Chapter 11
Australia and Oceania:
prosperous English-speaking periphery and the isolated world of the islands
11.1. Commonwealth of Australia
Territory and natural environment. Australia, like New Zealand, is indeed located on the geographical periphery of the world, which cannot be said about their role in the world economy (Table 11.1). In many ways, these countries are united by the history of education and modern state-political status. They were formed as resettlement possessions of Great Britain and were populated by settlers from this country. At the beginning of the 19th century. the colonies united into a federation, and a century later received dominion status and full independence within the British Commonwealth. Modern Australia is a highly developed industrial-agrarian country, an active participant in international economic and political relations, and one of the world's centers for the supply of mineral raw materials. Now it is a member of the Commonwealth, led by Great Britain. However, many Australians today are no longer satisfied with traditional dependence on Great Britain.
Australia is a state that occupies an entire continent. Tasmania, as well as a number of small islands. Its official name - the Commonwealth of Australia - indicates the federal structure of the country. The Union includes 6 states: New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania, as well as two territories: the Northern Territory and the Capital Territory (in addition, the capital Canberra is part of a special administrative unit). According to many economic indicators (primarily GDP and its size per capita), Australia is one of the most developed countries in the world. New Zealand (belonging to the countries of Oceania) is also a state with a developed market economy, located mainly on two islands - North and South, separated by Cook Strait.
Table 11.1
Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand: statistical data bank
Area, thousand km2
Population, million people
Natural increase, %
Life expectancy, years
Consumption kcal/day
total, billion dollars
per 1 person, dollars
Australia
New Zealand
Australia is the only state in the world that occupies the territory of an entire continent, so it has only maritime borders. Its territory is isolated from other continents, large markets for raw materials and sales of products. One of the most favorable factors of Australia's geographical location is its relative proximity to the countries of the dynamically developing Asia-Pacific region.
Australia is the flattest continent in the world. Mountains and hills occupy only 5% of the area, the rest of the area is mainly deserts and semi-deserts, overgrown with prickly grass and shrubs. Located primarily in tropical and subtropical latitudes, where the influx of solar radiation is high, the Australian mainland is heating up greatly. Due to the weak ruggedness of the coastline and the elevation of the marginal parts, the influence of the seas surrounding Australia has little effect in the interior parts of the continent. Therefore, the climate of most of Australia is characterized by extreme aridity. Australia is the driest continent on Earth. Noticeable amounts of precipitation are observed only in the north and northeast of the mainland. The areas of the coastal plains and eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range, as well as about. Tasmania.
The hot climate and insignificant and uneven precipitation over most of the continent lead to the fact that almost 60% of its territory is deprived of flow to the ocean and has only a sparse network of temporary watercourses. No other continent has such a poorly developed network of inland waters as Australia.
The comparative uniformity of the natural conditions of the Australian continent, associated with its small size, low contrast of geological structure and relief, as well as the position of most of it within the subequatorial and tropical zones, are the reason for less pronounced natural differentiation in comparison with other inhabited continents.
With a certain degree of convention, physical-geographical regions within Australia can be distinguished depending on the relief features and changes in zonal and climatic conditions:
Northern Australia, including the three northern peninsulas - Cape York, Arnhemland and Kimberley (Tasmanland), as well as parts of the mainland adjacent to them from the south (up to parallels 18 - 20 ° S);
East Australian region, covering the east coast of the mainland and the East Australian Mountains;
The central plains, the boundaries of which in the east run along the western foot of the East Australian Mountains, in the west along the eastern edge of the Western Australian Plateau, in the north the region is limited by low plateau-like massifs along which the watershed between the basins of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Lake Eyre passes;
The plateaus and mountains of Western Australia, which represent the most extensive area, bordering in the north with the region of Northern Australia, in the east - with the Central Plains, in the northwest and south it goes to the shores of the Indian Ocean (in terms of zonal position and natural conditions, this area can be compared with Sugar);
Southern massifs, “fitting” into a relatively small area located on the shores of the Indian Ocean east of the Great Australian Bight, whose natural conditions differ significantly from neighboring areas;
The southwestern region, washed on three sides by the Indian Ocean and bordering the plateau of Western Australia (according to natural conditions, the region is close to the Southern Massifs);
The island of Tasmania is a separate physical-geographical region on the border of the subtropical and temperate zones of the Southern Hemisphere.
A distinctive feature of Australian nature is its endemicity. Australia is a sanctuary country where “fossil” plants and animals are still preserved. The first colonists did not find plant species characteristic of Europe on the mainland. Subsequently, European and other species of trees, shrubs and grasses were introduced to Australia. Grapes, cotton, grains (wheat, barley, oats, rice, corn, etc.), vegetables, many fruit trees, etc. are well established here.
Australia has a variety of mineral resources. This is one of the richest countries in the world in mineral resources. New discoveries of mineral resources made on the continent over the past decades have brought the country to one of the first places in the world in reserves and production of such minerals as coal, uranium, iron, manganese, lead-zinc and copper ores, bauxite, nickel, gold, silver, diamonds, cobalt, tantalum, etc. Geological surveys have established that in the bowels of the Australian continent and on the shelf off its coast there are large deposits of oil and natural gas.
Under the deserts and semi-deserts of the continent, at a depth of 20 to 200 m, huge reserves of highly mineralized warm and hot water have been discovered, which can be used for household and other needs.
Population. The beginning of the European colonization of Australia was marked by the voyage of J. Cook, who in 1770. explored the eastern coast of the mainland and declared it a British possession. The first settlers were 850 convicts and about 200 soldiers and officers who sailed from England in May 1787. and reached the southeast coast of Australia on January 26, 1788. (Since then, January 26 is celebrated in the country as a national day). They founded the first European settlement on the mainland, called Sydney - in honor of the then Secretary of the Colonies of England. Over the next few decades, about 160 thousand convicts were exiled to Australia from England and several hundred thousand free colonists left, who became permanent residents of these distant lands.
