The Old Russian state was formed as a result of a long process of development of the East Slavic tribes. In the IX - X centuries. The Eastern Slavs occupied large areas of the East European Plain and at the end of the 9th century united into a relatively single state entity.
The prerequisites for this unification were: 1) the ethnic community of the Old Russian people speaking the same language; 2) the desire to unite forces in the fight against the nomads and Byzantium; 3) the economic interests of the Old Russian princes along the river route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
In the history of the Old Russian state, three stages can be distinguished: 1) Second half of the 9th - 10th centuries. The main content is the unification of the entire ancient Russian nation in a single state, the creation of an apparatus of power and a military organization; 2) end of the 10th - first half of the 11th century. It was based on a new significant growth in large feudal land ownership, an increase in urban centers, and an increase in the size of the trade and craft population; 3) second half of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. It is characterized by the onset of feudal fragmentation and the collapse of Kievan Rus.
The unification occurred as a result of the campaign of the Novgorod prince Oleg (879 - 912) against Kyiv, which he captured in 882, and his subjugation of a number of other East Slavic principalities (Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi). Oleg's successor Igor (912 - 945) conquered the streets and Tivertsy, and also again subjugated the Drevlyans, who separated from Kyiv after Oleg's death. Svyatoslav (965 - 972) and Vladimir (978 - 1015) carried out campaigns against the Vyatichi, the last of the Slavic tribes who had retained their independence by that time. During these aggressive campaigns, the old tribal division was eliminated and the territory of the Old Russian state was formed.
Kievan Rus retained the features of the early feudal monarchy with significant elements of the tribal system that preceded it. The head of the monarchy was the prince. The Kiev prince was a suzerain, he provided assistance to local princes, who pledged to be “in obedience” to him, to field an army at his call, and to transfer to him part of the collected tribute. Despite his significant social weight, the prince still did not become a true sovereign.
At the local level, along with the princely administration, there were elements of local self-government of cities and communities - elected elders, the people's militia - “a thousand”.
The army of the Old Russian state consisted of princely and boyar squads and people's militia (warriors). The prince's squad was divided into senior and junior (“youths”). The militia was made up of townspeople and smerds (peasants - community members in the 9th-14th centuries).
In the X-XI centuries. There was an intensive growth of cities, which became the most important centers of crafts and trade, political and cultural life.
With the development of feudal relations and the strengthening of local political centers, the importance of the Kyiv national political center decreased, and tendencies towards the isolation of principalities intensified. Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) and his eldest son Mstislav (1125 - 1132) still held power over all ancient Russian lands. However, after the death of Mstislav, feudal strife intensified. As a result, the united Old Russian state fell apart into a number of sovereign principalities, equal in scale to Western European kingdoms. Of these, the most powerful were the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in the northeast, the Galician-Volyn principality in the west and the Novgorod land in the north of Rus'.
According to some researchers, in the 9th century. It was not the ancient Russian early feudal state that was formed, but an East Slavic tribal union led by the Polyan tribe. At the end of the 10th – beginning of the 11th century. under the influence of the decomposition of the tribal system, it broke up into urban volosts (lands), which are usually called principalities.
Some are inclined to argue that it was not the collapse of the ancient Russian state that occurred, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities.
The period of feudal fragmentation lasted in Russia from the 12th to the end of the 15th century. and was accompanied by the emergence of new principalities. If in the middle of the 12th century. there were 15 principalities, and at the beginning of the 13th century. - about 50, then in the 14th century - about 250.
The Khazar Khaganate is a Turkic early feudal state formation that arose in the middle of the 8th century. in the lower Volga region and in the eastern part of the North Caucasus.
The capital of the Kaganate was Itil, the largest international city on the Volga. The city of Sarkel, built in the 30s, was also important. 9th century in the lower reaches of the Don, Belenger, Selgender, Sur and others.
Sources reflecting the life of the Khazars allow us to speak about developed feudalism in the Kaganate. Along with agricultural and livestock farming, crafts and trade, important items of income for the feudal nobility were duties and tributes collected from trade caravans passing through the lands of the Kaganate and from neighboring, weaker peoples.
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The emergence and collapse of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus
Questions:
1. Origin of the Slavic ethnic group
2. Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus
3. Socio-political system of Kievan Rus
4. Collapse of Kievan Rus
Ethnos- a historically emerged type of stable social grouping of people, represented by a tribe, nationality, or nation. The Slavic ethnos included several peoples. The ancestors of the Slavs - the Proto-Slavs - lived to the east of the Germans, occupied territories from the Elbe and Oder to the Donets, Oka and Upper Volga, from the Baltic Pomerania to the Middle and Lower Danube and the Black Sea.
The lecture will examine in detail the issue of migration and autochthonous theories of the origin of the Slavic ethnic group. In the 6th century, the Eastern Slavs emerged from a single Slavic community. The group of Eastern Slavs included tribal unions: Polyans, Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.
Until the 6th century, Rus' was not yet a state, but a union of tribes. The Slavs lived in tribal communities, then there was a transition to a territorial (neighborhood) community. Gradually communities grow into cities, to IX century is formed state. There are different points of view on the question of the origin of the state among the Slavs. Authors Norman theory G. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Schletser, formulated in the 18th century, argued that the state of the Slavs was created by the Scandinavian peoples - Normans or Varangians. (Russians called the Baltic Sea the Varangian Sea until the 18th century).
Modern historians no longer adhere to such extreme views and admit that the Varangians were indeed the first all-Russian princes, but the state in Rus' began to take shape before the calling of the Varangians.
It is necessary to highlight prerequisites for education Old Russian state: economic - transition to arable farming, separation of crafts from agriculture, concentration of crafts in cities, development of trade; political - the formation of Slavic tribal unions, the need of the tribal nobility for an apparatus to protect their privileges, a sufficient level of military organization, the threat of attack from the outside; social - the change of the tribal community from the neighboring one, the emergence of inequality, the similarity of customs, rituals, psychology, beliefs of Slavic tribes.
The lecture will examine in detail the issues of the political and social structure of Kievan Rus.
Political system Kievan Rus was characterized by most historians as an early feudal monarchy. The head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kiev. The founder of the dynasty of Kyiv princes was Rurik (862–879). The princes had a squad. The prince ruled with the help of the council of other princes and senior warriors (boyars). This council was called the Boyar Duma. Junior warriors performed the duties of officials. In the cities there was a veche - a way to solve major problems through joint discussion.
The princes of individual lands and other feudal lords were vassals of the Grand Duke. They were obliged to supply the Grand Duke with soldiers and to appear at his request with a squad.
Modern historians believe that Rus' cannot be called either a monarchy or a republic in the modern sense of these concepts. The prince's power was truly great. The princes were the richest people in Rus'; they had enormous fortunes. The princes were respected by the population - when meeting them it was customary to bow to the ground. The princes had sufficient military power, subordinate only to them, which made it possible in some cases to use direct violence against citizens.
However, the Grand Duke of Kyiv cannot be called a real monarch. His power was limited to other representatives of the princely family. The Kiev prince, in relation to other representatives of the princely family, was not a monarch, but the eldest in the family. The prince's power was limited to the townspeople. The townspeople, gathering at the meeting, sometimes quite decisively and sharply intervened in inter-princely disputes and relations. The townspeople expelled unwanted princes, and invited those they liked to reign. The princes judged, ruled, led, but only as long as it suited the interests of the community.
Social structure of society. In the cities lived princes, boyars, gridi, firemen, their slaves, clergy, merchants, guests, and artisans. Boyars and gridi formed the basis of the squad. The firemen were in the service of the prince in his courtyard-firehouse. Urban residents also included wealthy people - landowners - who were lower than the boyars.
The main rural population - Smerda farmers - were personally free. They lived separately, were forced to do one kind of work or another and paid tribute to the princes.
Kievan Rus played a major role in the creation of the state Christianity. The lecture will highlight the reasons and conditions for the adoption of Christianity. Before the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs were pagans. Each tribe had its own gods and patrons. In Rus', new social relations were formed, and social stratification occurred. All this required a new ideology. Paganism, with its equality of people before the forces of nature, could not explain and justify the origin and growth of inequality. The religious reform of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir took place in 2 stages. At the first stage, an attempt was made to unite on the basis of one pagan god - Perun. At the second stage in 988 Christianity was introduced in the Orthodox version. This religion best suited the needs of the state.
