuries. And during such a period of time, the population of the country changed more than once. The artifacts discovered in and around the structure do not say anything, since it is known that megaliths, passing from hand to hand, remained “in use” for thousands of years.
What can also be quite puzzling is the fact that similar, almost identical megaliths are scattered over a huge area - from the Caucasus to Portugal and from the Orkney Islands to Senegal. In this regard, even a version was put forward about a certain “dolmen culture”, whose representatives once inhabited all these territories. But the hypothesis was not confirmed. No traces of such people were found. Moreover, it was discovered that the age of two identical dolmens located next to each other can differ by a couple of thousand years.
In fact, the similarity of dolmens from different countries is explained by the fact that the idea lying on the surface naturally occurred to many people. Any child could make a “house” by placing four flat stones on an edge and placing a fifth one on top of them. Or cover the hole in the stone with a flat block (trough-shaped dolmen). Admiring his creation, the young architect grew up, became a leader and encouraged his fellow tribesmen to build a life-size structure.
One thing can be said with certainty: the appearance of the first megaliths is associated with the transition of the population to a sedentary lifestyle. Wandering hunters had no desire to move the boulders they encountered during migrations. And the groups of people were too small to carry out large-scale work. The first farmers had the opportunity to engage in capital construction. The only thing missing was experience. And for a long time they couldn’t think of anything better than digging two stones into the ground and placing a third on them.
Apparently, the dolmens were crypts. In some of them the remains of hundreds of people were found. The decayed bones formed layer after layer, and new graves were dug right in the resulting mass. Other dolmens are completely empty. Probably, over the past millennia, someone took the trouble to clean them out.
| Path in the labyrinth | |
| A special category of megaliths are flat cairns - lines or drawings laid out from small stones. This includes numerous “stone boats” - Viking burials made in the shape of a ship outlined by boulders, and a unique “stone eagle” - an image of a bird with outstretched wings, created by an unknown tribe of North American Indians. But the most famous flat cairns are the “labyrinths” found in Scandinavia, Finland, England, northern Russia and even on Novaya Zemlya. Rows of stones form an intricate, spiraling path. These are the least noticeable and, at the same time, extremely impressive megaliths. For the labyrinth is a powerful symbol that weaves together reality. The path to the land of spirits is winding. Who left these stone seals, unsolved signs on the northern, meager land? Like most megaliths, labyrinths are anonymous. Sometimes they are associated with the proto-Sami tribes, but the Sami themselves know nothing about spirals. In addition, labyrinths are widespread far beyond the boundaries of the settlement of the ancestors of this people. The Nenets have a separate opinion on this issue, who consider the flat cairns to be the work of the Sirtya - a short, stocky people of blacksmiths who have long gone underground. |
But sooner or later, building simple stone boxes ceased to be satisfying. The dolmen is impressive enough to glorify an individual clan, but not enough to become the pride and cult center of an entire tribal union. People already wanted more. At least just in size.
Individual dolmens began to line up in a long corridor, often with side branches. Sometimes two corridors connected by passages were built. Natural slabs were difficult to match in shape, and for the construction of “walls” masonry began to be used, as in composite dolmens, or solid polished blocks, as in tiled ones.
But even in this case, the structure did not seem majestic enough. Therefore, a colossal cairn was poured on top of the “multi-series” dolmens - an artificial structure in the form of a pile of stones. In order to prevent the pyramid from settling, it was “propped up” with a ring of orthostats along its perimeter. If there was more than one belt, the result was something similar to a ziggurat. The scale of Neolithic gigantomania can be judged by the fact that such structures, which had long ago taken the form of sloping hills, were in modern times operated as quarries for decades before workers discovered the internal chambers.
The most impressive of the Neolithic monuments are now called “corridor tombs” or “megalithic temples.” But the same structure could combine functions or change them over time. In any case, the mounds were poorly suited for rituals. It was too cramped inside. Therefore, cairns continued to coexist with cromlechs until people learned to build real temples, under the arches of which not only priests, but also believers could fit.