The presence of rich grazing lands east of the Great Dividing Range has led to the development of large sheep farms here. To provide them with labor, the authorities began to stimulate free immigration to Australia from the mother country. Discoveries in the 50s XIX century gold deposits in the southeast and west of the mainland caused a new massive wave of immigration to Australia, from virtually all over the world. As a result, the colony's population growth accelerated markedly. At the beginning of the 20th century. Almost 3.8 million people lived in the Commonwealth of Australia. At the same time, the role of immigration remains predominant or very significant. Over the course of the century, the population continued to increase, currently reaching almost 20 million people.
About 77% of the modern population of Australia are descendants of settlers from the British Isles, who formed the Anglo-Australian nation. The rest are immigrants from other European countries, and in recent years - from Asian countries. The country is home to over 200 thousand people from the territory of the former USSR, including several tens of thousands of Russians. Aboriginal people make up 1.2% of Australia's total population.
The role of the indigenous population of the Australian continent, including the inhabitants of the Torres Strait Islands (about 7 thousand islanders belonging to the Melanesian group of peoples live on these islands that are part of Australia), in the process of socio-economic development of the state has always remained minimal. Before the arrival of the whites, 300 - 500 thousand aborigines lived on the mainland, mainly in its southeastern part. The indigenous people who survived the mass extermination were expelled from their native lands and pushed into the most deserted and unsuitable territories for life or were confined to reservations. By the end of the 20th century. Most of the Aborigines were concentrated in the driest lands (Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia). Since the mid-60s, when the overwhelming majority of discriminatory restrictions were abolished and Aborigines were recognized as “citizens of Australia,” thousands of them flocked to Sydney and Melbourne. Brisbane in search of a livelihood. On the outskirts of the largest cities, de facto segregated ghettos of indigenous Australians arose.
The continent's indigenous people now make up about 1% of the country's total population. Most of them are in the Northern Territory and the Torres Islands. There they lead a traditional lifestyle of hunters and gatherers, maintaining a mystical, from the point of view of Europeans, attitude towards mother earth. There are relatively few aborigines in cities, and they are considered the most disadvantaged and unfortunate, because they have been torn out of their usual environment and not all have adapted to civilization. Until 1967 Aboriginal people were not recognized as Australian citizens at all, and some “scientists” tried to prove their similarity to Neanderthals. Today, the Australian government has changed its attitude towards the indigenous people of the country, is trying to educate them and compensate for the loss of their ancestral lands. To this we add that the banner of the indigenous people of Australia looks like this: the upper half is black (their skin), the lower half is red (the color of the earth and the blood shed by the aborigines who defended their land), a yellow circle in the center (the sun, the giver of life).
And although today there is a complex process of the indigenous population realizing the commonality of their interests, the consolidation of numerous Aboriginal communities into a national minority, it would be premature to talk about the existence of their special “regional identity” due to differences in language, religious beliefs, level of community development, etc. .
In this regard, neither in the formation of the first colonies in Australia and their unification into a federal state, nor in the formation of the modern political-administrative structure and economic regions, the factor of the indigenous population played practically no role. It was only in recent decades, in response to the ongoing demands of Aboriginal people to recognize their rights to "traditional lands", that the government of South Australia (in contrast to the hard-line positions of the governments of Western Australia and Queensland) entered into the country's first agreement with the indigenous people of the Pitjantjatjatjara tribe, according to which recognized as “inalienable property” of a tenth of the state’s territory (an area approximately equal to Austria and Hungary combined). It is unlikely, however, that it is worth overestimating the possible impulses of regionalism in this regard, as in the case of the organization of cooperative cattle breeding farms of the Yungngora Aboriginal tribe in Nunkanba (in the north-west of Australia).
Of all the major regions of the world, Australia is the least densely populated. At the same time, the contrasts in settlement within the continent are also extremely large. Approximately 1/4 of the country's area, which has the natural prerequisites for this, is populated and developed - the South-East, North-East and South-West. More than 80% of the country's population is concentrated here. The vast majority of Australian cities are also located here, including the largest - Sydney (4 million people), Melbourne (3.5 million), Brisbane (1.4 million), Perth (1.2 million), Adelaide (1.1 million people). The overall level of urbanization (85%) in Australia is very high.
The hinterlands are very sparsely populated. The population there lives on isolated farms located tens or hundreds of kilometers apart from each other. In some areas there are small towns associated with the primary processing of agricultural products or mineral raw materials.
As you know, Australia is still experiencing the consequences of its remoteness from the most important centers of world civilization. This remoteness can be figuratively called the “tyranny of distance.” Along with the vast expanses (taking into account the low population density!) of the green continent, colossal natural resources, the remoteness gave rise to some features of the national character. (Australians are accustomed to a slow-paced life, which is probably why the type of Australian who likes to sit and gossip over a bottle of beer, the Australian with a “beer belly,” has emerged.)
Let us cite, not without subjectivity, E. Kish’s opinion about the inhabitants of this continent, stated back in 1934: “A real Australian does not have an ambitious desire to be accepted in a “better society”; unlike Europe, titles and orders, even wealth in itself, do not inspire admiration here; Unlike America, here it seems ridiculous to value everything in the world only by its purchase price. The main rule of an Australian is to make your life as easy as possible without burdening your mind or heart.”
While this somewhat disappointing verdict cannot be taken at face value, it does capture some of the characteristics of the changing Australian mentality fairly well. Today, “the image of a white tribe living in Asia and subservient to Great Britain” is being transformed, if only due to the fact that the number of new emigrants from Asia has noticeably increased here. At the beginning of the 21st century. More than 300 thousand Muslims already lived in Australia, of which 100 thousand lived in Melbourne. For this reason alone, Australia is gradually overcoming traditional English customs. On the other hand, the rapid growth in the number of Muslims introduces a certain “dissonance” into the traditional Australian identity, since until recently the continent remained purely Christian. Among believers in Australia and New Zealand, Catholics, Anglicans, Methodists, etc. predominate.
However, we should not forget about such components of Australian identity as “English-speaking peripherality”, the language of moral and political concepts of Western civilization, etc.
State. Australia has a federal parliamentary structure and, as noted above, includes 6 states - New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, as well as 2 territories - Northern and Australian Capital Territory. The capital of the state is Canberra (over 300 thousand people).
