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Lesson questions:
1. Coordinate systems used in topography: geographic, plane rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates, their essence and use.
Coordinates are called angular and linear quantities (numbers) that determine the position of a point on a surface or in space.
In topography, coordinate systems are used that allow the most simple and unambiguous determination of the position of points on the earth's surface both from the results of direct measurements on the ground and using maps. Such systems include geographic, planar rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates.
Geographical coordinates(Fig. 1) - angular values: latitude (j) and longitude (L), which determine the position of the object on the earth's surface relative to the origin of coordinates - the point of intersection of the initial (Greenwich) meridian with the equator. On a map, a geographic grid is indicated by a scale on all sides of the map frame. The west and east sides of the frame are meridians, while the north and south are parallels. In the corners of the map sheet, the geographic coordinates of the points of intersection of the frame sides are signed.
Rice. 1. System of geographic coordinates on the earth's surface |
In the geographic coordinate system, the position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin of coordinates is determined in angular measure. The point of intersection of the initial (Greenwich) meridian with the equator is taken as the beginning in our country and in most other states. Thus, being the same for the entire planet, the geographic coordinate system is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at significant distances from each other. Therefore, in military affairs, this system is used mainly for conducting calculations related to the use of long-range combat assets, for example, ballistic missiles, aviation, etc.
Plane rectangular coordinates(Fig. 2) - linear quantities that determine the position of the object on the plane relative to the accepted origin of coordinates - the intersection of two mutually perpendicular straight lines (coordinate axes X and Y).
In topography, each 6-degree zone has its own rectangular coordinate system. The X-axis is the axial meridian of the zone, the Y-axis is the equator, and the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator is the origin.
The plane rectangular coordinate system is zonal; it is set for each six-degree zone into which the Earth's surface is divided when it is displayed on maps in the Gaussian projection, and is designed to indicate the position of the images of points on the earth's surface on the plane (map) in this projection.
The origin of coordinates in the zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator, relative to which the position of all other points of the zone is determined in a linear measure. The origin of the zone coordinates and its coordinate axes occupy a strictly defined position on the earth's surface. Therefore, the system of planar rectangular coordinates of each zone is associated with both the coordinate systems of all other zones and the geographic coordinate system.
The use of linear values to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for making calculations both when working on the ground and on a map. Therefore, in the troops, this system is most widely used. Rectangular coordinates indicate the position of terrain points, their battle formations and targets, with their help they determine the relative position of objects within one coordinate zone or in adjacent areas of two zones.
Polar and bipolar coordinate systems are local systems. In military practice, they are used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of terrain, for example, when target designation, intersection of landmarks and targets, drawing up terrain diagrams, etc. These systems can be associated with systems of rectangular and geographic coordinates.
2. Determination of geographical coordinates and plotting objects on a map using known coordinates.
The geographical coordinates of a point located on the map are determined from the closest parallel and meridian, the latitude and longitude of which are known.
The frame of the topographic map is divided into minutes, which are divided by dots into divisions of 10 seconds each. Latitudes are indicated on the sides of the frame, and longitudes are indicated on the north and south sides.
Using the minute frame of the map, you can:
1
... Determine the geographical coordinates of any point on the map.
For example, the coordinates of point A (Fig. 3). To do this, it is necessary to measure the shortest distance from point A to the southern frame of the map using a caliper-measuring device, then attach the caliper to the western frame and determine the number of minutes and seconds in the measured segment, add the resulting (measured) value of minutes and seconds (0 "27") with the latitude of the southwest corner of the frame - 54 ° 30 ".
Latitude points on the map will be equal to: 54 ° 30 "+0" 27 "= 54 ° 30" 27 ".
Longitude is defined similarly.
The shortest distance from point A to the western frame of the map is measured with a caliper-measuring compass, the caliper is applied to the southern frame, the number of minutes and seconds in the measured segment (2 "35") is determined, the obtained (measured) value is added with the longitude of the south-western corner frames - 45 ° 00 ".
