Romanticism - as a literary movement formed at the end of the 18th century - early XIX century in Western Europe. The subject of the depiction of the romantics was the inner world of man, the world of his feelings and passions. The hero of romantic works is a deeply feeling person. The world in which such a hero finds himself does not correspond to his ideal, his ideas about life. Therefore, the main themes in romantic works are the themes of loneliness, escape from reality, the search for an ideal, internal and external freedom. There are two types of romanticism: German - contemplative, philosophical and English - active, rebellious, God-fighting.
In our country, romanticism as a literary movement developed in the 20s of the 19th century. At its origins stood Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, followers of the German tradition of romanticism. In Russia, this direction developed in the works of Pushkin and Lermontov, for which Byron and his rebellious romantic hero became the ideal.
Lermontov's work reveals a general pattern of development of Russian literature of the 20-30s: from romanticism to realism. However, mastering the method of realism did not lead Lermontov to abandon romanticism. Both artistic methods in Lermontov’s work appear in a complex, unique synthesis. And an example of this is the poem: “Mtsyri” and “Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich...”
“Mtsyri” is Lermontov’s last purely romantic poem. In it we can highlight all the motifs characteristic of Lermontov’s romanticism: the theme of freedom and will, the theme of loneliness and exile, the problem of man and nature, the theme of rebellion and struggle.
“Mtsyri” continues the tradition of Pushkin’s Caucasian poems, however, the basis of the plot of “Mtsyri” is not the situation of flight from civilization to the bosom of nature, as was the case with Pushkin, but the situation of flight to people, to the homeland. In general, the theme of escape from a monastery-prison is often heard in Lermontov’s works. But for Lermontov, the monastery is not associated with faith or religion. For Mtsyri, escape from monastic cell does not mean lack of faith at all. Rather, in the spirit of romanticism, the monastery symbolizes the prison of earthly existence, from which Mtsyri strives to escape. He is a strong personality who has challenged the world around him. Mtsyri embodies the impulse towards a free, full-fledged, authentic human life. The main feature of this hero, which determines his entire image, is a spiritual connection with his homeland, a thirst to spend at least a short time in his native land, in the Caucasus. The Caucasus becomes for Mtsyri a romantic ideal, to which he strives, for which he sacrifices his life:
Alas! - for a few minutes
Between steep and dark rocks,
Where did I play as a child?
"I would trade heaven and eternity...
The action of the poem takes place among the free southern nature, kindred to the soul of the hero, which in Lermontov, like in Pushkin, is a symbol of romantic freedom. Mtsyri values freedom above all else; the time spent in the monastery was only existence for him; three days in freedom became true life for the hero of the poem:
You want to know what I did
Free? Lived - and my life
Without these three blissful days
It would be sadder and gloomier
Your powerless old age.
The composition “Mtsyri” also shows romantic features. Lermontov does not tell us in detail about Mtsyri’s life in the monastery. He describes only the most important, tense moments in the fate of his hero.
But life in the monastery left its mark on Mtsyri; he is no longer able to live in freedom. He dies. Death turns out to be blissful oblivion for him in the lap of nature, since it is after death that the hero unites with both nature and the Caucasus.
“The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young guardsman and the daring merchant Kalashnikov” is a poem written in the folk spirit. Lermontov recreates the style of Russian folk poetry, endows the merchant Kalashnikov with the features of a hero of the Russian folk epic. The poet introduces traditional folklore images of guslars into his poem.
“Song...” is not a completely romantic work, but the poem has many romantic features. The very appeal to the medieval past of the Motherland is characteristic of the work of the romantics. Such traits as the desire for freedom, the ideal of life, strong will, selflessness on the way to the goal, were exalted and poeticized. Kalashnikov is a rebellious, struggling romantic hero.
In “Song...”, as in “Mtsyri”, there is a peak composition: before the readers is the culmination of the hero’s fate, the culmination of his development.
Preparing to take revenge on the offender, Kalashnikov enters into open battle with the sovereign, because he is fighting against the permissiveness granted by the tsar to his squad. The author admires Stepan Paramonovich, who is ready to stand to the death for the holy truth, but this idea of Kalashnikov is not identical to the idea of the entire work. The meaning of the poem is not limited to the protest, the Kalashnikov riot, the meaning of the “Song...” lies in its nationality.