(“1”) With the adoption of Christianity, the Julian calendar was introduced with the Roman names of the months, a seven-day week and the Byzantine designation of the era: from the creation of the world. Before this, time was calculated in Rus' according to the lunar-solar calendar, which was reflected in the names of the months, and the year began on March 1.
The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for Rus': state power and territorial unity of the Old Russian state were strengthened; Kievan Rus became equal to European Christian countries; the new religion has a positive impact on the economy - foreign trade is growing, agricultural production is developing; the new religion changed the way of life and morals of people; culture received further development. It is also necessary to highlight the negative aspects in the adoption of Christianity - a cult of power was formed, the church became an ideological instrument of the state.
The last great prince of Kyiv was Mstislav (1125–1132).
In the 12th century, after the death of Prince Mstislav, Kievan Rus disintegrated into separate lands and principalities. The lecture will cover feudal factors fragmentation: economic - development of subsistence farming, economic independence of estates, isolation of estates and communities, growth and strengthening of cities; political - tribal and territorial conflicts, strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars; foreign economic – eliminating for a time the danger of attack from outside.
For almost the entire 12th century, Russian princes fought for the Kiev throne. In just 30 years since 1146, 28 people have changed on it. This was due to the fact that all Russian princes were relatives; at the end of the 12th century there were about 50 of them. All of them descended from St. Vladimir. There was no state in Europe where all the feudal nobility belonged to one family. This was due to a different principle of inheritance than in Kievan Rus. In Kievan Rus, the “ladder” principle of succession to the grand-ducal throne was dominant, which included two contradictory principles: the Kievan throne was passed from brother to brother, and the eldest brother had the right to occupy it. But, on the other hand, the eldest in age in the clan could also apply for it. This contradiction has repeatedly led to conflict situations.
Period of feudal fragmentation covers in general XII–XV centuries During this period, 3 main political centers were determined: the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Galician-Volyn Principality and the Novgorod Feudal Republic. These lands in their development had their own distinctive features, which will be clarified in detail at the seminar.
Modern historical science believes that feudal fragmentation in Rus' was a natural result of the development of early feudal society
Historians view the fragmentation of Rus' into independent principalities from two sides. On the one hand, this became a tragedy, weakening Rus' in front of its enemies. But at the same time, during the period of feudal fragmentation, the economic and cultural rise of the Russian lands took place.
From 1243–1246 The Mongol-Tatar yoke (an oppressive, enslaving force) was established on Russian lands. The term “Tatar yoke” was coined by Russian historians in the 18th and early 19th centuries. This term traditionally refers to the system of exploitation of Russian lands by Mongol-Tatar feudal lords. There was no stable system of “yoke” relations. The Horde's attitude towards the Russian principalities was constantly changing.
Formation of the Russian unified state
Questions:
1. Formation of the Russian unified state
In the system of general government until the middle of the 16th century. included, in addition to the Boyar Duma, the Sovereign Palace and the Sovereign Treasury. In the middle of the 16th century. Orders appear. In 1497, the first set of laws of a unified state, the Code of Laws, appeared.
The basis of local government was the feeding system. The country was divided into counties and volosts. The district was ruled by a governor, the volost - by the volost. They did not receive a salary for their managerial and judicial activities, which was only an addition to the main thing - the right to receive food, that is, to collect part of the taxes and court fees for their benefit. Feeding was given as a reward for previous service. Initially, the feeding system contributed to the unification of the Russian state. Service people were interested in expanding the possessions of Moscow, since this increased the number of feedings. But this system had flaws and was later replaced.
In the 15th century population countries amounted to 3 million people, estates were formed - groups of the population that had certain rights and obligations, which were enshrined in laws (the estate system in Russia remained until 1917). In the 16th century, the nobility - a privileged, influential class - became the support of the Moscow ruler. Ivan III was the first creator of the Russian nobility; he relied on the Moscow cavalry army - landowners who received lands seized from former appanage princes. The large, overwhelming part of the “state-owned” agricultural land was divided up and distributed for exploitation to “the servants of the Grand Duke of Moscow.” The lecture will describe in detail the stages of formation of this population group.
In the 14th century the term “peasants” appeared. This term was applied to farmers and apparently to all “common people”, urban and rural. And only in the 17th century did peasants begin to be called peasants in the modern sense of the word. In the 15th century, some peasants began to be called “old residents.” These peasants cultivated the same plot for many years and were tied to the established strong economy and could not leave this economy. For the feudal lord, this group of peasants was the most economically important. Farmers who lived in private feudal estates were exempted from part of state duties; as they said then, they were “whitewashed.”
Some peasants lived on state lands and were called “black”, later “chernososhny”.
From the end of the 15th century. The Russian state began to be called Russia.
Among historians, there are different points of view in assessing the Russian state of the 16th century. For a long time there was an opinion that the Russian state of this period was united and centralized. Relatively recently, a new and still debatable point of view has appeared in historical science that the Russian state of the 16th century was united, but not centralized, and the term “centralized state” can be used from the end of the 16th–17th centuries.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the process of unification of Russian lands was complex; favorable conditions were created for the socio-economic development of the country, but it is also necessary to highlight the negative aspects of this process, which later led to the strengthening of despotism. This will be discussed in detail in the lecture.
The rise of the Russian autocracy
With the formation of a centralized state, a system of supreme power takes shape (practically and ideologically) - autocracy. Autocracy is a monarchical form of government in Russia, when the bearer of supreme power - the tsar, the emperor - had the supreme right in legislation (approval of bills), in administration (appointment and dismissal of senior officials), supreme leadership of central and local institutions and governing bodies, high command army and navy, financial management, etc., in the highest court (confirmation of sentences, pardon). In the history of autocracy, two stages can be traced: in the 16th–17th centuries. the monarch exercised his rights together with the Boyar Duma and the boyar aristocracy; in the XVIII – early XX centuries. absolute monarchy was established. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 limited the tsarist power and introduced the State Duma. In this form, the autocracy lasted until March 2, 1917, until the abdication of the last Emperor Nicholas II.
Russia at the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th centuries. Time of Troubles
("3") Questions:
1. Troubles, its causes, stages
2. Assessments, consequences of the Time of Troubles
Under Time of Troubles refers to a period in the history of Russia from the end of the 16th to the beginning of the 17th centuries: from 1598 to 1613. There are different definitions of the Troubles, but in general it is a period of crisis that affected the economy, the socio-political sphere, and public morality; this is a period of indignation, uprisings, riots, sedition, general disobedience, discord between the people and the authorities, a civil war - a clash of all layers and groups of Russian society.
The prerequisites and causes of the Troubles originated during the time of Ivan the Terrible. Causes of the Troubles consisted of aggravation of social, class, dynastic and international relations.
Highlight 3 stages of the Troubles: Stage I, dynastic – unrest at the top of power; Stage II, social - unrest in all layers of the people (May 1606–1610); Stage III – national (1611–1612).
In the 70–80s of the 16th century. The country was gripped by an economic crisis. The central regions were deserted, the population was declining, more than 50% of the arable land remained uncultivated, taxes were increasing, prices had increased 4 times, and a state system of serfdom was taking shape.
One of the causes of the Troubles was the dynastic crisis. The oprichnina did not completely resolve the disagreements within the ruling class. She strengthened the personal power of the tsar, but there was still a fairly strong boyars. There was a fierce struggle among the boyars for influence on state affairs.
The reason for the Troubles served to suppress the ruling Rurik dynasty. ruled the Moscow state for 300 years. The last descendant of this dynasty was Ivan IV; of his 5 sons, only the weak-minded and frail Fedor remained alive. It was to him that Ivan IV handed over the throne. At the crowning ceremony, Fyodor Ioannovich was solemnly presented with a scepter for the first time in Russia. (A scepter is a staff decorated with precious stones and carvings, a symbol of royal power). Fyodor Ioannovich remained on the throne for 14 years (1584–1598). Under Fyodor, a government circle of several boyars (regency council) operated. Soon power was concentrated in the hands of the Tsar's brother-in-law Boris Godunov, who actually ruled on behalf of Fedor for 12 out of 14 years. In an effort to strengthen his position, Godunov attracted the church to his side, introducing the patriarchate in Moscow in 1589. The status of the Russian Church was raised. The first patriarch was Job, B. Godunov’s protege. After the death of the childless Fyodor, the Zemsky Sobor elected Godunov as tsar (1598–1605). For the first time in Russian history, a tsar appeared who received the throne not by inheritance.