Longitude points on the map will be equal to: 45 ° 00 "+2" 35 "= 45 ° 02" 35 "
2. Put any point on the map at the specified geographic coordinates.
For example, point B latitude: 54 ° 31 "08", longitude 45 ° 01 "41".
To map a point in longitude, you need to draw the true meridian through this point, for which you connect the same number of minutes along the northern and southern frames; to map a point in latitude, you need to draw a parallel through this point, for which you connect the same number of minutes along the western and eastern frames. The intersection of the two lines will determine the location of point B.
3. Rectangular grid on topographic maps and its digitization. Additional mesh at the junction of coordinate zones.
The coordinate grid on the map is a grid of squares formed by lines parallel to the coordinate axes of the zone. Grid lines are drawn through an integer number of kilometers. Therefore, the coordinate grid is also called the kilometer grid, and its lines are called kilometers.
On map 1: 25000, the lines forming a coordinate grid are drawn every 4 cm, that is, every 1 km on the ground, and on maps 1: 50,000-1: 200000 every 2 cm (1.2 and 4 km on the ground, respectively). On the map 1: 500000, only the outputs of the grid lines are plotted on the inner frame of each sheet every 2 cm (10 km on the ground). If necessary, coordinate lines can be plotted on the map along these outputs.
On topographic maps, the values of abscissas and ordinates of coordinate lines (Fig. 2) are signed at the outputs of the lines outside the inner frame of the sheet and in nine places on each sheet of the map. The full values of abscissas and ordinates in kilometers are labeled near the coordinate lines closest to the corners of the map frame and near the intersection of coordinate lines closest to the northwest corner. The rest of the coordinate lines are signed with abbreviated two numbers (tens and units of kilometers). The labels near the horizontal lines of the coordinate grid correspond to the distances from the ordinate in kilometers.
The labels near the vertical lines indicate the zone number (one or two first digits) and the distance in kilometers (always three digits) from the origin of coordinates, conventionally shifted to the west of the zone's axial meridian by 500 km. For example, the signature 6740 means: 6 - zone number, 740 - distance from the conventional origin in kilometers.
On the outer frame, the outputs of the coordinate lines are given ( additional mesh) coordinate systems of the adjacent zone.
4. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points. Plotting points by their coordinates.
On a grid using a compass (ruler), you can:
1.
Determine the rectangular coordinates of a point on the map.
For example, point B (Fig. 2).
For this you need:
- write down X - digitizing the lower kilometer line of the square in which point B is located, i.e. 6657 km;
- measure along the perpendicular the distance from the lower kilometer line of the square to point B and, using the linear scale of the map, determine the value of this segment in meters;
- add the measured value of 575 m with the digitization value of the lower kilometer line of the square: X = 6657000 + 575 = 6657575 m.
The ordinate Y is determined in the same way:
- write down the Y value - digitizing the left vertical line of the square, i.e. 7363;
- measure along the perpendicular the distance from this line to point B, i.e. 335 m;
- add the measured distance to the digitization value Y of the left vertical line of the square: Y = 7363000 + 335 = 7363335 m.
2.
Draw a target on the map at the specified coordinates.
For example, point G by coordinates: X = 6658725 Y = 7362360.
For this you need:
- find the square in which point G is located by the value of whole kilometers, i.e. 5862;
- set aside from the lower left corner of the square a segment on the map scale equal to the difference between the abscissa of the target and the lower side of the square - 725 m;
- - from the obtained point along the perpendicular to the right, postpone a segment equal to the difference between the ordinates of the target and the left side of the square, i.e. 360 m.
The accuracy of determining geographic coordinates on maps 1: 25000-1: 200000 is about 2 and 10 "", respectively.