Thus, in Lermontov’s work, romanticism is the main direction. It is not associated with any chronological stage in the poet’s life. We can identify romantic features in each of Lermontov’s works, and romanticism did not prevent the poet from turning to other artistic methods, such as realism. In many of Lermontov's works we see a synthesis of these two directions. In “Song...”, written in 1837, romantic features are intertwined with features of folk poetics. But in “Mtsyri” there is not a single realistic feature. This poem can be considered a classic example romantic poem.
The poem originated in ancient times. This is how the genre of Homer’s works was determined (VIII-VII centuries BC). Virgil (70-19 BC) and others. The poem approached its modern form in the first half of the 19th century.
A poem is a lyric-epic poetic work that depicts significant events and bright characters, and the narration of the characters is accompanied by the author’s reflections. It has several genre varieties: heroic, historical, satirical, lyrical, dramatic, didactic, etc.
Despite the wide variety of poems composed by different authors in different eras, they also have common features. Such works are always based on a narrative (story) about an event (one or more). For example, in “The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich...” by M. Lermontov there is the line of Kiribeevich, the Tsar’s guardsman, and the line of the merchant Kalashnikov, which intersect first in absentia, and then explicitly in the fist fight scene.
In a lyric-epic poem, a major role is played by the lyrical hero, who is the exponent of the author’s thoughts and feelings. The lyrical hero looks at events and heroes as if from the outside, often empathizing with them. Thus, in M. Lermontov’s poem “Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich...” this function is performed by guslars. They express (sometimes openly, and sometimes veiledly) the people's view of both events and heroes. For example, at the end of the poem one can clearly hear their sympathy for Kalashnikov and pride in him.
There is usually a hero or several heroes at the center of the story. In “Song...” this is Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, and Kiribeevich, and Kalashnikov, and Alena Dmitrevna... Most often, their images are revealed in monologues or dialogues. This allows the author to avoid detailed descriptions, be more concise, clearer and, at the same time, saturate the narrative with emotions.
In the poem, each episode of the hero's life or story carries a certain meaning. And all together they make up the content of the poem as a whole. Lermontov's "Song..." has three parts. In the first, the main figures are the tsar and his guardsmen. The second part reveals the way of life of a merchant family. The third talks about punishment for violating Christian laws and the role of the king. But in general, the poem tells the story of national character in an era of historical upheaval.
The poem as a genre is characterized by attention to deep historical, moral and social problems. If we turn to “Song...”, we will see its semantic capacity. Lermontov raises the following problems in it: Christian law and its place in private and public life, personal honor, continuity in the preservation of family honor, relations between government and people, the fate of an individual in an era of historical upheaval.
The main features of the poem as a genre of literature:
- lyric-epic genre;
- a large work of poetry;
- genre varieties (heroic, historical, etc.);
- thematic diversity;
- the presence of a narrative part (plot);
- a lyrical hero expressing his attitude to the story;
- the image, usually among several heroes, of the main one;
- depiction of universal human problems against a historical background.
N.V.Gogol
23. Features of the genre and composition of Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”. Artist-
Gogol had long dreamed of writing a work “in which
all of Rus'." This was supposed to be a grandiose description of the life and morals
in Russia in the first third of the 19th century. The poem became such a work
"Dead Souls", written in 1842. The first edition of the work was
called "The Adventures of Chichikov, or Dead Souls." This name reduces
lo the true meaning of this work, translated into the realm of adventure
novel, Gogol decided on this for censorship reasons, in order
for the poem to be published.
Why did Gogol call his work a poem? Definition
genre became clear to the writer only at the last moment, since he was still working
melting over the poem, Gogol calls it either a poem or a novel.
To understand the features of the genre of the poem "Dead Souls", you can
stage this work with the "Divine Comedy" of Dante, the poet of the epic
hi Renaissance. Its influence is felt in Gogol's poem. "Divine
comedy" consists of three parts. In the first part, a shadow appears to the poet
ancient Roman poet Virgil, who accompanies the lyrical hero
to hell, they go through all the circles, a whole gallery passes before their eyes
sinners. The fantastic nature of the plot does not prevent Dante from revealing the theme of his
Homeland - Italy, its fate. In fact, Gogol intended to show the same
circles of hell, but the hell of Russia. No wonder the title of the poem “Dead Souls” is ideological
echoes the title of the first part of Dante's poem "The Divine Come-
Diya" which is called "Hell".
Gogol, along with satirical negation, introduces an element of glorification
creative, creative - the image of Russia. Associated with this image is the “high
lyrical movement", which in the poem at times gives way to the comic
narration.