There are 2 assessments of the activities of Boris Godunov; they will be analyzed in detail in the lecture. But it should be noted that both Godunov’s contemporaries and current historians recognize that Godunov was a major statesman and pursued an active foreign and domestic policy. Much in his actions resembles, on the one hand, the policy of the Chosen Rada, which brought such successes to the country at the very beginning of Ivan the Terrible’s reign, and, on the other hand, the policies of Peter I. Godunov cuts his “window to Europe”, sends noble youth to study abroad, and is going to marry off his daughter for a foreign prince, looking for new forms of governing the country. Godunov’s son, Tsarevich Fyodor, with the help of foreigners, managed to draw the first map of Russia. Until Peter I, it remained the only map printed in Russia. During Godunov’s time, the number and circulation of printed books increased, and construction was underway throughout the country.
But Godunov failed to solve the country’s complex internal problems. They were disrupted by lean years, and the bad harvests affected the country so much because of the difficult legacy left by Ivan the Terrible.
During this period it began the formation of serfdom. Serfdom is the highest form of incomplete ownership of a peasant by a feudal lord, based on his attachment to the land of a feudal lord (boyar, landowner, monastery, etc.) or a feudal state.
Serfdom as a state system actually emerged at the end of the 16th century. and was finally formalized by the Council Code of 1649.
The method of connecting a peasant with the land for a long time in Russia was in the nature of an agreement between the owner (land user) and the peasant, who had significant (both actual and legally defined) rights in terms of changing the owner. In 1497, Ivan III introduced the law on St. George's Day, according to which a peasant could change ownership only on the autumn St. George's Day. On this day, the peasant paid off monetary and in-kind obligations in favor of the owners and state taxes. In 1581, during the time of Ivan the Terrible, “reserved summers” were first introduced - years in which peasants were prohibited from crossing on St. George’s Day (commandment-ban).
By 1592, a census was taken. The entire population was included in special books, and it became possible to establish which of the feudal lords belonged to the peasants. Then, according to a number of historians, a special decree was issued banning peasant migrations, which meant the establishment of serfdom.
In 1597, under Fyodor Ioannovich, “Urched summers” were introduced - a 5-year period was established for the search for fugitive peasants. In subsequent years, in 1607, this period was increased to 15 years, and in 1649 an indefinite search for runaway peasants was introduced, which finally formalized serfdom. In Western European countries, by this time serfdom had already disappeared.
The flight of peasants from oprichnina pogroms and excessive taxes, which caused the desolation of estates, became one of the main reasons for the introduction of serfdom.
Reasons for enslavement Historians also see that the number of feudal lords grew faster than the number of peasants. In conditions of a long war, the authorities constantly recruited people from the lower classes into the service, distributing estates with peasants to them for their service. At the same time, the average size of feudal estates decreased, i.e., land fragmentation occurred. At the same time, the needs of the feudal lords increased, the exploitation of the peasants intensified, which caused a sharp rebuff from the peasantry. In order to prevent the flight of peasants and the desolation of lands, the government took measures to enslave the dependent population. But it should be noted that in the face of his master the peasant was powerless, but legally, according to the law, he still had rights, which by the middle of the 18th century were completely lost.
The introduction of the state system of serfdom led to a sharp aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created the basis for mass popular uprisings. The aggravation of social relations was one of the reasons for the troubled times.
Godunov’s attempts to bring the country out of desolation did not bring success; moreover, a three-year drought worsened the economic situation. Famine and servile unrest began in the country. There are rumors in society that heaven has sent punishment because the king is not real. Godunov's prestige falls not only among the people, but also among the feudal lords.
(“4”) International contradictions are also intensifying, which became another reason for the events that broke out during the Time of Troubles.
Troubles gripped the entire society. The boyars wanted to limit the power of the sovereign in favor of the aristocracy; the nobles wanted to limit the influence of the boyar oligarchy and receive new benefits; peasants fought to improve their situation; the townspeople wanted to receive benefits and reduce taxes; the Cossacks demanded freedom.
The dynastic crisis became the reason for the fragility of the royal power: the old dynasty was cut short, the new one did not have sufficient authority to survive in unfavorable conditions.
The lecture will also draw attention to the ideological crisis caused by the fall in the authority of the tsarist government and the shaking of the foundations of society.
Under these conditions, a young man appears, claiming to have miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry and laying claim to the throne. False Dmitry I became the first and most famous impostor in Russian history. False Dmitry was the only tsar who ascended to the Russian throne through a popular uprising and civil war. He received widespread popular support. In October 1604, the army of False Dmitry I reached Moscow. Godunov sends an army against the rebels, which turned out to be unreliable and, after Godunov’s death in April 1605, went over to the side of False Dmitry.
In June 1605, False Dmitry I entered Moscow and was proclaimed tsar. At the crowning of False Dmitry I in 1606, for the first time in Russia, an orb was used - (apple) - a ball with a Christian cross, representing a symbol of the power of the monarch. Russia borrowed this emblem from Poland.
During his reign, False Dmitry I showed himself to be an efficient and energetic ruler. He was a highly educated and independent-minded person, adhered to a reformist path of development and could have found new options for public policy. Some historians saw Tsar Dmitry as the predecessor of Peter the Great. But the ruler's position was difficult. Too different social strata of the population pinned their hopes on him - both peasants and landowners. False Dmitry actually had no support in any of the population groups. The situation in the country was deteriorating. In 1606, False Dmitry I was overthrown from the throne by conspiratorial boyars.
The conspiracy was led by Prince Vasily Shuisky, who was a relative of the Rurikovichs and had some rights to the throne. It should be noted that upon his accession to the throne, Shuisky gives the “Earth” a kissing cross, which legally limited the autocracy, i.e. the ruling layer received political rights and became freer. If this development had continued, autocratic power would have been limited. Shuisky's reign 1606–1610 During this period, a real civil war broke out in Russia, in which all layers and groups of Russian society participated.
Leader of the uprising of 1606–1607. becomes. The uprising covered a large area of the south and south-west of Russia (about 70 cities).
Historians have different assessments of the powerful folk performances of the early 17th century. Some of them believe that they delayed the legal registration of serfdom for 50 years, others believe that, on the contrary, they accelerated the process of legal registration of serfdom.
In 1607, another contender for the throne, False Dmitry II, appeared. Lacking the strength to take Moscow, False Dmitry sets up camp in the village of Tushino and proclaims himself tsar, appointing a Duma and patriarch. For a year and a half, there were two equal capitals in Russia - Moscow and Tushino. V. Shuisky in 1609 called for help from the Swedish army. In response, the Polish king Sigismund laid siege to the disputed territory of Smolensk.
In 1610, a revolution took place in Moscow. V. Shuisky is overthrown from the throne and power passes into the hands of the boyars led by. They establish a government of 7 boyars - the Seven Boyars. One of the first decisions of the boyar government was not to elect representatives of Russian clans as tsar. An agreement was concluded with the Poles on the calling of the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne. The boyar government secretly brought Polish troops into Moscow; this was a direct betrayal of national interests. The country faced the threat of losing its independence.
The people stood up to defend the country's independence. P. Lyapunov, K. Minin and others played a major role in the fight against the invaders.
In 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held in Moscow, at which the question of choosing a new Russian Tsar was raised. It was decided to elect to the throne the 16-year-old grandnephew of I. the Terrible’s first wife Anastasia Romanova - Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613–1645)
Consequences of the Time of Troubles: economic devastation and impoverishment of the people; temporary strengthening of the role of estate-representative authorities; weakening of the old aristocracy and strengthening of the role of the nobility; weakening of Russia's international authority.
The Time of Troubles became not only a time of crisis and disaster. During this period, various paths for further development opened up for the Russian state. This was a time of turning point in the life of the Moscow state and society.
During the Time of Troubles, the question of the very existence of the Russian state and the choice of the path of development of the country was decided.
Before the Time of Troubles, the state system was based on the principle of patrimonial ownership, and the entire territory of the state was the property of the sovereign. The social system was based on the principle of the landowner-feudal lord owning not only the land, but also the working population living on this land.