The accuracy of determining the rectangular coordinates of points on the map is limited not only by its scale, but also by the amount of errors allowed when shooting or compiling a map and plotting various points and terrain objects on it
Most accurately (with an error not exceeding 0.2 mm), geodetic points and are plotted on the map. objects that stand out most sharply on the ground and are visible from a distance, which have a meaning of landmarks (individual bell towers, factory chimneys, tower-type buildings). Therefore, the coordinates of such points can be determined with approximately the same accuracy with which they are plotted on the map, i.e. for a 1: 25000 scale map - with an accuracy of 5-7 m, for a 1: 50,000 scale map - with an accuracy of 10-15 m, for a 1: 100000 scale map - with an accuracy of 20-30 m.
The rest of the landmarks and points of the contours are plotted on the map, and, therefore, are determined from it with an error of up to 0.5 mm, and the points related to contours that are indistinct on the ground (for example, the contour of a swamp), with an error of up to 1 mm.
6. Determination of the position of objects (points) in systems of polar and bipolar coordinates, plotting objects on the map in direction and distance, at two angles or at two distances.
System flat polar coordinates(Fig. 3, a) consists of the point O - the origin of coordinates, or poles, and the initial direction of the OP, called polar axis.
System planar bipolar (bipolar) coordinates(Fig. 3, b) consists of two poles A and B and a common axis AB, called the base or the base of the intersection. The position of any point M relative to two data on the map (terrain) of points A and B is determined by coordinates that are measured on the map or on the ground.
These coordinates can be either two position angles defining the directions from points A and B to the desired point M, or the distance D1 = AM and D2 = BM to it. The angles of position in this case, as shown in Fig. 1, b, are measured at points A and B or from the direction of the basis (i.e. angle A = BAM and angle B = ABM) or from any other directions passing through points A and B and taken as initial. For example, in the second case, the place of the point M is determined by the angles of position θ1 and θ2, measured from the direction of the magnetic meridians.
Drawing the detected object on the map
This is one of the most important points in object detection. The accuracy of determining its coordinates depends on how accurately the object (target) will be mapped.
Having found an object (target), you must first accurately determine by various signs what is detected. Then, without stopping observing the object and without revealing yourself, put the object on the map. There are several ways to draw an object on the map.
Ocularly- Draws an object on the map if it is near a known landmark.
By direction and distance: to do this, you need to orient the map, find your point of position on it, trace the direction to the detected object on the map and draw a line to the object from your point of position, then determine the distance to the object by measuring this distance on the map and measuring it with the scale of the map.
 Rice. 4. Mapping a target on a map with a straight line resection |
If in this way it is graphically impossible to solve the problem (the enemy interferes, poor visibility, etc.), then you need to accurately measure the azimuth to the object, then translate it into a directional angle and draw a direction on the map from the standing point, on which to postpone the distance to the object. |
7. Methods of target designation on the map: in graphic coordinates, flat rectangular coordinates (full and abbreviated), in squares of a kilometer grid (up to a whole square, up to 1/4, up to 1/9 of a square), from a landmark, from a conventional line, in azimuth and target range, in bipolar coordinates.
The ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground is essential for controlling units and fire in battle or for organizing combat.
Targeting in geographic coordinates it is used very rarely and only in cases where targets are removed from a given point on the map at a considerable distance, expressed in tens or hundreds of kilometers. In this case, geographic coordinates are determined from the map, as described in question number 2 of this lesson.
The location of the target (object) is indicated by latitude and longitude, for example, altitude 245.2 (40 ° 8 "40" N, 65 ° 31 "00" E). On the eastern (western), northern (southern) sides of the topographic frame, mark the position of the target in latitude and longitude with an injection of a compass. From these marks, perpendiculars are lowered into the depth of the topographic map sheet until they intersect (command rulers, standard sheets of paper are applied). The point of intersection of perpendiculars is the position of the target on the map.
For approximate target designation rectangular coordinates it is enough to indicate on the map the grid square where the object is located. The square is always indicated by the numbers of the kilometer lines, the intersection of which forms the southwest (lower left) corner. When specifying a square, the card adheres to the rule: first, they name two numbers signed at the horizontal line (at the western side), that is, the "X" coordinate, and then two numbers at the vertical line (the southern side of the sheet), that is, the "Y" coordinate. In this case, "X" and "Y" are not spoken. For example, enemy tanks have been spotted. When transmitting a report by radiotelephone, the square number is pronounced: "Eighty eight zero two".