The era of megaliths, which began in prehistoric times, has no clear boundaries. It did not end, but only gradually faded away as construction technologies improved. Even in relatively later eras, when the methods of constructing an arch became known, and buildings were built from cut stone and brick, the demand for giant blocks did not disappear. They continued to be used, but rather as a decorative element. And even knowing how to fasten stones with mortar, architects did not always find it necessary to do this. After all, polished stones, fitted to each other, equipped with protrusions and grooves, looked better. Finally, even an unprocessed block sometimes turned out to be in place. The boulder that serves as the base for the equestrian statue of Peter I in St. Petersburg is a typical megalith.
| Titan Towers | |
| Scottish Borchs and Mediterranean Nuraghes are relatively late megaliths, dating back to the Bronze Age. They are towers made of small unprocessed stones without the use of mortar. And the fact that many of these structures, held together only by the weight of the material, still stand today evokes great respect for the builders. The creation of the Borkhs is attributed to the Picts, and the Nuraghes to the Chardins. But both versions are not indisputable. In addition, all that remains of these peoples themselves are the names given to them by foreign chroniclers. The origins and customs of the Picts and Chardins are unknown. And this makes it even more difficult to unravel the purpose of numerous (more than 30,000 nuraghes were built in Sardinia alone) but non-functional structures. Brochs resemble fortifications, but were hardly used for defense because they did not have loopholes and could not accommodate a sufficient number of defenders. They did not light a fire, did not live in them, did not bury the dead and did not store supplies. The objects found in the towers belong almost exclusively to the Celts, who settled Scotland centuries later and tried to come up with some use for the towers. However, they were no more successful than archaeologists. |
SECRETS OF THE BIG STONE
The question remains “how”. How did people deliver huge stones without heavy equipment, how did they lift them, how did they cut them? It is these mysteries that inspire the authors of alternative hypotheses. Which, however, is based on a banal lack of imagination. It is difficult for an unprepared person to imagine how barbarians use stone tools to hew a giant block and manually set it in place. Anyone can imagine how the Atlanteans who have disappeared to who knows where are doing all this for unknown reasons and in an unknown way is within the power of anyone.
But the alternative reasoning contains a fundamental flaw. With cranes and diamond saws, we do not use huge stone monoliths. This is irrational. More convenient materials are now available. Megaliths were built by people who were simply not yet capable of building otherwise.
The stone is really difficult to work with other stone or copper. Therefore, only in the Iron Age did they begin to build from relatively compact hewn “bricks”. After all, the smaller the block, the larger its relative surface. So the Egyptians did not at all seek to complicate their work by using one-and-a-half and two-ton blocks to build the pyramids, which, of course, were not easy to transport and lift. On the contrary, they made it as easy as possible. After all, with the reduction of blocks, the costs of their production would increase sharply, but transportation costs would decrease slightly.
The same weight would have to be transferred. The creators of megaliths thought the same way.
Assessing the complexity of a task “by eye” often leads to mistakes. It seems that the work of the builders of Stonehenge was enormous, but, obviously, the costs of constructing the smallest of the Egyptian and Mesoamerican pyramids were incomparably higher. In turn, all the pyramids of Egypt taken together took four times less labor than the canal alone - a 700-kilometer “understudy” of the Nile bed. This was truly a large-scale project! The Egyptians built pyramids in their free time. For the soul.
Was it difficult to trim and sand a 20-ton slab? Yes. But every peasant or hunter in the Stone Age, during his life, in between cases, in the evenings making the necessary tools, brought about 40 square meters of stone to an almost mirror shine, choosing, if possible, the hardest rocks: only diamond cannot be processed by chipping and grinding on wet sand .