Time of Troubles destroyed the old order and created the ground for transformation in all areas of life. The concept of “all the land” was created, which the sovereign ruled, but did not own as an owner; social classes emerged; rapprochement with the cultural West began.
This role of the Time of Troubles as a boundary between the old and new order determined its historical importance. In the specific conditions of that time, the path of further development of the country was chosen: autocracy as a form of political government, serfdom as the basis of the economy, Orthodoxy as an ideology, class system as a social structure.
("5")
Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. Reforms of Peter I
Questions:
1. Prerequisites for reforms
2. Peter's reforms
3. Results, assessments, price and consequences of Peter’s reforms
The restoration process after the Time of Troubles was completed by the middle of the 17th century. The territory of Russia is expanding due to the inclusion of new lands. The territory of the country was divided into counties (250), volosts and camps, the center of which was the village.
By the end of the 17th century, the population of Russia numbered 10.5 million people. In terms of population, Russia then ranked fourth among European countries.
The political system of Russia developed towards a transition from autocracy with the Boyar Duma, from an estate-representative monarchy to an bureaucratic-noble monarchy, to absolutism. Absolutism is a form of government in which the supreme power in the state belongs completely and undividedly to the monarch.
In Russia, an absolute monarchy emerged during Peter's reforms.
The reign of Peter I from 1682 (ruled independently from 1689) to 1725.
Prerequisites for reforms. The Time of Troubles revealed problems in the political power of Russia, in the economy (lag behind the West), etc. The weakness of Russia posed a danger to the independence of the Russian people. Russia needed changes and reforms. There were 2 options for reforms.
1. Gradual weakening of state pressure on society, development of private initiative, development of people's freedom.
2. Forced subordination of people's interests to the interests of the state, strengthening the dictates of the state. The estate-representative monarchy by this time had developed into an autocracy. The cathedrals and dumas, which included representatives of the estates, disappeared. Everything was replaced by government officials, the state apparatus. (Autocracy is a form of government when the tsar, emperor approved laws, appointed and dismissed officials, led central and local institutions and government bodies, was in charge of finances, was the supreme commander of the army and navy. He was the highest judge.)
Therefore, the reforms were carried out according to the second option. Violence has become the main instrument of politics.
In foreign policy during the Russian-Turkish war of 1686–99. Peter I organized two campaigns against Azov, as a result of which Russia gained access to the sea and began to turn into a maritime power.
home goal of reforms- strengthen the military power of the state, create an effective management system, therefore the army, public administration, and finance became the main areas of transformation.
1. The formation of the Old Russian state and the main stages of its development.
2. Intrasocial relations and the emergence of feudal relations according to Russian truth.
3. Folding the territory.
4. Adoption of Christianity.
5. The first written collection of laws - Russian Truth.
6. Interaction with Western, Eastern and steppe civilizations.
7. The nature of political power and the significance of the Old Russian state.
1. The formation of the Old Russian state and the main stages of its development. Domestic historiography identifies three stages in the development of the Old Russian state: 1) mid-9th – 10th centuries. the emergence of the Old Russian state; 2) X – beginning of XI centuries. the flourishing of the state; 3) second half of the 11th – beginning of the 12th centuries. - the appearance of the first signs of the collapse of the Old Russian state.
Farming. There is very little forward movement. In the south there is arable farming, which spreads to the north. In the XI – XII centuries. the transition from fallow to double-field begins. But the yield is low - 2. They sowed: wheat, rye, lentils, flax; All types of livestock and poultry are used on the farm. Additional activities: hunting, fishing, trapping, beekeeping. The craft is developing. Thus, by the end of the existence of the Old Russian state, up to 123 types of crafts were known, the most developed were: blacksmithing, jewelry, weapons, pottery, and leather. A lathe and turned wooden utensils appear.
Fortifications turn into cities, which become centers of crafts and trade within a radius of up to 15 km. cities are built by princes in convenient places, usually at the confluence of two rivers, and are created as fortresses, which are also a transit point. The center of the slave trade was Kyiv.
2. Intrasocial relations and the emergence of feudal relations according to Russian truth. Social order is a controversial issue. For many years it was believed that the Eastern Slavs, bypassing slavery, switched to feudalism. Feudalism is an agrarian system corresponding to the history of the Middle Ages. Under a feudal system, the monopoly right of ownership of the main means of production - land - belongs to the feudal lord; he also has an incomplete right of ownership of the main producer of material goods, i.e. peasant. Feudal formation is a very complex concept. Soviet historiography used Lenin's definition of corvee economy, the final dominance of which he associated with the 17th century. All land is divided into lordly and peasant arable land. Surplus and necessary products are strictly differentiated. On the lord's land, the peasant with his tools and livestock creates a surplus product; on his plowing, the peasant produces the product necessary for himself, his family and the feudal lord, because the labor force is being reproduced. For the use of land, the peasant performs three types of annuity: labor, natural (grocery), monetary (in Europe from the 13th century, in Russia from the 17th century)
Signs and conditions for the existence of a feudal (corvee) economy: natural character; providing the main producer with means of production (land allotment); personal addiction; low routine development of technology.
After great discussions in the 30s. The concept of the formation of a feudal formation in Rus' in the 8th – 11th centuries was established. feudal relations are taking shape and classes are forming, which was later formulated by B. D. Grekov, it was supported by S. V. Yushkov, shifting the chronology from the 9th-10th centuries. in the 11th century L.v. Cherepnin in 1953 (and 1972) put forward the theory of “state feudalism”. In the early feudal period, the state's supreme ownership of land prevailed, and the bulk of the exploited were represented personally by the free population of neighboring communities - tributary smerds. They were subjected to state exploitation. This point of view was developed by I. I. Smirnov, V. V. Mavrodin, and partly by B. A. Rybakov. The opposite point of view was put forward in 1980 by I. Ya. Froyanov, who wrote that in Rus' there were city-states similar to ancient city-states, city-communities, and denied the feudal character. A. A. Gorsky refutes these statements; his point of view, developing the traditions of Cherepnin, seems to us the most acceptable. So, the social system can be defined as “state-feudal”, with the proviso that the state is the “total feudal lord” - the princes and the nobles surrounding them, the predominant type of rent is food. In the X - XI centuries. a princely estate appeared in the second half of the 11th century. - boyar patrimony, but not enough.
Feudal land ownership begins to take shape. Ways of developing feudal land ownership: princely warriors collect tribute, and gradually their land ownership is formed in this territory; identification of tribal nobility; seizure of free lands by princes and warriors; gradual enslavement of free community members. The elite was formed from the princely squad. There were druzhina boyars and zemstvo boyars. The feudal lords became princes, boyars, the squad of wealthy community members, and after 988 - the church.
Ordinary population – free community members – People. Smerda– controversial issue: 1 – people subject to tribute to the prince or patrimonial lord; 2 – slaves planted on the ground; 3 – representatives of non-Slavic tribes who paid tribute; 4 – Rybakov believed that these were people dependent on the prince, who had to perform military service and manage the economy: a semi-agricultural, semi-military population. A class of feudal-dependent population began to form. Purchase- a person who took a kupa (loan) from a feudal lord and is obliged to work for it. The person who entered into an agreement (series) became Ryadovich- he undertook to work on the feudal lord’s farm. Serf- slave. Servants(servant) - there is no single point of view. Tikhomirov, Grekov, Yushkov, Sverdlov - a slave who works around the house; black. An outcast is a person expelled from the community (could be either among the smerds or among the princes).
Why did the Slavs avoid slavery? a) until the 15th century. there were slaves (domestic slavery). b) slavery has become obsolete in the world. c) Christianity spreads. d) there were no natural-geographical conditions for slavery.
3. Folding the territory. According to ancient Russian chronicles, in 882, Prince Oleg, who was sitting on the “Rurik settlement,” headed south, eliminated the princes who were sitting in the land of the glades, and settled in Kyiv. This was of great importance, because... firstly, it is the center of the East Slavic tribes; secondly, it is a world center of trade (not only the transit of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” but also from east to west); thirdly, Kyiv is located in the center of the Dnieper region, the most fertile region. Prince Oleg (882 - 912) subjugated the lands of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi, who began to pay tribute to Kyiv, and not to the Khazars. It is characteristic that, unlike his predecessors, the prince and his retinue settled on the territory of the Kyiv “city”.