The Commonwealth of Australia was founded on January 1, 1901 by uniting six self-governing British colonies on a federal basis, which became states of the new state. The designated territories - the Northern and Australian Capital Territories, which traditionally were subordinate to the national government of the Union, now have powers comparable to those of the state governments. The legislative, judicial and executive branches of the federal government of the Union are concentrated in the capital of Canberra. The federal system coexists with parliamentary institutions similar to the British parliamentary model.
Canberra is the political, scientific and cultural center of the state. Together with its suburbs, Canberra forms the Australian Capital Territory, which is an independent administrative unit. Canberra's population is more than 350 thousand people.
Canberra was founded in 1913. The city received official status as the capital of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1927. Canberra was originally different from other large Australian cities, built according to Western European style. High-rise buildings were not allowed here, and the capital was not supposed to perform important industrial functions. It was built mainly as the seat of government and one of the centers for the development of culture and science in Australia. The city's layout included a whole system of squares surrounded by ring and radial streets. Trade, administrative, cultural and educational zones were separated by cozy parks with an abundance of green spaces. Transport links between urban areas were provided through a network of major highways and bridges. A significant event in the life of the capital was the opening of the National University (1952). This provided representatives of the younger generation with the opportunity to obtain prestigious professions without leaving Canberra for Sydney or Melbourne. Adelaide or Perth are cities whose universities (the oldest in Australia) have long been famous for their excellent level of education. In addition, after the Second World War, many new secondary schools opened in Canberra, not only private, privileged, but also public, intended for children from low-income families. In the second half of the 20th century. Scientific research activities began to develop intensively in Canberra, cinemas, theaters and other cultural and entertainment institutions were built, museums and exhibitions were opened. Along with cultural construction, housing construction also expanded widely. Currently, Canberra is one of the most beautiful modern capitals in the world.
Australia is a member of the Commonwealth, the head of state is the British monarch, who is represented by the Governor-General, appointed on the recommendation of the Australian government. According to the strict rule underlying the parliamentary system, this nominal head of state acts only with the knowledge of the government, in particular the prime minister. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the parliamentary majority party.
Australia's foreign policy activities in modern times have traditionally been structured in accordance with the position of Great Britain, and since the second half of the 20th century. and the USA. In alliance with Great Britain, Australia participated in the First World War (1914 - 1918) and the Second World War (1939 - 1945). The events of World War II in the Pacific led to a close rapprochement between Australia and the United States. After the end of the war, Australian troops, along with the US Army, fought on the Korean Peninsula (1950 - 1953) and in Vietnam (1966 - 1972). Australians helped the Americans during the Gulf War (1991 - 1992), in the peacekeeping mission in Somalia (1992), and supported the occupation of Iraq (2003).
The basis of modern Australian foreign policy is maintaining a balance between the country's proximity to the Asia-Pacific region and the dominant US-British political orientation.
Australia's economy and internal differences. A key role in the country's economy belongs to the mining industry and agriculture, which significantly distinguishes Australia from other industrialized countries and somehow brings it closer to Canada. Australia occupies a leading position in the world in the extraction of a number of metal ores (iron ore, zinc, lead).
The Australian mining industry is distinguished by high technical equipment, large volumes of production of various minerals and their high exportability. The country ranks first in the world in the mining of bauxite, zinc, and diamonds, second in the mining of iron ore, uranium and lead, and third in the mining of nickel and gold. It is also one of the world leaders in the production of coal, manganese, silver, copper, and tin. Australian fuels and raw materials are sent primarily to Japan, the USA and Western Europe. Oil and natural gas resources meet the country's internal needs.
Traditional mining areas, which remain important today, are located in the south-east and south of the country in the states of New South Wales and South Australia. Coal (Sydney-Newcastle area), lead-zinc (Broken Hill) and iron ores (Iron Knob) are mined here. Mount Isa (Queensland) is an important mining center, producing more than half of all Australian copper. Gold mining takes place in the south of Western Australia (Kalgoorlie).
Areas of new development of Australia's mineral resources are currently located in the north and west of the country. These are coal basins and copper ore deposits in the Gladstone area, cobalt and nickel ore deposits in Townsville (Queensland), copper, bismuth ore and gold deposits in Tennant Creek (Northern Territory). The world's largest deposits of high-quality bauxite are developed on the Cape York Peninsula in Weipa. Here, some bauxite is processed into alumina, some goes to the Gladstone alumina refinery or is exported. The exploitation of manganese ores has been organized on Groot Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria, where the largest export port operates.
In the area of the administrative center of the Northern Territory (Darwin), a uranium ore belt has been explored, which accounts for almost all the reserves of this raw material in the country.
Newly discovered diamond deposits are being developed in the north of Western Australia. Another profile of Western Australia is the mining and processing of nickel ores in the south of the state (Kambalda - Kalgoorlie - Kuinana) and iron ores in the north-west (Hamersley or Pilbara basin), from where raw materials are exported to Japan and some other countries through Port Hedland and Dampier.
The main role in oil and natural gas production is played by the continental shelf in Bass Strait and in the northwest near Barrow Island. The prospects for the second basin are more related to the development of natural gas, which is already being exported to Japan in liquefied form in noticeable quantities.
Australia also occupies a leading place in the world in the mining of precious stones such as sapphire and opal.
The example of Australia shows that raw material specialization is not a sign of backwardness. It is important that Australia has highly developed manufacturing industries (automotive manufacturing, electronics and electrical engineering, production of agricultural machinery, etc.), the products of which still exceed the value of mining products. The city of Broken Hill, located in the southeast of the country, is a kind of capital of the entire mining industry. A specific feature of Australia is its highly developed food (especially meat) industry, which is largely export-oriented.
Agriculture is highly commercial, diversified, technically well-equipped, and has a pronounced export character. In terms of total value of agricultural exports, Australia is second only to the United States, and in terms of its value per capita it is unrivaled. The country exports wheat, meat, sugar, and sheep wool, the number of which it ranks first in the world. The most important and specific branch of Australian livestock farming is sheep breeding.