A significant place in the poem "Dead Souls" is occupied by lyrical
digressions and inserted episodes, which is typical for the poem as a literary
tour genre. In them Gogol touches on the most pressing social issues.
We and the people here are contrasted with gloomy pictures of Russian life.
So, let's go for the hero of the poem "Dead Souls" Chichikov to N.
From the very first pages of the work we feel fascination
its plot, since the reader cannot assume that after the meeting
Chichikova and Manilov will have meetings with Sobakevich and Nozdrev. Reader
cannot guess the end of the poem, because all its characters are post-
swarmed according to the principle of gradation: one is worse than the other. For example, Manilova, es-
Whether to consider it as a separate image, it cannot be perceived as
positive (on his table there is a book open on the same
page, and his politeness is feigned: “Don’t allow this to happen to you.”
fuck"), but compared to Plyushkin, Manilov even wins in many ways
character traits. But Gogol put the image of Koroboch in the center of attention.
ki, since she is a kind of unified beginning of all characters.
According to Gogol, this is a symbol of the “box man”, which contains
the idea of an insatiable thirst for hoarding.
The theme of exposing bureaucracy runs through all creativity
Gogol: she stands out both in the collection “Mirgorod” and in the comedy “The Inspector General”.
In the poem "Dead Souls" it is intertwined with the theme of serfdom.
“The Tale of Captain Kopeikin” occupies a special place in the poem.
It is plot-related to the poem, but has great importance for disclosure
nal character: she denounces the government.
The world of “dead souls” in the poem is contrasted with a lyrical image
people's Russia, about which Gogol writes with love and admiration. Behind
scary world of landowner and bureaucratic Russia, Gogol felt the soul
of the Russian people, which he expressed in the image of a quickly rushing forward
troika, which embodies the forces of Russia: “Isn’t it so, Rus, that
brisk, unstoppable troika are you rushing?" So, we settled on
what Gogol depicts in his work. He depicts social
disease of society, but we should also dwell on how it is possible
Gogol should do this.
Firstly, Gogol uses social typification techniques. IN
The image of the landowners' gallery skillfully combines the general and the individual.
Almost all of his characters are static, they do not develop (except
emphasizes once again that all these Manilovs, Korobochki, Sobakevichs,
The Plyushkins are dead souls. To characterize his characters Go-
Gol also uses his favorite technique - characterizing a character through
detail. Gogol can be called a “genius of detail”, so sometimes it’s exactly like
Tales reflect the character and inner world of the character. What is it worth, for example
measures, description of Manilov's estate and house. When Chichikov entered the estate
Manilov, he drew attention to the overgrown English pond, to the mowed
the crumbling gazebo, the dirt and neglect, the wallpaper in Manilov’s room, then
either gray or blue, on two chairs covered with matting, up to which
the owner's hands never reach it. All these and many other details are under-
lead us to the main characteristic made by the author himself: “Neither
nothing, but the devil knows what it is!" Let's remember Plyushkin, this "hole in the
humanity", who has even lost his gender. He comes out to Chichikov in
greasy robe, some incredible scarf on his head, desolate everywhere
shadow, dirt, dilapidation. Plyushkin is an extreme degree of degradation. And that's it
this is conveyed through detail, through those little things in life that are so
A.S. Pushkin admired: “Not a single writer has ever had this supreme gift.”
to express the vulgarity of life so clearly, to be able to outline the vulgarity in such force
a vulgar person, so that all the little things that escape your eyes,
would have flashed large in everyone's eyes."
main topic poems are the fate of Russia: its past, present
and the future. In the first volume, Gogol revealed the theme of the past of his homeland. Conceived-
The second and third volumes he gave were supposed to tell about the present and the future.
the soul of Russia. This idea can be compared with the second and third parts
"Divine Comedy"Dante: "Purgatory" and "Paradise". However, this plan
Lama was not destined to come true: the second volume turned out to be unsuccessful in concept, and
the third was never written. Therefore, Chichikov’s trip remained a trip
deep into the unknown. Gogol was at a loss, thinking about the future of Russia:
“Rus, where are you going? Give me an answer. He doesn’t give an answer.”
Odekova Feruza Rezvanovna, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Culture of Russian Speech, Faculty of Philology, Journalism and Intercultural Communication, Humanitarian Institute of the North Caucasus Federal University (NCFU), Stavropol [email protected]
Genre features and typology of Russian lyric poem
Annotation. The article examines and highlights the typology of the Russian lyric poem and its genre originality.