Chronicles report Oleg's great campaign against the Byzantine Empire. As a sign of victory, Oleg placed his shield on the gates of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. The text of the agreement that Oleg concluded with the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI in September 911 has been preserved. Most historians consider this event to be the completion of the formation of the Old Russian state, followed by the expansion of its territory.
Oleg's successor was Igor, who is considered the son of Rurik. He subjugated the Ulich and Buzhan tribes. In 941, Igor undertook a large campaign against Byzantium, which ended in the defeat of the Russian army. He concluded a treaty in 944 with the Byzantine emperor Romanos I Lecapinus. The second agreement with the Greeks was written in two languages at once - Greek and Old Russian, thus the state takes on complete forms.
In the squad in the first half of the 10th century. there were still many Normans. Prince Igor and his wife had Scandinavian names. But when concluding an agreement with Byzantium, Oleg’s warriors swore to observe the agreement in the name of the Slavic gods - Perun and Volos. Igor's son bore the Slavic name Svyatoslav.
Svyatoslav's campaign in the late 60s. against Khazaria was successful. The Khazar army was defeated. According to the chronicle, Svyatoslav ravaged the Khazar capital. The Old Russian state included lands on the Taman Peninsula along with the Khazar fortress Tamatarcha, which in Ancient Russia received the name Tmutarakan. After Svyatoslav’s victories, the Vyatichi living in the Oka valley submitted to the power of the Kiev prince, and the Khazar Kaganate ceased to exist. The flip side of these victories was the strengthening of the main opponents of the Khazars - the Pechenegs, who soon became dangerous neighbors of the Old Russian state. Nicephorus Foka sent an embassy to Kyiv led by Kalokir, inviting Svyatoslav to go with an army against the Danube Bulgarians, and the prince agreed.
The Byzantine Empire had a neighbor, more powerful and more dangerous than the Bulgarian Tsar. The Byzantine rulers could not come to terms with this. The Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes was able to gain the upper hand over the enemy only by suddenly breaking the truce and besieging Svyatoslav in the city of Dorostol on the Danube in the spring of 971. After long fierce battles, according to a treaty concluded in July 971, Svyatoslav undertook to leave Bulgaria. According to one of the terms of the agreement, the Byzantine side supplied 22 thousand soldiers of the Kyiv prince with bread. On the way back, Svyatoslav’s army split up. The main part, led by Sveneld, headed to Kyiv by land, and Svyatoslav with a small squad went by boat up the Dnieper. At the Dnieper rapids, Svyatoslav died in battle with the Pechenegs. According to legend, the head of the Pechenegs, Prince Kurya, ordered a wine cup from the prince’s skull.
The chronicle contains a story about Svyatoslav’s plans to make Pereyaslavets on the Danube the capital of his state. The prince justified his decision by the fact that here, on the Danube, everything that the squad needs comes from different countries: “from the Greeks” - gold, silk fabrics, wines and fruits, from Hungary - silver and horses, “from Russia quickly (t ie furs) and wax, honey and servants (slaves).” In the second half of the 10th century. The squad of the Kyiv prince, his nascent administrative apparatus became such a serious force that they were capable of waging a long war with the Byzantine Empire, mobilizing an army numbering several tens of thousands of people to participate in it. But the connection between the squad and the “land”, the country at the head of which it stood, was not yet strong enough; it could still seriously discuss the issue of its resettlement to another territory with more favorable living conditions.
In 963, under Svyatoslav, the formation of the territory was basically completed. He subjugated those tribes of the Eastern Slavs who did not go to the Dnieper; strengthened the borders.
During the 9th-10th centuries. The unification of the main East Slavic lands under the rule of the Kyiv princes ended, the population was subject to tribute.
As Konstantin Porphyrogenitus tells us, in November the prince and his retinue went on a detour (called polyudye) to “feed” around the lands of their country. Polyudye (“circling”) lasted five months (until the beginning of April). As stated in the chronicle, tribute was taken “from the smoke,” i.e., from the hearth, from “black kuna” - the skin of a marten. At the end of spring, a significant part of the collected tribute was delivered to Kyiv, from where it was sent on ships (the keel and lower part of the sides of which was the trunk of a whole tree, hence their Greek name - monoxyls) along the Dnieper, and then along the Black Sea to Constantinople. The ships navigated the Dnieper rapids over a distance of almost a hundred kilometers with difficulty, disembarking people and putting goods ashore. This was used by nomads who attacked caravans. Therefore, they were constantly accompanied by detachments of vigilantes. K. Porphyrogenitus called such a journey “a painful and terrible, unbearable and cruel voyage.”
The princely squad did not interfere in the internal life of the East Slavic tribal unions subordinate to Kyiv. She encountered the population only during Polyudye; there was no system for collecting tribute, so Prince Igor and his squad collected tribute from the Drevlyans, although it had already been collected by the governor Sveneld. Driven to despair by repeated extortions, the Drevlyans rebelled in 945, Prince Igor was killed. The uprising of the Drevlyans was brutally suppressed by Igor's widow, Princess Olga. Iskorosten was stormed and burned. The land of the Drevlyans was annexed to the core of the Old Russian state. Princess Olga is carrying out a tax reform - establishing graveyards (places for the princely administration where tribute was taken) and lessons (the amount of tribute). Olga and her retinue traveled around the land of the Drevlyans, “establishing regulations and lessons,” by which the latter should be understood as the size of the tribute. “Encampments” (graveyards) were established - places where tribute should be taken, and “traps” were allocated - hunting grounds, as Olga had already done on the territory of the “Russian Land”. Thus the beginning of the formation of the tax system was laid; and the churchyards strengthened the central power of the prince locally and weakened the tribal nobility.
At the first stage, the territory, state apparatus and tax system are formed.
After the death of Svyatoslav, for some time no one could establish himself on the throne. Only in 978 did Yaropolk (978 - 980) ascend the throne, and after him Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (980 - 1015), under whom the flourishing of the Old Russian state was observed. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015), the cities of Cherven and Carpathian Russia were included in Ancient Rus' in the west.
Academician A. A. Shakhmatov called Vladimir the “real founder” of the Old Russian state. During the reign of Vladimir, qualitative changes occurred in the relations between Kiev and the lands subordinate to it. Vladimir's sons became his governors in these lands. With the adoption of the new Christian religion by Russia, the life of the old tribal and religious centers ceased, which were replaced by new centers - fortresses founded by the princely authorities. Yaroslav no longer lived at the “Rurik settlement”, but set up a residence for himself in Novgorod itself, at the “Yaroslavl courtyard”.
At the end of the 9th - first half of the 10th century. The Pecheneg union of tribes, wandering beyond the Volga, occupied most of the Eastern European steppes between the Volga and Danube. The first consequence of the changes was the difficulty of connections between the Old Russian state and Byzantium; ships with furs, wax, and slaves were attacked by the Pechenegs. During the reign of Vladimir, important measures were taken to combat the raids of nomads: “grads” were built - fortresses along the rivers Desna, Trubezh, Sula, Stugna - “ramps” about 3.5-4 m high, surrounded by a deep ditch. Vladimir no longer acts as the leader of the squad, concerned only with its food, but as a ruler organizing the protection of the population living here. At the second stage of the development of the state - the heyday is associated with the development of feudal land ownership and feudal patrimony, the so-called economy and land ownership of a large landowner, the patrimony was passed on by inheritance.
4. Adoption of Christianity. The development of inequality among the Slavs caused the need for religious reform. By this time, the Slavs had paganism. Vladimir carries out the first religious reform - he creates a pantheon of gods, a hierarchy of gods. In Kyiv, a special complex is being built for each god
Turn of the X-XI centuries. - this is also the time when the position of Ancient Rus' in the world was determined in connection with the adoption of the new Christian religion from Byzantium . In the first years of his reign, Vladimir tried to adapt the traditional pagan religion to new social conditions.
In the mid-80s. X century Byzantium suffered a number of serious setbacks in the fight against the First Bulgarian Kingdom, and in Asia Minor rebellions began among the large nobility dissatisfied with the emperor. The Byzantine embassy arrived in Kiev in 987. By agreement between the Kiev prince and the emperor, their union was sealed by the marriage of Vladimir and Vasily II's sister Anna, and Vladimir and all residents of Russia were to convert to Christianity. In fulfillment of the terms of the treaty, Vladimir sent an army of six thousand to Constantinople.