If the position of a point (object) needs to be determined more precisely, then full or abbreviated coordinates are used.
Work with the full coordinates... For example, you need to determine the coordinates of the road indicator in square 8803 on a map with a scale of 1: 50000. First, determine what is the distance from the lower horizontal side of the square to the road sign (for example, 600 m on the ground). In the same way, measure the distance from the left vertical side of the square (for example, 500 m). Now, by digitizing kilometer lines, we determine the full coordinates of the object. The horizontal line has the signature 5988 (X), adding the distance from this line to the road sign, we get: X = 5988600. In the same way, we define the vertical line and get 2403500. The full coordinates of the road indicator are as follows: X = 5988600 m, Y = 2403500 m.
Abbreviated coordinates respectively will be equal: X = 88600 m, Y = 03500 m.
If it is required to clarify the position of the target in the square, then target designation is used in an alphabetic or digital way inside the square of the kilometer grid.
When targeting letter way inside the square of the kilometer grid, the square is conventionally divided into 4 parts, each part is assigned a capital letter of the Russian alphabet.
The second way is digital way target designation inside the square of the kilometer grid (target designation by snail
). This method got its name from the arrangement of conditional digital squares inside the square of the kilometer grid. They are arranged as if in a spiral, while the square is divided into 9 parts.
When targeting in these cases, they call the square in which the target is located, and add a letter or number that specifies the position of the target inside the square. For example, height 51.8 (5863-A) or high voltage support (5762-2) (see Fig. 2).
Target designation from a landmark is the simplest and most common method of target designation. With this method of target designation, the landmark nearest to the target is first called, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in goniometer divisions (measured with binoculars) and the distance to the target in meters. For instance: "The second landmark, forty to the right, then two hundred, at a separate bush - a machine gun."
Target designation from the conditional line usually used on the move in combat vehicles. With this method, two points are selected on the map in the direction of action and connected with a straight line, relative to which target designation will be carried out. This line is designated by letters, divided into centimeter divisions and numbered starting from zero. Such a construction is done on the maps of both the transmitting and receiving target designation.
Targeting from a conventional line is usually used in motion on combat vehicles. With this method, two points are selected on the map in the direction of action and connected with a straight line (Fig. 5), relative to which target designation will be carried out. This line is designated by letters, divided into centimeter divisions and numbered starting from zero.
 Rice. 5. Targeting from a conventional line |
Such a construction is done on the maps of both the transmitting and receiving target designation. |
Target designation from a conventional line can be issued by indicating the direction to the target at an angle from the conventional line and the distance to the target, for example: "Straight AC, to the right 3-40, twelve hundred - machine gun."
Target designation in azimuth and range to the target... The azimuth of the direction to the target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it is determined using an observation device or visually in meters. For instance: "Azimuth thirty-five, range six hundred - a tank in a trench."
This method is most often used on terrain where there are few landmarks.
8. Problem solving.
Determination of the coordinates of terrain points (objects) and target designation on the map are practiced practically on training maps using previously prepared points (plotted objects).
Each learner defines geographic and rectangular coordinates (maps objects to known coordinates).
Target designation methods on the map are being worked out: in flat rectangular coordinates (full and abbreviated), in squares of a kilometer grid (up to a whole square, up to 1/4, up to 1/9 of a square), from a reference point, in azimuth and target range.
Abstract
Military topography
Military ecology
Military medical training
Engineering training
Fire training
Many of us got acquainted with such concepts as longitude and latitude as a child thanks to the adventure novels of Stevenson and Jules Verne. People have been studying these concepts since ancient times.
In an era when perfect navigational devices did not exist in the world, it was the geographical coordinates on the map that helped sailors determine their location at sea and find their way to the desired land areas. Today latitude and longitude are still used in many sciences and allow you to accurately determine the position of any point on the earth's surface.
What is latitude?