Key words: lyric poem, generalized lyrical poem, lyric-journalistic poem, lyric-meditative poem, lyric-psychological poem.
In literary criticism, the term “lyrical poem” is not generally recognized, but is increasingly asserting its rights. Starting with the poems of N. Nekrasov (“Silence”, “On the Volga”, “Knight for an Hour”), in Russian poetry it becomes a fact that large poetic works with a number of significant signs of a poem, but devoid of a traditional narrative basis. Later, peculiar variations of works of this type can be found among symbolist poets. By the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, this form of the poem became quite common. According to some theorists, in works of this type the leading element is the lyrical principle, therefore they cannot be classified as epic. But in the lyric poem, despite its sincere, confessional tone, the outside world does not disappear. Unlike a lyric poem, the poet is not the only hero here. Its most significant genre feature is that the direct subject of display here is the inner world of the subject-artist, which is more or less associated with the objective world of reality. The defining form of recreating this objective world becomes the image of thought and experience. Yu. Surovtsev was one of the first to turn to the characteristics of a lyric poem. Trying to understand the difference between a new poem and an epic poem with a plot, with action and characters, he wrote: “A lyrical... autobiography is, in fact, not an image of a person’s path, but a condensed, concentrated expression of its results. It is subject, like any lyric, not to the logic of plot and events, but to the logic of a monologue that is integral in its emotional spontaneity. Surovtsev comes to the conclusion that “lyrical digressions” in such a poem are not digressions, but its framework. ©In fact, they are his strongholds, that inner fire that is spread throughout the poem...ª. At the same time, the author’s personality plays a leading role, he stands “above” his heroes and, as it were, “imposes” on the reader his worldview and worldview, his ideas: “The author of a lyrically structural poem must surprise us with the depth of understanding of life, he must be “above” not only the heroes acting in the poem , but the expected reader's perceptionª. Here Surovtsev also points out the difference between a lyric poem and a large lyric poem. One of the signs of a lyric poem, in his opinion, is monotony, the desire to “concentrate”, “compress” it in order to win “in the power of emotional impact.” “A lyrical poem is clearly not enough for one theme, its own development, no matter how important this theme may be... The lyrical structural poem is deliberately developed, there is no “understatement” of the poem in it, it is designed to exhaust its themes.” These theoretical principles Surovtsev were developed by V. Gusev, who focuses on defining the essence of a lyric poem: “The lyrical essence, as well as the content in general, is expressed here in subjective forms, however, they also have that earthly concreteness of poetic thinking that is mentioned above. Compositional and visual techniques, as we see, are symbolic, conventional, the figurative structure is permeated with synthetismª. The lyric poem reveals the complex “dialectic” of the soul of the lyrical hero, organically connected with the larger objective world. In terms of its content structure, it represents an emotional-thematic completeness of a special type: “the immediacy of feelings, moods in its variations, shades develops into an expanded system of feelings, moods, thoughts, based on the same system, a chain of impressions from many life phenomena, refracted through the prism of the poet’s soul.” And this “quantitative” factor determines the birth of a new quality, that is, a work “about time,” an entire era, revealed in all the complexity and versatility of its movement. As a rule, a lyric poem is devoid of an eventful plot and objectified characters. The plot movement in it is based on the development of the thoughts and experiences of the lyrical hero. The connection of its constructive components (individual event situations, pictures of nature, flow of thoughts and feelings, etc.) is subordinated, first of all, to the emotional-associative principle. The lyrical poem as a type reveals both its advantages and its disadvantages. On the one hand, it provides opportunities for the broadest coverage of life and opens up more direct paths to philosophical deepening into the subject and to the heart and mind of the reader. But, on the other hand, a “broad coverage of reality sometimes leads to skimming on the surface, as a result of global generalizations the essence eludes phenomena, the severity is lost artistic analysis . Freedom of composition often turns into looseness, ideological and aesthetic disparity of components, when a part, taken separately, is more impressive than the whole. The poet's talent is everything here. Over the course of its not very long history, Russian lyric poem has appeared in a whole system of varieties that have developed in the past or are appearing now, in our time. Much here is due to the relative youth of this genre formation. The artistic searches of poets are especially active here. This also explains the great diversity of varieties of this type of poem in comparison with the more established forms of narrative poems. In the formed type of lyric poem in the first decades of the 20th century. A. Vasilkovsky identified four genre varieties: generalized lyrical, lyric-journalistic, lyric-meditative and lyric-psychological. Let us consider the features of each type of lyric