The emperor, when the critical situation had passed, did not rush to fulfill the terms of the agreement. Then, in 989, Vladimir went with an army to the Crimea and besieged the main stronghold of Byzantine power on the peninsula - Kherson. Here the baptism of Vladimir and his warriors took place, and then his marriage to Anna. It clearly demonstrates the strength and importance of the Old Russian state in Europe. Thus, Vladimir immediately took a high place in the hierarchy of rulers of the Byzantine circle. On the coins he minted - “silver pieces” - Vladimir is depicted in imperial robes and with a halo around his head.
The adoption of the Christian religion was an important step not only in the cultural (which will be discussed below), but also in the social life of ancient Russian society. The most important postulate of Christianity was based on the principle of the divine nature of earthly power (“there is no power except from God”). The adoption of Christianity also contributed to the strengthening of state unity, since the motley variety of local pagan cults was replaced by one religion, defined by a clear system of uniform norms, and its servants in their activities were subordinate to a single center, closely connected with the princely power.
Value: 1. Christianity made Rus' a European state, which determined its foreign policy. Contributed to strengthening international authority; 2 . the sale of Slavs into slavery stopped; 3 . Christianity strengthened the feudal basis of the progressive at this time; 4 . strengthened the unity of the state; 5. monasteries contributed to the spread of literacy and culture.
After the death of Vladimir on July 15, 1015, it was only in 1019 that Yaroslav managed to establish himself on the Kiev table. He entered the history of Ancient Rus' as an outstanding statesman, legislator, builder, who decorated Kyiv with new walls and many temples, and patron of scribes.
5.The first written collection of laws is Russian Truth. Under Yaroslav, the first written collection of laws was created - Russian Pravda (according to some researchers, this was the first part of the Brief Pravda; according to others, the entire main text of the Brief Pravda, containing a number of insertions dating back to the legislation of his sons, dates back to the time of Yaroslav). Unlike the “barbarian truths,” which are a record of the norms of traditional customary law, the Russian Truth is a monument to princely legislation (“The Court of Yaroslavl Volodymerich”). Already in the first article of the collection it was established that the same fine for murder should be paid both if the murdered person is a “Rusyn” (a resident of the “Russian Land” - the Middle Dnieper region), and if he is “Slovenia” (belongs to the union of “Slovenes” in the north of Eastern Europe) , That. uniform rules of law were established for the entire population of the Old Russian state. The norms of fines for mutilation and bodily insults determined the amount of money that the criminal contributed to the princely treasury. The fine for murder was set depending on social status. If for a princely servant it was 80-40 hryvnia, then for a stinker, a ryadovich, a purchase - 5 hryvnia, for the murder of a slave his owner received a fine.
“Pokon Virny” played an important role; it determined the amount of food that the population had to give per week to the collectors of princely fines: 7 buckets of malt, a lamb carcass, two chickens a day, bread “they can eat a piece of bread.” This form of management in practice led to lack of control and arbitrariness on the part of the feeding boyars. In fact, something like feudal autonomy arose for individual lands, where a local prince soon arose.
Analysis of Short and Long allows you to see the dynamics of processes. This historical source names the main occupations: agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, beekeeping, craft); tools (rawl, plow, harrow), main crops (barley, oats, peas), horses, sheep, pigs, cows, goats, poultry: chickens. Art. speaks about the development of trade. 54 names merchants. More articles are related to agriculture and agricultural products, which allowed historians to conclude that the main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. Russian Pravda gives the concepts of representatives of the patrimonial administration: fireman, tiun, entrance, stable, rotal and village elders, etc. The articles also allow one to judge the class struggle - escapes, theft of property, ruin of the board, breakdown of tools, transfer of boundary signs, murder of the patrimonial administration ( a larger fine is the difference with the key - a larger penalty), etc.
Monomakh published an addition to the Russian Pravda - the “Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodich”, which alleviated the situation of the urban poor. It is possible that the Long Russian Pravda was soon drawn up - an all-Russian law that expanded the legal norms of the domain “Pravda of the Yaroslavichs”.
The meaning of Russian Truth– the first legislative monument of the Russian state: it established judicial norms, limited the arbitrariness of judges, acted in all Russian, even Lithuanian, lands until the 15th century; this is a legislative document limiting consanguineous revenge and remnants of the tribal system; contributed to the real merging of lands into a single whole; protected land property, strengthened the estate (Article 46 speaks of the existence of princely, boyar and monastic serfs), and contributed to the development of feudal relations, which were progressive at that time; this is the most important historical source.
Under Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054), the state flourished further. During his reign, Sophia of Kiev was elevated.
6. Interaction with Western, Eastern and steppe civilizations. Yaroslav also acted as a continuator of his father’s efforts to organize the country’s defense from attacks by nomads. So, in 1032, he “started to build cities” along the Ros River, at the southern borders of the Kyiv land. When the Pechenegs managed to break through the defensive lines and approach Kyiv in 1036, Yaroslav inflicted a heavy defeat on them at the city walls. The object of the active foreign policy of Grand Duke Yaroslav were the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes near the northwestern borders of the Old Russian state. He went on campaigns against the Yatvingians and “Lithuania”; his son Vladimir, who was sitting in Novgorod, undertook a campaign against the Finnish tribe. In the introductory part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" the Em, Lithuania, Estonians (Chud), Zemgalls, Curonians, and Livs are mentioned as tributaries of Rus'. The dependence of these Baltic tribes on Rus' (on the Polotsk land) was probably established precisely during the reign of Yaroslav. On the land of the Estonians in 1030 he established the city of Yuryev - a stronghold of Russian power in this region.
During the reign of Yaroslav, Rus' finally took a prominent, honorable place in the commonwealth of states of Christian Europe. This is clearly evidenced by the marriage ties of Yaroslav the Wise himself and his family members. Yaroslav's wife was the daughter of the Swedish king Ingigerd - Irina, his eldest son Izyaslav was married to the sister of the Polish king Casimir, another son, Vsevolod - to the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Monomakh, Yaroslav's daughters married the kings of Hungary, Norway and France.
In the 60-70s. XI century Cuman tribes settled across the Eastern European steppes. The Pecheneg horde, having moved to the west, began to constantly invade the lands of Byzantium, which had by that time conquered the First Bulgarian Kingdom. In 1091, the horde was defeated by the troops of the Byzantine Emperor Alexei I Komnenos and the Polovs. From then until the middle of the 13th century. The Cumans were masters of the Eastern European steppes.
According to researchers, Polovtsian society has reached a higher level of development than Pecheneg society. Throughout the entire period of the X-XIII centuries. the lands of southern Russia, bordering the steppe zone, constantly lost a significant part of the surplus product and its producers themselves, both of which became the prey of nomads. Conflicts with nomads in Eastern Europe were characteristic not only of Ancient Rus'. The nature of political power and the significance of the Old Russian state.
7. The nature of political power and the significance of the Old Russian state. What conclusion about the nature of the social system of Kievan Rus can be made on the basis of the Russian Truth? Does the content of this source give grounds to talk about a special version of Russian feudalism, and if so, what are its distinctive features?
Soviet historiography defined the Old Russian state in the 9th-10th centuries. like the early feudal monarchy. After great discussions in the 30s. the concept of the formation of a feudal formation in Rus' was established, which was later formulated by B. D. Grekov, it was supported by S. v. Yushkov, shifting the chronology from the IX-X centuries. in the 11th century L.V. Cherepnin in 1953 (and 1972) put forward the theory of “state feudalism”. In the early feudal period, the state's supreme ownership of land prevailed, and the bulk of the exploited were represented personally by the free population of neighboring communities. tributary stinkers. They were subjected to state exploitation. This point of view was developed by I. I. Smirnov, V. V. Mavrodin, partly B. A. Rybakov. The opposite point of view was put forward in 1980 by I. Ya. Froyanov, who wrote that in Rus' there were city-states similar to ancient city-states. A. A. Gorsky refutes these statements; his point of view, developing the traditions of Cherepnin, seems to us the most acceptable. So, the social system can be defined as “state-feudal”, with the proviso that the state is the “total feudal lord” - the princes and the nobles surrounding them.