Already in the middle of the 19th century. Australia has become Britain's main wool supplier. The development of sheep farming was facilitated by local natural conditions, the growing demand of the metropolis for wool, the transportability of wool and leather as trade products, and the extensiveness of the industry, which did not require much labor. Almost half of the sheep population is in the south-eastern states (New South Wales and Victoria). Sheep farms in the interior regions of the country are called sheep stations (ship stations). At such stations, pastures are divided by wire into sections (paddocks) with their own watering place, safety stocks of hay, etc.
The structure of Australia's transport is determined by the size of the territory and the nature of the country's geographical location. Road transport is widespread, but air transportation has become especially developed. A network of scheduled airlines exists in all major Australian cities. Small aviation is widespread, connecting almost all populated areas of the country. Air transport also serves international communications. Meanwhile, the bulk of cargo transportation outside the country is carried out by sea.
In the structure of Australia's merchandise exports, the predominant place is occupied by mineral raw materials and fuels, followed by agricultural products and only then engineering products. The largest import items are finished products: cars, telecommunications equipment, oil, electronic computer equipment, airplanes.
Australia's main trade relations are developing with countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Leading trading partners include Japan, the USA, New Zealand, and the Republic of Korea. Economic relations with Russia occupy an insignificant place.
For a vast and sparsely populated country with a dispersed economy, transport is of great importance. Its cargo turnover is sharply dominated by sea and rail transport. Air transport plays a colossal role.
Given the size of the continent and the relatively small population, the sharp territorial contrasts in the level of habitability and economic development are not surprising. In the specialized literature, 5 large economic regions are most often identified in Australia (I.F. Antonova, 1986):
South-Eastern is the economic “core” of the state. The region covers the states of New South Wales, Victoria, the adjacent south-eastern part of South Australia and includes the territory of the federal capital. The largest cities of the continent are located here - Sydney and Melbourne, at least 2/3 of the country's total population lives, about 80% of manufacturing products are produced, up to 70% of the sheep population is concentrated, more than half the length of railways, etc. The region acquired such importance due to favorable natural conditions and early colonization;
The north-east region covers the state of Queensland with the capital Brisbane (the third most populous city in the country). The climatic conditions are not very comfortable for economic activity, however, the region stands out for its livestock farming (especially cattle breeding) and mining;
West Central is the largest in area (40% of the country's territory) and the driest (it is within its borders that the Great Sandy Desert, Gibson Desert and Great Victoria Desert are located). In the domestic division of labor, it is distinguished by mining and wheat harvesting;
The northern region is characterized by extreme natural conditions and poor development (which is also explained by the consequences of the previously pursued “white Australia” policy and the ban on the entry of Asian migrants into the country). The basis of the region's economy is again mining and agriculture;
Tasmania, which occupies a unique position among other regions due to its island position and natural conditions in the temperate climate zone. The economic profile of the island is associated mainly with the development of hydropower and non-ferrous metallurgy, tourism, and agriculture.
Australia plays an important role in global politics and economics. It is the most important global raw material and energy base. In terms of overall economic development, Australia is one of the top ten Western countries. Meanwhile, Australia remains an arena of rivalry between the largest American, Japanese and British corporations. Australia's importance in the development of the Asia-Pacific region is growing.
^ Test questions and assignments
1. Why are attempts to consider Australia and Oceania as a single cultural and historical macroregion without any basis?
2. In what regions and why is the indigenous population of Australia concentrated today?
3. No continent has so many drainless areas (60% of its surface) as Australia. How can such a deficit of surface water be compensated?
4. What are the features of specialization and location of the economy of the Commonwealth of Australia?
^ Chapter 12. Oceania
Geographical location and European colonization. Oceania is the world's largest collection of islands (about 10 thousand), concentrated in the central and western parts of the Pacific Ocean between 28° north latitude. and 52° S. latitude, 130° east. longitude and 105° west longitude The total area of the region is over 800 thousand km2, which is only 0.7% of the Pacific Ocean where they are located. Therefore, the distance between the islands often exceeds many thousands of kilometers. The total population of the region exceeds 12 million people.
Oceania includes 26 territories, 10 of which (including New Zealand) are independent states (Table 11.2), and some are possessions of developed countries. Most of the non-sovereign territories are, in fact, colonial possessions of the United States (American Samoa, Guam, Marshall Islands, Midway Island, Micronesia, Palau, Northern Mariana Islands, Wake Island), having the status of “non-aligned territories of the United States”, “freely associated with the United States” "or "Commonwealth in political union with the United States."
There are also paradoxes. Thus, the independent state of Papua New Guinea, located in the eastern part of the island, belongs to Oceania, and the western part of the island is the territory of Indonesia and, therefore, is part of Southeast Asia. The Hawaiian Islands occupy a special place in Oceania. Geographically, they belong to the Oceania region, but are a territory (50th state) of the United States.
The division of Oceania into Melanesia (Black Islands), Polynesia (Multi-Island) and Micronesia (Small Islands) is due to the proposal of the French explorer Dumont-D'Urville in 1832, who used racial characteristics as the basis for his differentiation. Micronesians (Marshall, Caroline, Marianna Islands, Gilbert and Nauru Islands) and Polynesians (Marquesas Islands, Society Islands, Tuamotu, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Cook Islands, Hawaiian, Easter) have many characteristics of the Mongoloid race. Melanesians (New Guinea, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, Fiji) are close to the aborigines of Australia.
The European exploration of Oceania began with the Portuguese and Spanish conquistadors during the era of great geographical discoveries. By the end of the 19th century. The colonial division of Oceania ended. At that time, only colonies and protectorates existed in the region. Until the second half of the 20th century. There were no major changes on the political map of Oceania. Taking advantage of the remoteness of the region, the geographical disunity of the islands, and the small population, the metropolises maintained their dominance there for a long time.
Table 11.2
A country
Area, thousand km2
Population, million people
Natural increase, %
Life expectancy, years
Consumption kcal/day
total, billion dollars
per 1 person, dollars
Kiribati
Papua New Guinea
Solomon islands
In addition to economic interests, Western countries were attracted by the strategic location of the Oceanian islands. During the Second World War they were the theater of military operations. After the war, some islands became nuclear weapons test sites (for example, the atolls of Bikini, Eniwetok, Kwajalein in Micronesia, Mururoa in French Polynesia).