It seems difficult to deliver huge stones not only without equipment, but also without horses, even without a wheel. Meanwhile, under Peter I, frigates were transported along the route of the future White Sea Canal in this way. Peasants and soldiers pulled the ships along wooden rails, placing wooden rollers on them. Moreover, the cargo had to be dragged onto multi-meter cliffs more than once. In such cases, it was necessary to build a mantel, and sometimes use counterweights in the form of cages with stones. But when giving the order, the king probably did not think long, since we were talking about a completely ordinary operation. The Spaniards also thought it was faster and safer to drag galleons from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean through the Isthmus of Panama than to drive them around Cape Horn.
Valuable information was provided by a study of Maltese megalithic temples, one of which was suddenly abandoned during construction. Everything that workers usually took with them - stone rollers and sleds - remained in place. Even drawings have been preserved that looked like a miniature model of the structure (this is how they built it - from a model, not from paper - until the 18th century). In addition, in Malta, and later in other megalith-rich regions, “stone rails” were discovered - parallel grooves left by repeated rolling of round stones under heavy sleds.
| Hobby holes |
| The megalithic structures of Skara Brae are unique primarily in that they are residential. Typically, Neolithic people built houses from eternal stone only for the dead. But Scotland at that time was the northern outpost of agriculture. So the surprisingly short people, smaller than the pygmies, who decided to settle on this harsh land, had to dig in conscientiously. The lack of wood also had its effect. The “hobbits” could only rely on logs carried by the sea waves. Another interesting feature of these megaliths is that there is little in their masonry that would deserve the epithet “mega”. The stones are mostly small. The houses were clearly built by one family, who were unable to deliver a monolithic dolmen slab to the site and install it on the structure. The “hobbit” roofs were made of wood and turf. But in each room there were several miniature megaliths - stone stools and whatnots. |
But still, wasn’t the work too much? Was it really necessary for unknown barbarians to complicate their already difficult life by delivering and lifting 50-ton blocks of Stonehenge? And not for the sake of profit, but for beauty, for fame. Realizing that the arches of the cult center can be made of wood.
The inhabitants of Neolithic England thought not too much. The Romans believed exactly the same thing, using record, unimaginable 800-ton blocks in Baalbek, although they could have easily gotten by with ordinary ones. The Incas agreed with them, cutting intricate puzzles out of stone to assemble the walls of Machu Picchu. Megalithic buildings amaze the imagination even now. They struck him then too. They hit much harder. With their work, the builders glorified the deity, and a little - themselves. And considering that they achieved their goals - although their names are forgotten, their glory, having survived the birth and end of many civilizations, thunders through the millennia - can we say that the work was too great?
On the contrary, it was a very economical solution.
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In the photo: the architectural monument Stonehenge in England. Photo from dailymail.co.uk
History of Stonehenge
Scientists believe that one of the most mysterious sights of England - the famous Stonehenge - was founded from above. 5000 years ago. Since then, the mysterious cromlech continues to attract people from all over the world.
It is estimated that the construction of Stonehenge took over three hundred years. Over the centuries it has been rebuilt and modified many times. The true purpose of the building is still unknown, but there are suggestions, supported by archaeological finds, that it was once used as a giant observatory or a ritual structure associated with the cult of the dead in early paganism.
Pictured: a mysterious pagan ceremony at ancient Stonehenge in England. Source: bbc.co.uk
The first circular building on the site of the modern stone cromlech was erected around 3100 BC and consisted of an embankment with a diameter of about 110 meters and a ditch in which the bones of deer and bulls were laid. Moreover, archaeologists believe that these bones were much older than the tools used to dig the ditch.
There were 56 holes dug inside, named Aubrey's Holes after one of Stonehenge's early explorers. According to modern scientists, they were used for astronomical purposes; perhaps, with the help of stones or tree trunks installed in holes, the ancient inhabitants of England predicted eclipses or monitored the movements of celestial bodies. And in 2013, a team of researchers discovered the cremated remains of at least 63 people - men, women and even a few children - buried in Aubrey's holes. In total, about 50,000 bones were found at Stonehenge. Later burials were also discovered on the territory of the monument, as well as evidence of a large number of people visiting the monument.