Latitude is used to set the position of an object in relation to the poles. At the same distance from and passes the main imaginary line of the globe - the equator. It has zero latitude, and on either side of it there are parallels - similar imaginary lines, conventionally crossing the planet at equal intervals. North of the equator are northern latitudes, south, respectively, southern.
The distance between the parallels is usually measured not in meters or kilometers, but in degrees, which makes it possible to more accurately establish the position of the object. There are 360 degrees in total. Latitude is measured north of the equator, that is, points lying in the Northern Hemisphere have positive latitude, and those located in the Southern Hemisphere have negative latitude. 
For example, the north pole lies at + 90 ° latitude, and the south pole at -90 °. Additionally, each degree is divided by 60 minutes, and minutes by 60 seconds.
What is longitude?
To find out the location of an object, it is not enough to know this place on the globe relative to the south or north. In addition to latitude, longitude is used for the full calculation, which sets the position of the point relative to the east and west. If, in the case of latitude, the equator is taken as a basis, then longitude is calculated from the prime meridian (Greenwich), passing from the North to the South Pole through the London region of Greenwich.
On the right and left sides of the Greenwich meridian, the usual meridians are drawn parallel to it, which meet each other at the poles. The east longitude is considered to be positive, and the west longitude is considered negative. 
As with latitude, longitude provides 360 degrees, separated by seconds and minutes. To the east of Greenwich is Eurasia, to the west - South and North America.
What is latitude and longitude for?
Imagine that you are sailing on a ship lost in the middle of the ocean, or moving through the endless desert, where there are no signs and signs at all. How could you explain your location to the rescuers? It is latitude and longitude that help to find a person or other object anywhere in the world, wherever he is.
Geographic coordinates are actively used on search engine maps, in navigation, and on ordinary geographic maps. They are found in surveying instruments, satellite positioning systems, GPS navigators, and other tools needed to locate a point.
How to set geographic coordinates on a map?
To calculate the coordinates of an object on a map, you must first determine which of the hemispheres it is in. Next, you should find out between which parallels the desired point is located, and set the exact number of degrees - usually they are written on the sides of the geographical map. After that, you can proceed to determining the longitude, having first established in which of the hemispheres the object is located relative to Greenwich. 
Degrees of longitude are determined in the same way as latitude. If you need to find out the location of a point in 3D space, its height relative to sea level is additionally used.
Geographic coordinates and their determination on the map
Geographical coordinates- angular values (latitude and longitude) that determine the position of objects on the earth's surface and on the map. They are divided into astronomical, obtained from astronomical observations, and geodetic, obtained from geodetic measurements on the earth's surface.
Astronomical coordinates determine the position of points on the earth's surface on the surface of the geoid, where they are projected with plumb lines; geodetic coordinates define the position of points on the surface of the earth's ellipsoid, where they are projected by the normals to this surface.
Discrepancies between astronomical and geodetic coordinates are due to the deviation of the plumb line from the normal to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid. For most of the territory of the globe, they do not exceed 3-4 "" or in a linear measure 100 m. The maximum deviation of the plumb line reaches 40 "".
Topographic maps use geodetic coordinates... In practice, when working with maps, they are usually called geographic.
The geographical coordinates of any point M are its latitude B and longitude L.
Point latitude- the angle made up by the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid passing through a given point. Latitudes are counted along the meridian arc from the equator to the poles from 0 to 90o; in the northern hemisphere, latitudes are called northern (positive), in the southern - southern (negative).
Point longitude- the dihedral angle between the plane of the initial (Greenwich) meridian and the plane of the meridian of the given point. Longitude is counted along the arc of the equator or parallel in both directions from the prime meridian, from 0 to 180o. The longitude of points located east of Greenwich to 180o is called east (positive), west - west (negative).
Geographic (cartographic, degree) grid - the image on the map of the lines of parallels and meridians; is used to determine the geographic (geodetic) coordinates of points (objects) and target designation. On topographic maps, the lines of parallels and meridians are the inner frames of the sheets; their latitude and longitude are inscribed at the corners of each sheet.