The process of sovereignization in Oceania began in the 60s. XX century The states of the region are among the smallest and smallest. Even such a “giant” on the scale of Oceania as Papua New Guinea (PNG) has a population of 5.3 million people, and the next largest Republic of Fiji has less than 1 million. Among the developing countries of Oceania, there are also states with a population of several thousand Human.
Existing attempts to consider Australia and Oceania as a single cultural and historical region are unfounded and are probably based on the accepted classification, according to which Australia and Oceania form the heel
Area - 7692.0 thousand km 2 Population (2018) - 24.1 million people. The capital is Canberra.
The Commonwealth of Australia is the only state that occupies an entire continent. In addition to the mainland of Australia, the state includes Tasmania and a number of other islands. In the north, west and south it is washed by the Indian Ocean, its seas and bays, and in the east by the seas of the Pacific Ocean. It is the sixth country in the world by area.
The economic and geographical position of Australia is characterized by its location in the Southern Hemisphere, far from the main economic centers of the world. At the same time, modern sea and air transport provide constant and reliable communication between the country and the outside world.
The Commonwealth of Australia is a kingdom of the British Commonwealth, and the official head of state is the British monarch. In fact, the prime minister plays the leading role in governing the country. Australia is a federation of 6 states and 2 territories.
Natural conditions and resources. The relief of Australia consists mainly of plains and heavily eroded plateaus. Just to the east is the Great Dividing Range, which contains Australia's highest point, Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 m).
Australia is rich in a variety of mineral resources. The country stands out globally for its reserves of iron, copper, nickel, uranium, bauxite, coal, gold, and diamonds.
The territory of Australia is located mainly in the subequatorial, tropical and subtropical zones; the most important feature of its climate is aridity. Most of the country's territory is occupied by deserts, semi-deserts and savannas. The biggest disadvantage of Australia's natural conditions is the lack of water resources. The water content of the largest river, the Murray and its tributary the Darling, varies dramatically with the seasons.
Population. Australia ranks one of the last among countries in the world in terms of population density. There are an average of 3 people per 1 km2. The population is mainly concentrated in the south-eastern and eastern parts of Australia, while the interior is very sparsely populated.
The natural population growth of Australia is low, amounting to 0.5-0.6% per year. External migration has a great impact on population growth. The annual mechanical growth of the country's population is 0.8-1.0%.
In general, the modern population of Australia was formed as a result of migrations. The indigenous population of the mainland - the Aborigines of Australia - now make up only 1% of the population. The main nation is Anglo-Australians.
The Commonwealth of Australia belongs to a number of highly urbanized states. The share of the urban population is 90%. The largest cities are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide.
Economy. Australia is an economically highly developed state. In terms of GDP, Australia is one of the top twenty countries in the world, and its GDP per capita is higher than in most European countries.
Australia's place in the world economy is largely determined by the mining and fuel industries. It is one of the three world leaders in the production of coal, uranium, iron, bauxite, gold, nickel, and zinc. The bulk of coal, liquefied gas, uranium, ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores is exported to Asian countries, primarily to China. Agriculture is also an important sector of the Australian economy. The main branches of livestock farming are sheep breeding and cattle breeding. Australia ranks 2nd in the number of sheep and wool shearing, and 1st in the world in the export of wool and beef. Agriculture specializes in grain farming, horticulture and viticulture.
Australia's main economic region is the southeast. 70% of the country's population lives here and its 2 largest cities are located - Sydney and Melbourne.
Australia ranks one of the last among countries in the world in terms of population density. There are an average of 3 people per 1 km2. The population is mainly concentrated in the south-eastern and eastern parts of Australia, while the interior is very sparsely populated. The natural population growth of Australia is low, amounting to 0.5-0.6% per year. External migration has a great impact on population growth. The annual mechanical growth of the country's population is 0.8-1.0%.
A. Kayumov, I. Safarov, M. Tillabaeva "Economic and social geography of the world" Tashkent - "Uzbekistan" - 2014
Man came to the territory of modern Australia 40-45 thousand years ago from Southeast Asia (from Indochina or Indonesia). A little later, people appeared on the island of New Guinea. About 12-13 thousand years ago, the “bridge” connecting Asia with Australia through the numerous islands of the Sunda archipelago and narrow straits disappeared as a result of movements of the earth’s crust. Proto-Australians found themselves isolated. However, this did not stop people from gradually populating many islands in Oceania. At the turn of the last century and our era, the “great settlement of the Polynesians” took place.
Europeans first saw the islands of Oceania at the beginning of the 16th century, and in 1521 F. Magellan landed on the island of Guam. Australia was discovered only a hundred years later. What appeared to the eyes of Europeans was very unusual. The indigenous population stood “at the lowest level recorded in recorded history.” Scientists believe that this is “the result of remoteness from the centers of world civilization and unfavorable natural conditions.” But in America, Indian civilization reached a high level, although it was also isolated.
Aborigines of Australia
The Aborigines of Australia (aboriginal meaning "original") were hunters and gatherers. In this they achieved perfection - they used various spears and throwing devices (the well-known boomerangs). The hunt was active, with long pursuits and crowded raids. Gradually, small groups (20-30 people each) were formed, which included collectors. For each such group, a hunting area of about 500 km 2 was required. This predetermined the nomadic lifestyle of the ancient Australians. They lived mainly in camps, and spent the night in hollow trees and simple huts. The aborigines did not have any clothing. Gathering was a great help in nutrition. The Europeans were strongly impressed by the ability of local residents to obtain and eat various roots, larvae, worms, caterpillars and other exotic living creatures.
The closest relatives of the Australian aborigines, the Tasmanians, were in the same isolation. The island of Tasmania was inhabited much later than the mainland - approximately 9-10 thousand years ago. Unlike the Australians, they were more involved in marine fishing, but hunted mainly seals and occasionally fished. Mainland and island aborigines used fire to improve hunting conditions. Each hunting group at that time burned an area of about 100 km 2 annually.