It is assumed that the first stone buildings on the site of Stonehenge appeared around 2600 BC. There are 80 standing stones from that time, some of which were brought from a distance of 240-250 kilometers. Other stones were taken from a quarry located 80 kilometers from Stonehenge. Moreover, the largest stones reached a height of two meters and weighed about 2 tons. Later, even larger stones were added, some of which have survived to this day. The heaviest cromlech stones weigh over 50 tons, and the height of the largest stone is a mind-boggling 7 meters.
Researchers are still wondering how exactly these blocks were delivered and installed. It is not surprising that people believed that giants participated in the construction or explained the emergence of Stonehenge by magic. One thing is certain - its construction required enormous efforts of a large number of people and lasted several centuries. But what exactly prompted the ancient inhabitants of modern England to erect such a grandiose structure, one can only guess.
Illustration from a mid-14th century manuscript. Participation of the wizard Merlin and the giants in the construction of Stonehenge. Source: http://www.english-heritage.org.uk
In terms of scale and historical age, Stonehenge is quite capable of competing with the Egyptian pyramids. And it definitely surpasses them in its mystery.
Stonehenge in modern times
Unfortunately, only a small part of the once majestic building has survived to this day. But, nevertheless, its scale is amazing to this day. Now we can only see an impressive altar stone, several vertical stones with lintels, a heel stone, the remains of a ditch and part of the preserved holes. Standing next to giant stones three times tall, it is impossible to believe that they were erected by people, especially long before the advent of construction equipment.
Plan of modern Stonehenge. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org
A slight disappointment for tourists may be that Stonehenge is always full of visitors, and you cannot get too close to the stones, let alone touch them with your hands. That is, the expected “unity with space,” which many expect from a visit to Stonehenge, most likely will not happen.
But, even taking into account the constant crowds of tourists, Stonehenge makes an indelible impression and it is not for nothing that it remains one of the most visited attractions in the UK. And besides looking at stones, there is something to do on the territory of the museum complex. For example, you can try to move a stone similar in size and weight to the blocks in the monument, see Neolithic huts and imagine how people lived during the construction of Stonehenge, buy unusual souvenirs and admire the herbs blooming around.
How to get to Stonehenge
In the photo: a queue of tourists to Stonehenge. Photo from telegraph.org.uk
If you want to see the mysterious creation of ancient masters with your own eyes, the easiest way is to go to Stonehenge by car. It is located just 130 km from London in Wiltshire near the town of Amesbury at Amesbury, Salisbury SP4 7DE, UK.
Trains run every hour from Waterloo station to Salisbury, located 9.5 miles from the place of interest to us. The train journey will take about an hour and a half, plus you will have to take a bus or taxi, or walk about 15 kilometers through the picturesque area. Ubiquitous signs will prevent you from getting lost.
You can also get to Stonehenge by bus from Heathrow Airport or from Victoria Coach Station. In this case, the trip will take about two hours. The bus will take those eager to learn about the mysteries of antiquity to Amesbury, where they will have to change to another bus, take a taxi, or walk about 2 miles.
You can also choose from a huge number of bus tour options and visit only Stonehenge or several attractions at once. The first option will cost £40-50 per person, a round trip from London will take about 5 hours.
Stonehenge is open to the public every day, except Christmas weekend, from 9:30 a.m. to 7 p.m. Tickets cost £16.30 for adults, £9.80 for children aged 5 to 15, £14.70 for pensioners and students. A family ticket for 2 adults and 3 children costs £42.40 when booked online. Tickets on the door will cost around £1-2 more. If you need an audio guide, it costs £3 to hire.
So is it worth going that far? Undoubtedly, if you want to feel the incomparable energy of this mysterious place, it is worth seeing with your own eyes the stones that stood in the same place long before the birth of Christ, as well as before the arrival of the Romans, the construction of Hadrian’s Wall, the reign of the legendary King Arthur and many other historical events.
Well, if for you stones are just stones, and you do not see any esoteric background in this structure, then in England, undoubtedly, there are many other, no less interesting places, which are much easier to get to.