Florya B.N. believes that the political entity that has developed on the territory of Eastern Europe has every reason to be characterized as a state where the ruler-prince acts as an equal partner of the Byzantine emperor. This society is socially heterogeneous. The dominant social group in it is the squad - a community of armed warriors bound to the ruler by an oath of allegiance. In exercising his power, the ruler relies on the squad, and one of the most important tasks of his policy is to satisfy the needs of the squad.
There was a close, inextricable connection between the interests of the squad and its head, the prince, which was sealed not only by the oath of allegiance. The prince and the squad were also united by a far-reaching property community - the community of a group of people living together at one hearth - “ognishchane” (hence one of the names of the warriors - “ognishchane”). From the prince, the warriors received clothes and weapons, ate with him at the same table in a special room - “gridnitsa” (from another name for the warriors - “gridi”). The remains of this grid of the 10th century. discovered by archaeologists in Kyiv near the building of the State Historical Museum of Ukraine. “Lots of livestock, meat and animals” were constantly delivered here. The squad differed sharply from the rest of the population not only in its diet, which always included meat food that was rarely available to ordinary rural residents, but also in its entire appearance and standard of living. The Arab diplomat Ibn Fadlan, who visited in the 20s. X century Bolgar on the Volga, described the funeral of a rich “Rus” who died there. He lay on a bench covered with precious Byzantine fabric, wearing a brocade caftan with gold buttons and a sable cap.
In the burials of princely warriors from the middle - second half of the 10th century. In the so-called log tombs of the Kyiv necropolis, rich sets of weapons and horse harnesses were discovered, some of them contained richly decorated (in particular, necklaces made of coins) skeletons of women killed at the grave of the deceased. This way of life was provided to the warriors by the prince, hence their interest in ensuring that his power was as strong as possible and his treasury as full as possible. Thus, it is known that the second person in the state, governor Sveneld, had his own squad for maintenance. As part of the squad in the first half of the 10th century. there were still many Normans (voivode Sveneld is an example). Obviously, at this time the squad had to be supported by the population of the “Russian Land”, from which the prince collected tribute.
A. A. Gorsky believes that in the 11th century. the division of the squad into two parts is clearly visible: the “oldest” (aka “first, “big”, “best”) and the “youngest”. Members of the oldest squad" were called boyars, "younger" - youths. From the second half of the 11th century. The “young squad” is differentiated: part of it turns into princely military servants, denoted by the old term "youths" ( the oldest collective name for the junior squad of come or g ride(Scandinavian grid - yard servant) was later replaced by the word yard or servants), part in children's, a more privileged layer, often from princes. The state apparatus is formed from the vigilantes. It is they who hold the positions of posadnik (prince's governor in the city), thousand (operates in the capital city, commands the city militia in military campaigns), voivode (leader of a military detachment. At first, under one prince there was one voivode, from the 11th century - several boyar-voivodes ), swordsmen (court officials who collected court fees), tributaries (people who collected land taxes - tribute), virniks, emtsev (collectors of state taxes). From the top of the squad a princely advice. In the 11th century The warriors begin to have their own land holdings (through princely grants).
The view of the squad as a corporation of the early medieval social elite was expressed in the 1980s. A. A. Gorsky, supported by N. F. Kotlyar, E. A. Shinakov, etc. At the end of the XII - XIII centuries. the squad in this role is replaced by the princely “court”. The cavalry played an important role in the army, suitable both for long marches and for fighting the mounted detachments of southern nomads.
Veches often gathered in cities. The presence of a veche and a people's militia during military campaigns testifies to the remnants of the clan system. The princes gathered for the filming.
The Rurikovichs looked at Ancient Rus' as their fiefdom and ruled it accordingly. Initially, the eldest in the family became the Grand Duke, gradually power began to pass from father to son. Physical seniority did not always coincide with political seniority, so with each change of prince there was a struggle. S. M. Solovyov believed that in 1169 - with the capture of Kyiv by A. Bogolyubsky - state power defeated the tribal principle, power was now transferred from father to son, and a monarchy was formed.
What is the type of political state? Ancient Rus' did not correspond to the concept of “empire”. 22 ethnic groups inhabiting the East European plain were assimilated by the Slavs, the peoples in the north-west retained their independence. The title of the ruler from the Rurik family “Russian prince” developed, which is found in documents and on coins. Typologically, Ancient Rus' was closer to Western European monarchies. Three types of historical and cultural development can be distinguished: 1. Western European type (Latin alphabet, Catholic branch of Christianity). 2. Byzantine civilization (Greek alphabet, Orthodoxy). 3. Slavic Orthodox type (Slavic alphabet, Orthodoxy). Southern and Eastern Slavs.
According to its social type, Rus' is conventionally defined as a feudal state. In Western Europe, private property of feudal lords is rapidly being formed; in Rus' this process is proceeding slowly. Rus' followed the European path: a single state, then feudal fragmentation, time differences. The process led to the formation of three or four large states in the future; it was complicated by the Mongol invasion, which deformed the process.
Spiritual culture is another matter. Rus' was under the influence of the Byzantine super-culture.
In the second half of the 11th century. the power of the Grand Duke weakened. At the beginning of the 12th century. The first signs of the collapse of the Old Russian state appeared. In 1097, a congress of princes, members of the princely family, met in Lyubech, which is considered to be the last attempt to preserve the state. But the decision made - “everyone to keep his fatherland” meant the transformation of lands that were in the possession of individual princes into their hereditary property, which they could now freely and unhinderedly transfer to their heirs, and this is a step towards political fragmentation.
Internecine wars have been going on for a century. From the east, the raids of new nomadic tribes - the Polovtsians - intensified. There were uprisings in Kyiv, and a whole series of campaigns followed with the participation of all the main Russian princes (1103, 1107, 1111). Thanks to the joint actions of the princes, serious defeats were inflicted on the Polovtsians. Victories over the Polovtsians contributed to the growth of the authority of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Monomakh. When Vladimir Monomakh took the Kiev throne in 1113, an attempt was made to restore the former significance of the power of the Kyiv prince, a new collection of laws “Long-Russian Truth” was prepared, which was in force for centuries throughout the entire territory of the Old Russian state. And yet there was no restoration of the previous order. Interprincely wars of the 40-50s. XII century became the completion of the political disintegration of the state into independent principalities.
The meaning of the Old Russian state: protected its people from their neighbors, first of all, from the raids of nomads; protected the peoples of Europe from the raids of nomads, prevented the advance of Turkic-speaking tribes into Europe; contributed to the development of the economy; accelerated the process of feudalization; contributed to the development of ancient Russian culture; within the framework of Ancient Rus', the Old Russian nationality developed, which became the basis for three peoples - Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian; Rus' had world markets (Kyiv) and played the role of transit for world trade.
Control questions
1. Baptism of Rus'.
2. What questions of the history of Ancient Rus' does Russian Truth allow us to study?
3. Describe the position of the smerds
4. Who is Ryadovich?
5. What position did purchasing occupy?
6. What was common and different in the position of smerds, purchasers and rank-and-file workers?
7. Show the position and slaves. Compare the position of the slave and the purchaser. How were they different?
8. Characterize the type of cultural and civilizational interaction between Byzantium and Ancient Rus'.
RUSSIAN LANDS
Old Russian state (Kievan Rus): prerequisites for formation, flourishing, reasons for collapse
The question of the origin of the Old Russian state comes from two main theories: Norman and anti-Norman (Slavic). The Norman theory was substantiated by Miller and Bayer in the 18th century, supported by Klyuchevsky and Solovyov. The basis for this theory was the message in The Tale of Bygone Years about the Slavs calling the Varangians with their squads to reign in Rus'. The anti-Norman (Slavic) theory was put forward by Lomonosov in the 18th century and was most fully developed by Academician Rybakov. According to this theory, the origin of Kievan Rus has a southern origin. Evidence: in the region of Kievan Rus the Ros River flows, where the Rossolani tribes lived. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state:
- 1. The ethnic community of the Old Russian people speaking the same language.
- 2. The desire to join forces in the fight against nomads.
- 3. Economic interests of ancient Russian princes along the river route from the Varangians to the Greeks.
The unification of the ancient Russian state occurred during the campaign of the Novgorod prince Oleg to Kyiv at the end of the 9th century.