The geographic grid is fully shown only on topographic maps at a scale of 1: 500,000 (parallels are drawn through 30 "and meridians through 20") and 1: 1,000,000 (parallels are drawn through 1o, and meridians through 40 "). Inside each sheet maps on the lines of parallels and meridians are labeled with their latitude and longitude, which make it possible to determine geographic coordinates on a large gluing of maps.
On maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000 and 1: 200,000, the sides of the frames are divided into segments equal to the degree of 1 ". Minute segments are shaded through one and separated by dots (except for a map of scale 1: 200,000) into parts of 10 "". In addition, inside each sheet of maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, the intersection of the mean parallel and the meridian is shown and is digitized in degrees and minutes, and the outputs of minute divisions are given along the inner frame strokes 2-3 mm long, along which you can draw parallels and meridians on a map glued from several sheets.
If the territory for which the map was created is in the western hemisphere, then in the north-western corner of the sheet frame to the right of the meridian longitude signature the inscription "West of Greenwich" is placed.
Determination of the geographic coordinates of a point on the map is made according to the parallel and meridian closest to it, the latitude and longitude of which are known. To do this, on maps of scales 1: 25,000 - 1: 200,000, you should first draw a parallel south of the point and west of the 0 meridian, connecting the corresponding strokes on the sides of the sheet frame with lines (Fig. 2). Then, from the drawn lines, segments are taken to the determined point (Aa1, Aa2) Yu, they are applied to the degree scales on the sides of the frame and reports are produced. In the example in Fig. 2 point A has coordinates B = 54o35 "40" "north latitude, L = 37o41" 30 "" east longitude.
Plotting a point on the map using geographic coordinates. On the western and eastern sides of the frame of the map sheet, the readings corresponding to the latitude of the point are marked with dashes. The latitude counting starts from digitizing the southern side of the frame and continues in minute and second intervals. Then a line is drawn through these lines - the parallel of the point.
The meridian of the point passing through the point is also built in the same way, only its longitude is measured along the southern and northern sides of the frame. The intersection of the parallel and the meridian will indicate the position of this point on the map.
In fig. 2 is an example of plotting point M on the map at coordinates B = 54o38.4 "N, L = 37o34.4" E.
Since the time of man's departure to the sea, the need to determine longitude and latitude has been a vital human skill. Epochs changed, and man became able to determine the cardinal points in any weather. All new methods of determining one's position were required.
The captain of a Spanish galleon in the eighteenth century knew exactly where the ship was, thanks to the position of the stars in the night sky. A 19th-century traveler could determine the deviation from the established route in the forest using natural clues.
Now the twenty-first century is in the yard and many have lost the knowledge gained from the lessons of geography. Android smartphones or iPhones can serve as a tool, but will never replace the knowledge and ability to determine your location.
What is latitude and longitude in geography
Determination of geographic coordinates
Apps that users install on iPhones read location coordinates to provide services or data based on where the person is. After all, if the subscriber is in Russia, then he has no reason to read sites in English. Everything happens in the background.
While the average user will never have to deal with GPS coordinates, knowing how to get and read them can be valuable. In some cases, they can save lives when there is no card nearby.
In any geographic system, there are two indicators: latitude and longitude. Geodata from a smartphone show exactly where the user is in relation to the equator.
How to find the latitude and longitude of your location
Consider two options for determining geographic coordinates:
- Through "Android" the simplest is the Google Maps application, perhaps the most complete collection of geographic maps in one application. After launching the Google maps application, the location on the road map will be precisely determined so that the user can get the most out of the surrounding area. The app also offers an extensive list of features, including real-time GPS navigation, traffic status and transit information, as well as detailed information on nearby places, including popular food and recreation spots, photos and reviews.
- Through the "iPhone" no third-party application is required to view latitude and longitude data. The location is determined only with the maps app. To find out the current coordinates, just start the "maps". Tap the arrow in the upper right corner of the screen, then tap the blue dot - this is the location of the phone and the user. Then we swipe up the screen, and now the user can see the GPS coordinates. Unfortunately, there is no way to copy these coordinates, but you can get such data.