poem in more detail. The identification of a generalized lyrical poem into a special variety of lyrical type of poem is largely arbitrary. The term itself contains a generalization of genre features and characteristics that extend beyond the boundaries of one genre and are inherent in all poetry of the first post-October years. Poetry of the period of revolutions and civil war revealed a predominantly emotional perception of ongoing social processes, led to the creation of works that reflect only the general pathos of the time, but not its historically specific features ("The Twelve" by A. Blok). The typological features of a generalized lyrical poem are noted in such works as "Main Street" by D. Bedny, "Uprising", "On Fire" by V. Aleksandrovsky, "Transfiguration" by S. Yesenin and in many other poems. The lyrical dominant determined a special type of plot. The immediate subject of display was the flow of experiences and reflections of the lyrical hero. The predominance of the subjective principle in the plot determined the appropriate composition, the sharpened expressiveness of tropes, often expressed in the complexity of metaphors, in the bizarre destruction of poetic language, in the subjectivism of word creation. The lyrical hero here is personified not in the traditional “I”, and in the generalized ©weª. By this, the poet emphasized that he was not expressing his own thoughts and feelings, but those of the whole people. If he nevertheless turned to the form of “I” (for example, S. Yesenin), then he put into it an emphasized generalization: this “I” belongs to the giant people who have known greatness and strength, transform the world and give everything their assessment. Thus, in the substantive essence of the lyrical At the beginning, a tendency was outlined and manifested to expand to the limits of the national view of life, to the refraction of the greatest historical processes and phenomena that characterize the entire era, acquiring epic features. The lyric and journalistic poem is represented by the works of V. Mayakovsky ©Vladimir Ilyich Leninª and ©Good!ª. This type poem was his discovery and creation, expressing the spirit of the time, the uniqueness of the author's talent and temperament. Passionate journalisticism characterizes the entire work of V. Mayakovsky, in particular his best poems. We are talking about their journalisticism in the sense of ardent citizenship, directness and sharpness of the author's attitude to the subject. Publicism in this case is a special form of expression of the lyrical principleª. This nature of lyricism is due to the specifics of the genre content of the work, that is, those special sides and aspects that are emphasized in the depicted reality. The main thing in the poem of this genre variety is the understanding of the majestic historical events and the deeds of the people, a comprehension that is both author’s and national, objectified. That is, in the foreground here is the disclosure of a complex and multifaceted process of spiritual insight of the working people, their comprehension of themselves as creators of history. The chosen aspect of reflecting reality determined a special way of depicting heroes (a generalized, collective image of the people), events (understanding their historical essence), the originality of the plot, fragmentation of the composition, subordination of the entire system of tropes to the tasks of argumentation, persuasion, dominance of pathetic-agitational intonation. The lyric and journalistic poem of the 20s was created on historical and revolutionary problem-thematic material. The events of the revolution, the deeds of the people as the main driving force of revolutionary changes, the irreconcilable conflict between two social worlds, the passions, thoughts, feelings of the participants in the grandiose historical battle - all this constituted the thematic content of historical and revolutionary poems. The understanding of all these events, processes, phenomena, the glorification of their essence was the comprehensive pathos of the poems of this variety. The thoughts and feelings of the lyrical hero were an expression of the thoughts and feelings of the struggling people. Hence their content and movement constituted that most important entity called nationality. In this fusion of the poet with the people, the personal and the public, they are seen as a synthesis of lyric and epic. But lyrics by their nature are designed to express emotions, regardless of whether they belong to an individual or a group, which, as it were, conveys its voice to an individual. And in this case, the lyrical principle does not lose its generic essence. The soul of the poet was revealed in journalism. “The journalistic nature of civil lyricism has never been contraindicated to true poetry; it, as an “open author’s attitude to the subject of the image,” is one of the forms of lyricism.” In a journalistic image, the main thing is not to reproduce the phenomenon in its given form, but to penetrate into its essence, to reveal it through the poet’s attitude to the phenomenon. In the selection and use of edges and strokes, one perspective dominates: to emphasize the main thing in the character socio-political essence that determines this or that place in the struggle between two worlds. At the same time, a journalistic, direct assessment of its essence predominates, colored by varying degrees of the author’s lyrical warmth or irony, sarcasm. The lyrical journalistic principle in the poem is the author’s, subjective principle: it was the decisive force that determined the nature of both the selection of material and its artistic organization. Researchers