The territorial growth of Kievan Rus' mostly ended by the beginning of the 11th century under Vladimir I.
In the history of the Old Russian state, three stages can be distinguished:
- 1. Second half of the 9th - 10th centuries. The main content is the unification of the entire ancient Russian nation in a single state, the creation of an apparatus of power and a military organization;
- 2. end of the X - first half of the XI century. It was based on a new significant growth in large feudal land ownership, an increase in urban centers, and an increase in the size of the trade and craft population;
- 3. second half of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. It is characterized by the onset of feudal fragmentation and the collapse of Kievan Rus.
In Kievan Rus, the supreme owner of the land was the state. Since the middle of the 12th century, princely, boyar and monastic land ownership has been successfully developing. In parallel to this, there was an increase in the feudal dependence of numerous categories of direct producers: smerds, purchases, rank and file, outcasts. In the X-XI centuries. There was an intensive growth of cities, which became the most important centers of crafts and trade, political and cultural life.
The feudal system existed along with slavery and primitive patriarchal relations. Under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), Kievan Rus reached its greatest power. He managed to secure Rus' from Pecheneg raids, strengthen Russian positions in the Baltic states and take possession of the lands east of the Dnieper. Yaroslav became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus. Under Yaroslav the Wise, Rus' achieved international recognition.
With the development of feudal relations and the strengthening of local political centers, the importance of the Kyiv national political center decreased, and tendencies towards the isolation of principalities intensified. On the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, the Lyubech Congress of Princes was convened in 1097, at which it was decided to stop strife and the principle “Let everyone keep his fatherland” was proclaimed. Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son Mstislav still held power over all ancient Russian lands. However, after the death of Mstislav, feudal strife intensified. As a result, the united Old Russian state fell apart into a number of sovereign principalities, and a period of fragmentation, or the appanage period, began.
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Education and flourishing of the Old Russian state
The formation of Kievan Rus is a natural result of the socio-economic development of the East Slavic ethnic community. The established state was an early feudal monarchy. The head of state was considered the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His squad ruled the country, administered justice, collected taxes and tribute.
The young state was forced to strain its efforts to protect its borders from the raids of nomads, the harassment of Byzantium, the Khazars, and Volga Bulgaria. This left its mark on the domestic and foreign policy of the Kyiv princes.
The emergence of Novgorod-Kievan Rus. The process of formation of the Eastern Slavs into a single state, as well as the origin of the dynasty of Kyiv princes, are not clear enough. According to the chronicler XII., the decisive role in this was played by the Varangian prince Rurik and his brothers. But the transfer of power in Novgorod to Rurik (even if he was a real historical figure) did not mean the creation of an ancient Russian state.
It is known that in 860. The Kyiv princes Askold and Dir made a successful military campaign against Byzantium, from which we can assume the existence at that time of a Slavic state in the middle Dnieper region.
After the death of Rurik (died in 879), power in Novgorod was seized by Oleg, one of the Varangian princes, because Rurik did not leave behind an heir (there is a version that Igor was the heir, hence the expressions accepted in historical literature - the dynasty of Rurik princes, the Rurik power). In 882 Oleg captured Kyiv, the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir (believed to be descendants of Kiy) were killed. Kyiv became the center of the united state.
The rise of Kievan Rus. Svyatoslav's son Vladimir (980-1015) collected all the lands of the Eastern Slavs as part of Kievan Rus. We will improve the state apparatus. Large centers of the country were transferred to the control of princely sons and senior warriors. Thanks to the system of fortresses, the borders of the state were strengthened.
By this time, feudal relations were established in the Kiev state, and the main classes of feudal society were formed - feudal lords and peasants; feudal lords arose from the tribal nobility, due to the settlement of the prince's warriors on the land and the selection of the richest members of the community.
The peasantry was formed due to the transformation of former free community members into feudal dependent people during the seizure of communal lands by feudal lords, when the prince distributed lands to warriors for service and during the ruin of community members’ farms due to natural disasters, wars, etc.
The feudal lords acted as owners of the land, and the peasants as its holders, receiving a plot of land from the feudal lord on certain conditions: either by working on the master's land, or by paying a quitrent in kind or in cash. The peasant was personally dependent on the feudal lord, and this was the meaning of non-economic coercion. Peasant property consisted of tools, livestock, and housing.
A common economic unit at that time was the feudal votchina (votchina - paternal possession, passed on by inheritance) of a boyar or prince. In addition to the estate, there was an economy of free peasants - community members who paid tribute to the Grand Duke.
The entire free population of Kievan Rus was called “people”, therefore the collection of tribute is “polyudye”.
The bulk of the rural population were “smerds”, who lived either in free peasant communities or in estates. The life of the Smerds in the estates was more difficult, since they were in serfdom. Smerd fell into serfdom through procurement, i.e. when he borrowed a “kupa” from the feudal lord - part of the harvest, money, livestock. Such peasants were called “purchases”; they were freed from dependence upon repayment of the debt. In addition to smerds and purchases, there were slaves in the estate - “slaves”, or “servants”, replenished from prisoners and impoverished fellow tribesmen. The development of feudal relations required appropriate ideological support, which was associated at that time with religious ideas.
Vladimir tried to reform pagan Ancient Rus'. For this purpose, statues of all tribal gods were brought to Kyiv. But Vladimir failed to turn paganism into the state religion, since each tribe worshiped its own gods.
In 988-989 Vladimir carries out another religious reform. Byzantine Christianity was chosen as the state religion. Around 988 Vladimir was baptized himself, and then ordered the boyars and people to be baptized. Christianity was introduced slowly, especially on the outskirts of the state, the people resisted.
The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for Kievan Rus. It strengthened the power of feudal lords, state power and the territorial unity of the country. Rus' has now become equal to other Christian countries, and foreign relations have increased significantly. Christianity also had its influence on the culture of Rus'.
With the adoption of Christianity, a special organization appears - the church. A metropolitan, appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, was placed at its head; bishops appeared in certain regions of Rus', to whom local priests were subordinate. The entire population was required to pay the church "tithe" (tenth of income). Church institutions soon become the largest feudal owners, exerting enormous influence on the domestic and foreign policy of the state. education Kievan Rus Christianity
After the death of Vladimir, Yaroslav, called the Wise (1019-1054), strengthened the borders of the state from the raids of nomads. The increased authority of Rus' allowed Yaroslav to appoint a metropolitan for the first time, bypassing Constantinople. It was the Russian writer and statesman Hilarion. The Grand Duke himself began to be called a tsar, like the ruler of Byzantium.
Under Yaroslav the Wise, the Kiev state enjoyed wide international recognition; the largest royal courts in Europe sought to become related to the Kyiv prince.
The name of Yaroslav is associated with the appearance of “Russian Truth” - a kind of code of laws regulating relationships between individual groups of the population. Thus, “Russkaya Pravda” limited blood feuds between close relatives, settled disputes between free people, etc. It was supplemented by a number of articles in defense of the patrimony. The new document was called "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs."
From this document it became known how the estate was structured. Its center was the prince's or boyar's courtyard with the mansions of the feudal lord, the houses of his associates, a barnyard, and a stable. The fiefdom was ruled by the fireman ("fire" - house). The wealth of the estate was the land, it was protected by a huge fine. Feudal-dependent serfs, serfs, and servants worked on the master's land. The elders supervised their work. Craftsmen also lived on the estate.
“Pravda Yaroslavichy” abolished blood feud and increased the difference in payment for the murder of various categories of the population, protecting the property, life of feudal lords and people close to them.
In 1113 after the popular uprising in Kyiv, at the invitation of the Kyiv boyars, Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) became the Grand Duke. Vladimir Monomakh was forced to make concessions to the people, supplementing the “Russian Truth” with a Charter, according to which the collection of interest by moneylenders was regulated and the position of the merchants was improved. The Charter paid attention to serfs and procurement, especially since procurement became widespread and the enslavement of serfs accelerated.
Vladimir Monomakh managed to keep the entire Russian land under his rule, although the signs of fragmentation were increasingly intensifying. Under him, the international authority of Kievan Rus increased. The chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled.
After the death of Vladimir Monomakh's son Mstislav in 1132, Kievan Rus finally collapsed. A period of feudal fragmentation began.
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