Population of Oceania
The inhabitants of Oceania were much higher in level of development. For example, the Papuans (residents of the island of New Guinea) were actively engaged in agriculture and raising livestock before the arrival of Europeans. In Papuan livestock farming, the main place was occupied by dog breeding (the Australians also had a semi-wild dingo dog), chickens and pigs. Until recently, pigs played a significant role in the life of the Papuans; they were the measure of all values, a kind of money.
The most advanced in the region were the Polynesians - an "interracial compact group." Their appearance is very unique and became widely known thanks to the paintings of P. Gauguin. The lips of Polynesians are similar to the lips of Negroids, the hair is like that of Mongoloids, and the nose has Caucasoid and Australoid features. By the 18th century On the islands of Polynesia, a special type of economy has already developed, called “island” (or “oceanic”). It was based on a kind of agriculture and well-developed fishing. The islanders cultivated bananas, coconut palms, and breadfruit. The development of fishing was facilitated by traditional navigation, in which the Polynesians had no equal. Some researchers believe that even in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Polynesians sailed from Fiji to Tonga.
The colonial era in the region dates back to the second half of the 17th century, when the Spaniards captured the Mariana Islands, and the Dutch undertook a number of major expeditions and A. Tasman reached the shores of the continent. From the second half of the 18th century. England and France began to show the greatest activity, and a century later - the USA and Germany. Of course, the colonization of Australia and Oceania was different from America or Africa. For a long time, there was simply no use for open areas and therefore no interest was shown in them.
The independence of the United States led to the loss of the place of exile for convicts for England, and the problem that arose was discussed in Parliament for a long time. Then, for the first time, the eyes of the British turned to Australia, and a law was passed to create the first convict settlement on the distant continent (in its place is the modern city of Sydney). In 1788, the first transport arrived with 850 prisoners, who were accompanied by 200 soldiers. Australia served as an overseas prison for almost a century! In total, 155 thousand people arrived here. convicts. The French chose the island of New Caledonia for their exiles, located relatively close to Australia. “Only” 50 thousand people were sent there from France.
At the same time, the problem of providing wool for its textile industry arose in England. Australian pastures, although scarce, are large in area! English breeds of sheep were not suitable for Australia, but sheep accustomed to such conditions were imported from South Africa. At that time, the first blow was dealt to the aborigines - they lived in territories that were supposed to become pastures.
From the second half of the 19th century. in Australia they began to grow more grain, produce meat and milk for export (which was facilitated by the invention of refrigerated ships). There was not enough labor; the aborigines could not be forced to do something unknown to them. At the same time, gold deposits were discovered - the “gold rush” began. All this led to the beginning of the systematic settler colonization of Australia. In just 10 years, from 1851 to 1861, the population tripled, although only from 0.4 to 1.2 million people.
At the beginning of the 20th century. the scattered colonies were united into the Commonwealth of Australia, which received the status of a dominion, that is, a self-governing colony. The entire first half of the 20th century, right up to the Second World War, passed under the sign of industrialization. Australia increased the production of a wide variety of mineral raw materials, although manufacturing industries did not receive much development. During this period, the Australian nation fully took shape. Its roots lie in the British Isles, but Australians are quite different from their European compatriots.
The Second World War, which was devastating for Europe, had a beneficial effect on the Australian economy. Using the geographical location of the continent, the United States created a powerful resource rear here, which supplied them with various raw materials and food. During the war years, in addition to traditional production, the manufacturing industry began to develop, and a modern transport system was created (primarily this concerns first-class highways). Throughout almost the entire 20th century. Immigration to Australia was geographically very limited, since it was allowed almost only for Europeans (“white immigration”).
The history of Australia's socio-economic development allows us to see similarities with Canada, the USA and some other countries.
These states are often united under the name “countries of settler capitalism.” Their development is very different from that which European countries went through (“classical capitalism”). The settler countries did not know feudalism and its remnants (remember which ones from the history course). Economic development took place with the decisive role of European immigrants, who formed the core of future nations. Unlike Europe, the development of the economy took place over vast territories and with a relatively small population (at least in the initial stages), which made it possible for the economy to grow “in breadth” rather than “in depth” much longer and longer. Australia has been developing as an independent state for almost a century, but in the world economy it (like Canada) is the largest resource region, although its “raw materials image” in the world is based on a highly efficient domestic economy.
The situation in the countries of Oceania is much more complicated. Small island states can only rely on their natural resources and conditions, as well as their important strategic location, to survive in the face of fierce competition. Favorable climate and good soils make it possible to successfully grow coconut palms, bananas, and various tubers. For 3/4 of all island countries, the main export product is copra - a product of processing coconuts. The resources of seafood are enormous, the export of which is also important. The warm sea, exotic islands are a paradise for rich tourists. Since World War II, Oceania has become a testing ground for US and French atomic weapons. There are air and naval bases on the islands, the largest of which is on the island of Guam (1/6 of the total population are military personnel and their families). Very small islands live, as a rule, from one type of activity. Thus, the Cocos Islands, thanks to the service of a transit airport on the route South Africa - Australia, and the island of Pitcairn, where only a few dozen people live and which was once a place of exile, now lives thanks to the issue of postage stamps.
Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
Higher professional education
"St. Petersburg State
University of Engineering and Economics"
Faculty of Regional Economics and Management.
Department of State and Municipal Administration.
Coursework on the topic
“General geopolitical characteristics of Australia and Oceania”
Completed by: 4th year student
group 462 Shumilova A.I.
Checked by: Putintseva N.A.
Saint Petersburg
annotation
The course work contains three chapters.
Chapter I consists of one section and five subsections:
Australia
This section examines Australia as a whole, its foreign policy, geographical location, history, natural resources, etc.
Chapter II also consists of one section and three subsections:
Oceania
It also examines Oceania as a whole, its geographical location, history, economy
Chapter III includes one section:
Russian-Australian relations
Coursework of 30 pages.
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..……………………4
1. Australia…………………………………………………………..……………………5
1.1 Geography……………………………………………………………………………………….5
1.2 History………………………………………………………………………………...…….6
1.3 Administrative-territorial division……………………………………..8
1.4 Political system………………………………………………………..9
1.5 Economy………………………………………………………………………………………..16
2. Oceania………………………………………………………………………………20
2.1 Geography………………………………………………………………………………………...20
2.2 History………………………………………………………………………………………..21
2.3 Economy……………………………………………………………………….23
3. Russian-Australian relations……………………………………………...24
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...27
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………...…30
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………..31
Introduction
Australia, New Zealand and numerous large and small islands in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, due to a certain commonality of their geographical location and cultural and historical development, can be considered as an independent region - Australia and Oceania.