To copy them, you need another Compass application. It is already installed on the iPhone, you can use it right away.
To view latitude, longitude, and altitude coordinates in the Compass app, simply launch and find the data below.
Determine the geographical coordinates of Moscow
For this:
- We open the maps of the yandex search engine.
- Enter the name of our capital "Moscow" in the address line.
- The city center (Kremlin) opens and under the name of the country we find the numbers 55.753215, 37.622504 - these are the coordinates, that is, 55.753215 north latitude and 37.622504 east longitude.
All over the world, GPS coordinates are determined by latitude and longitude according to the wgs-84 coordinate system.
In all situations, latitude is a point relative to the equator and longitude is a point relative to the meridian of the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich, UK. This defines two important parameters of online geography.
Finding the latitude and longitude of St. Petersburg
To consolidate the skill, we repeat the same algorithm of actions, but for the Northern capital:
- We open "Yandex" cards.
- Prescribing the name of the northern capital "St. Petersburg".
- The result of the request will be a panorama of the Palace Square and the required coordinates 59.939095, 30.315868.
Coordinates of Russian cities and world capitals in the table
| Cities of Russia | Latitude | Longitude |
| Moscow | 55.753215 | 37.622504 |
| Saint Petersburg | 59.939095 | 30.315868 |
| Novosibirsk | 55.030199 | 82.920430 |
| Yekaterinburg | 56.838011 | 60.597465 |
| Vladivostok | 43.115536 | 131.885485 |
| Yakutsk | 62.028103 | 129.732663 |
| Chelyabinsk | 55.159897 | 61.402554 |
| Kharkov | 49.992167 | 36.231202 |
| Smolensk | 54.782640 | 32.045134 |
| Omsk | 54.989342 | 73.368212 |
| Krasnoyarsk | 56.010563 | 92.852572 |
| Rostov | 57.185866 | 39.414526 |
| Bryansk | 53.243325 | 34.363731 |
| Sochi | 43.585525 | 39.723062 |
| Ivanovo | 57.000348 | 40.973921 |
| Capitals of world states | Latitude | Longitude |
| Tokyo | 35.682272 | 139.753137 |
| Brasilia | -15.802118 | -47.889062 |
| Kiev | 50.450458 | 30.523460 |
| Washington | 38.891896 | -77.033788 |
| Cairo | 30.065993 | 31.266061 |
| Beijing | 39.901698 | 116.391433 |
| Delhi | 28.632909 | 77.220026 |
| Minsk | 53.902496 | 27.561481 |
| Berlin | 52.519405 | 13.406323 |
| Wellington | -41.297278 | 174.776069 |
Reading GPS data or where negative numbers come from
The geographic positioning system of the object was changed several times. Now thanks to her, you can quite accurately determine the distance to the desired object and find out the coordinates.
The ability to show the location is a vital necessity in the search activities of the rescue services. Different situations happen with travelers, tourists or extreme sportsmen. It is then that high accuracy is important, when a person is on the brink of life, and the count goes by minutes.
Now, dear reader, having similar knowledge, you may have questions. There are many of them, but even from the table, one of the most interesting arises - why is the figure negative? Let's figure it out.
GPS when translated into Russian sounds like this - "global positioning system". Remember that the distance to the desired geographic object (city, village, village, etc.) is calculated according to two landmarks on the globe: the equator and the observatory in London.
At school, they talked about latitude and longitude, but in yandex maps they are replaced with the left and right parts of the code. If the navigator has positive values, then you are heading north. Otherwise, the numbers become negative, which indicates a southern latitude.
So it is with longitude. Positive values represent east longitude and negative values represent west longitude.
For example, the coordinates of the Lenin Library in Moscow: 55 ° 45'08.1 ″ N 37 ° 36'36.9 ″ E. It reads like this: "55 degrees 45 minutes and 08.1 seconds north and 37 degrees 36 minutes and 36.9 seconds east" (data from the "google map").