The region is characterized by some diversity in political and economic relations. It is home to highly developed Australia and New Zealand, small island backward countries that almost recently gained independence, as well as some territories that still remain colonies.
Australia (Union of Australia) is a state that occupies the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and many small islands. It is a federal state within the Commonwealth, led by Great Britain.
New Zealand is also part of the British Commonwealth. This state is located on two large islands (North and South) and a number of smaller ones. This is a former colony of Great Britain (since 1840), which in 1907 received the status of dominion, and in 1931 the right to independence in external and internal affairs. Today it is a highly developed industrial-agrarian state.
Oceania is the largest collection of islands on the planet (about 10 thousand) in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, with a total area of over 1 million square meters. km. New Zealand is also included in Oceania.
Despite the fact that the region of Australia and Oceania lies far from the main countries that supply tourists and away from the leading transit lines, tourism here is developing at a fairly rapid pace. The main purpose for which foreign tourists visit Australia and Oceania is recreation.
Australia
Commonwealth of Australia Commonwealth of Australia), Australia (English) Australia, from lat. Australis"southern") is a state in the Southern Hemisphere, located on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and several other islands of the Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans. The sixth largest state in the world by area, the only state that occupies an entire continent.
The population of Australia is only 18 million people, including only 250 thousand (1.5%) of the mainland's indigenous inhabitants (Aborigines). The entire population of the country is immigrants from Europe and modern immigrants. The average population density of Australia is just over 2 people. per km2. But its placement is extremely uneven. Australia is one of the most highly urbanized countries in the world.
1.1 Geography
Australia is the only state in the world that occupies an entire continent. This is the driest continent on earth, a third of the entire territory is desert. The length (from north to south) is approximately 3700 km, width - 4000 km.
In the east, the continent is divided by the Great Dividing Range, which extends from the east coast of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland to Melbourne, Victoria. Australia's highest point is Mount Kosciusko at 2229 metres, which lies near the New South Wales-Victoria border in the snow-capped alpine region of the Great Dividing Range.
To the west of the Dividing Range lies mostly flat country with a few low mountain ranges, such as the Flinders in South Australia and the MacDonnell near Alice Springs. Australia is a relatively sparsely populated continent (only 18 million people). But the paradox is that Australia is one of the most urbanized countries in the world. Two thirds of the population live in the administrative centers, states and coasts. The vast central regions, once in almost complete isolation, which was ended thanks to radio and aviation, are almost uninhabited.
Australia is the largest island and smallest continent on the planet.
The main continent contains 5 states and 2 territories. The sixth state, Tasmania, is located 200 km south of Victoria, and is separated from the mainland by the Bass Strait.
To the east are the Australian-administered Norfolk Islands and Lord Howe Islands, as is the Antarctic area around Mawson Station.
The center of the continent is largely sparsely populated desert. About 80% of Australia's total population lives on the east coast or along the coastline.
An extensive river system feeds and carries its waters hundreds of kilometers to fill the salt lakes located in the north of South Australia. These lakes often dry up for a long time: the largest of them, Lake Eyre, with an area of 9475 sq. km, filled in 1994 for the first time in the previous decade. The water from these lakes, in addition to that which evaporates, feeds the Central Australian Artesian Basin, a huge natural underground aquifer system. This water gives life to many springs in the most remote areas of the desert (these springs have allowed man to survive for centuries in the most “dead” areas of the desert); the same system supplies water to Alice Springs.
1.2 History
The indigenous people of Australia, known as Aboriginal Australians, have the longest cultural history in the world, dating back to the last Ice Age. Although scientists still do not agree, it is believed that the first people arrived in Australia from Indonesia approximately 70,000 years ago. The first settlers, whom archaeologists later called “robusts” because of their large-boned constitution, were replaced another 20,000 years later by graceful people, the ancestors of the Australian aborigines.
Europeans began to explore Australia in the 16th century, the Portuguese explorers were followed by the Danes, who were replaced by the British, led by the pirate William Dampier. Captain James Cook sailed the entire east coast in 1770, stopping at Botany Bay along the way. Having rounded Cape York, he declared Australia a possession of Great Britain and named it New South Wales.
In 1779, Joseph Banks (a naturalist on Cook's team) proposed to the British government to solve the problem of prison overcrowding by sending prisoners to New South Wales. In 1787, the First Fleet anchored in Botany Bay under the command of Captain Arthur Philip, who became the first governor of the colony. On the 11 ships of the fleet there were 750 settlers, men and women, four teams of sailors and a supply of food for two years. Philip arrived at Botany Bay on 26 January, but he soon moved the colony to Sydney Cove, where water and land were better. For the new arrivals, New South Wales was a terrible place and the threat of famine hung over the colony for 16 years.
In the following decades, free settlers began to appear in Australia, and in 1850 gold deposits were discovered in the country. The huge flow of emigrants and the dramatic shake-up of the economy irrevocably changed the colonial social structure. The Aborigines were displaced from lands that were needed by the colonists for agriculture and mining. The Industrial Revolution in England required large quantities of raw materials, and Australian agricultural and natural resources were expended uncontrollably to meet this need.
Australia became a state when the individual colonies formed a federation on 1 January 1901 (although this severed many cultural and trade ties with England). Australian troops fought on the British side in the Boer War, World War I and World War II. However, the US role in defending Australian territories from Japanese invasion during World War II called into question the strength of this alliance. Australia in turn supported the United States during the Korean and Vietnam Wars in Asia.
Geography of Australia and Oceania
Click to enlarge
Oceania is divided into several large regions: Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
In addition, Oceania includes thousands and thousands of coral islands located along the coasts of countries in the region. Some definitions include all states and territories in the Pacific Ocean between North and South America and Asia, in which case Taiwan and Japan would also be part of Oceania, not Asia.