Geographical coordinates - angular values: latitude (p and longitude TO, determining the position of objects on the earth's surface and on the map (Fig. 20).
Latitude - the angle (p between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator. Latitudes vary from 0 to 90 °; in the northern hemisphere they are called northern, in the southern hemisphere - southern.
Longitude - dihedral angle TO between the plane of the prime meridian and the plane of the meridian of a given point on the earth's surface. The prime meridian is the meridian passing through the center of the Greenwich Observatory (London area). The prime meridian is called Greenwich. Longitudes range from 0 to 180 °. Longitudes measured east of the Greenwich meridian are called east, and longitudes,. counted to the west - by the west.
Geographic coordinates obtained from astronomical observations are called astronomical, and coordinates obtained by geodetic methods and determined from topographic maps are called geodetic ones. The values of astronomical and geodetic coordinates of the same points differ slightly - in linear measures on average by 60-90 m.
Geographic (cartographic) grid formed on the map by lines of parallels and meridians. It is used for targeting and determining the geographic coordinates of objects.
On topographic maps, the lines of parallels and meridians serve as the inner frames of the sheets; their latitudes and longitudes are inscribed at the corners of each sheet. On the map sheets for the Western Hemisphere, in the northwest corner of the frame, the inscription "West of Greenwich" is placed.
Rice. twenty.Geographic coordinates: f-latitude of point L; TO- point longitude A
On sheets of maps of scale 1: 50000, 1: 100000 and 1: 200000, the intersections of the mean parallels and meridians are shown and their digitization is given in degrees and minutes. From these data, the signatures of the latitudes and longitudes of the sides of the frames of the sheets, cut off when gluing the map, are restored. In addition, along the sides of the frames inside the sheet, small (2-3 mm) strokes in one minute, along which you can draw parallels and meridians on a map glued from many sheets.
On maps with a scale of 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 200,000, the sides of the frames are divided into segments equal in degree to one minute. Minute segments are shaded by one and divided by dots (except for a map with a scale of 1: 200000) into parts of 10 ".
On the map sheets of 1: 500,000 scale, the parallels are drawn through 30 ", and the meridians - through 20"; on maps of scale 1: 1,000,000
parallels are drawn through 1 °, meridians - through 40 ". Inside each sheet of the map, on the lines of parallels and meridians, their latitudes and longitudes are signed, which make it possible to determine geographic coordinates on a large gluing of maps.
Definition geographic coordinates of the object the map is made according to the parallels and meridians closest to it, the latitude and longitude of which is known. On maps of scale 1: 25000-
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1: 200,000 for this it is necessary, as a rule, to first draw "a parallel to the south of the object and to the west-meridian, connecting with lines the corresponding strokes along the frame of the map sheet. The latitude of the parallel and the longitude of the meridian are calculated and signed on the map. (v degrees and minutes). Then the segments from the object to the parallel and meridian are evaluated in angular measure (in seconds or fractions of a minute). ( Ami and Amiin fig. 21), comparing their linear dimensions with minute (second) intervals on the sides of the frame. The size of the segment At \ add to the latitude of the parallel, and the segmentAmi -to the longitude of the meridian and get the desired geographical coordinates of the object - latitude and longitude.
In fig. 21 shows an example of determining the geographic coordinates of an object A, its coordinates: north latitude 54 ° 35 "40", east longitude 37 ° 41 "30".
Drawing an object on a map using geographic coordinates. On the western and eastern sides of the frame of the map sheet, the readings corresponding to the latitude of the object are marked with dashes. The latitude counting starts from digitizing the southern side of the frame and continues in minute and second intervals. Then a parallel line of the object is drawn through these lines.
The meridian of the object is built in the same way, only its longitude is measured along the southern and northern sides of the frame. The point of intersection of the parallel and the meridian will indicate the position of the object on the map.
In fig. 21 is an example of mapping an object V coordinates: 54 ° 38 ", 3 and 37 ° 34", 7.