Oceania is not only a geographical region and ecozone, it is also a geopolitical region defined by the United Nations, and includes Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and other island nations that are not included in the Asian region, as well as a host of coral atolls and volcanic islets of the South Pacific, including Melanesian and Polynesian groups. Oceania also includes Micronesia, a widely scattered group of islands stretching along the northern and southern edges of the equator.
Oceania, the planet's smallest continent, is without a doubt one of the most diverse and amazing regions on the planet.
Islands of Oceania
Geographical diversity of Oceania
Oceania is represented by a variety of landforms, the most significant of which are located in Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea. And, since most of the islands of Oceania are represented only by simple points on the map, it is impossible to display their relief and landscape features.
Many of these small islands are the result of ancient volcanic activity, or are coral atolls surrounding part or all of the lagoon. Only a few islands have rivers of any significant size, and the same applies to lakes. Therefore, only recognized geographical features and attractions of Australia will be listed below.
Relief and landscape of Australia
Australia is very dry, with only 35 percent of the country receiving little (sometimes no) rainfall. Almost 20 percent of the country is desert in one form or another.
Lake Eyre Basin
Lake Eyre itself is 16 m below sea level, and is located in the driest part of Australia. It usually contains some water, but recently, due to the harsh dry conditions in the country, it has no water at all. The Lake Eyre basin is considered the world's largest inland drainage system, covering an area of one-sixth of the country's total area. Rivers in this region flow based on rainfall, and because there is so little rainfall, isolated water wells are essential to life.
Great Sandy Desert
This arid Western Australian steppe, south of the Kimberley Plateau, covers an area of almost 300,000 sq km and contains scattered bushland and rocks. It has miles of red sand ridges (dunes) and very few people live in its area.
Great Victoria Desert
Known for its red sand dunes, native wildlife and isolation, the Victoria Desert (nearly 350,000 sq km in area) is almost 750 km wide and is a mostly barren area of red sand hills and ridges. , dry salt lakes, with very little greenery.
Great Artesian Pool
It is one of the largest artesian groundwater basins in the world and is also a vital source of water for Australian agriculture.
Great Barrier Reef
This picturesque coral reef, approximately 2,000 km long, contains the largest coral deposits in the world. It is not a single reef, but rather an unusual mosaic of over 2,800 independent coral reefs. Known around the world for its beauty and wildlife (there are over 1,500 species of fish alone), it became Australia's first World Heritage Site in 1981.
Great Dividing Range
Situated along the eastern/south-eastern edge of the country, and extending all the way to Tasmania, these mountain ranges and ridges separate Australia's dry interior from its coastal regions. The highest point is Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 m) in the Australian Alps. The Blue Mountains National Park, a World Heritage Site in New South Wales, two hours' drive from Sydney, is one of the most beautiful places in the world, and one of Australia's most visited places.
Shark Bay
Shark Bay is one of only 14 places on the planet that meet all four natural criteria to be designated a World Heritage Site. These criteria include outstanding examples of earth evolution, biological and ecological processes, outstanding natural beauty, and significant natural habitats for animals and plants. This bay has the largest number of seagrass species for one location, and supports rich aquatic life for dolphins, dugongs, sea snakes, turtles, whales, and of course, sharks.
Fraser Island
Situated along the Australian Coral Sea, north of Brisbane, Fraser Island is Australia's fourth largest island (after Tasmania, Melville, and Kangaroo), and the second largest sand island in the world. Created thanks to the efforts of winds over thousands of years, this island is 120 km long and 15 km wide.
Cape York Peninsula
Considered one of the "last remaining undeveloped areas on Earth", Cape York contains a large number of jagged mountains, rainforests, extensive mangrove forests, grasslands, marshes, and fast-flowing rivers.
Kimberley Plateau
The Kimberley, much of which is still unexplored, is famous for its dramatic red landscapes of cliffs and gorges, and for the very strong ocean tide that occurs twice daily, which accelerates river flows to dangerous levels and creates whirlpools. Dozens of islands and coral reefs line the coastline, and access to this region of Australia is very difficult, as there are few roads leading here.
Gibson Desert
Covered by small sand dunes and a few rocky hills, this 156,000 sq. km. The desert is home to many Aboriginal reserves. Lack of rain makes farming and raising livestock difficult here.
Simpson Desert
This desert, measuring 176,500 square kilometers, is drifting. Its windswept dunes are starved of rain and the summer heat can be brutal. High temperatures in the desert often exceed 50ºC, and while people are advised to exercise extreme caution in the region during the summer, the desert itself is certainly not lifeless. Tourists often visit here during the winter and they often visit the spectacular scenery of Queensland Simpson Desert National Park.
Tanami Desert
Similar to the Great Sandy Desert, this desert also has many red sand plains, is also dominated by shrub vegetation, and has lonely hills scattered throughout its territory. The desert is generally uninhabited, except for a few mines and a small livestock farm.
Nullarbor Plain
This sparsely populated area of southwestern Australia is very dry and has very little water. It can only be reached by crossing the Eyre Highway, named after the famous explorer Edward John Eyre, who became the first person to cross Australia from east to west in the mid-1800s. Along the southern coast of the Great Australian Bight, the local topography is second to none. The vast stretches of pure white sand that can be found at Baxter Rocks along the Bay are very impressive.
Darling/Murray river system
The Darling River, 1,879 km long, flows southwest from the banks of the Great Dividing Range to the Murray River. The Murray originates in the Australian Alps and flows for 1,930 km. to Spencer Gulf, immediately west of Adelaide. It is the longest river in Australia and is a vital source of irrigation for the country's largest agricultural region.
Darling Range
This low mountain range lies off the southwestern coast of Australia. Its highest point is Mount Cook (580 m).
MacDonnell Range
Famed for Ayers Rock, and as a favorite destination for hikers and rock climbers, this range of hills, ridges, and valleys is very popular for its consistently good weather and beautiful scenery. The highest point is Mount Zil (height - 1,531 m).
Hamersley Ridge
A reddish-brown low mountain range located in Western Australia, home to many Aboriginal people. This national park is famous for its red rock gorges and waterfalls.
Ayers Rock (Uluru)