of the history of Russian literature note the increasing mutual influence of genres in the 20s. Outwardly, it was expressed in the mutual exchange of figurative and expressive means. On the other hand, the use of rich genre traditions continued. Thus, in the poems of V. Mayakovsky, some features of a romantic poem are undeniable: highlighting milestone moments in the development of the plot; contrast of contrasted events, situations, persons. Well-known genre threads to the poems of V. Mayakovsky come from the ancient didactic poem, when the main subject of expression is some idea, clothed in figurative forms. We can also see in them a peculiar genre “inertia”, born in the closest type of Russian general lyrical poem, which brought open lyric and journalistic pathos and deliberate generalization of images to V. Mayakovsky’s poems. Thus, V. Mayakovsky’s poems were not formed and developed in isolation from the centuries-old traditions of this literary form and from the conquests of other, modern accompanying genres of literature, but in live communication with them. Based on the creative use of all the achievements of artistic practice, it was only possible to create a truly original, high-quality new form lyric and journalistic poem. The specific genre specificity of the lyrical and meditative poem is that it is a poem of reflection. Its plot is “the dialectic of the soul of the lyrical hero, the contradictory process in the development of thoughts and experiences, the variation of moments and stages in this process.” Therefore, plot elements here are minimal or absent. The main compositional load is borne by the personality of the poet, who passes through his heart and consciousness the phenomena of objective reality that worried him. The range of problems underlying the genre content of lyrical and meditative poems is very diverse, but in each specific case is determined by the degree of scale of the author’s individual poetic thinking. And the nature of their solution is determined by the measure of philosophical penetration into the essence of the subject. This type of lyrical poem includes “Flowers”, “Letter to a Woman”, “To the Poets of Georgia” by S. Yesenin, “One Night” by P. Vasilyev. The most important genre feature of the lyric-psychological poem is that the immediate subject of display in it is “the subtlest modulations and shades psyche of the lyrical subject, in the light of which the objective world is perceived and recreatedª. The originality of the subject and the predominant aspect of its disclosure predetermines design features such a poem. In the foreground here is the emotional-psychological principle, which requires special visual and expressive means. A lyrical poem of this type arises in that transitional period when “the old moral foundations were “shattered by the storm of revolution”, while new, socialist ones were just taking shape.” The hero of a lyric-psychological poem was usually represented first of all in himself, in relative isolation from both the circumstances in which his character was formed and from his multifaceted connections with society. In this sense, he is a lonely person. In a lyric-psychological poem, one can also talk about the presence of elements of fantasy, intertwined with the most ordinary reality. The main genre features of the lyric-psychological poem took shape in the work of V. Mayakovsky: in the poems “Cloud in Pants”, “Flute Spine”, “Man”. S. Yesenin’s poem “The Black Man” stands out as the predominant aspect of the artistic recreation of reality. Variations of the lyric-psychological poem of the 20s are also observed in M. Tsvetaeva (“Poem of the Mountain”, “Poem of the End”), and even earlier in B. Pasternak (“Rupture”). “Oza” by A. Voznesensky, “Date Line” by R. Borodulin continued this tradition, but here, as A. Vasilkovsky notes, “there is more external imitation than genuine creative development genre traditionª. Thus, we believe that the solution to the issue of content and volume included in the concept of “poem” should be carried out at two levels: general and genre-specific, that is, taking into account those specific features that are formed in specific historical conditions. The last of these levels does not represent the possibility of finding a general, universal formula, since it is implemented on local, relatively specific material. Each of individual types or varieties needs its own special definition. But since each of them contains some general specific features and qualities that give reason to call the work a poem, then it is they, these features and qualities that can serve as support for defining a poem as a type. So, in the most general typological expression distinctive features and the characteristics of the poem are contained in the specificity of its general content and form. Thus, the subject of the poem, as already mentioned, at all times and in all its genre modifications is something universally significant, representing, as it were, a reflection of the national spirit, something rising above the level of the ordinary and ordinary, associated with the highest, most beautiful aspirations of a person (people, class). In the words of V. Belinsky, it contains “the deepest worldviews and moral questions of perfect humanity.” The development of the poem genre at the beginning of the 20th century, while maintaining a certain independence from the author’s arbitrariness, was nevertheless significantly intensified by individual genre searches. Therefore, within the framework of typological research, it is not useful to study the work of those poets for whom the genre of the poem has found the widest and most varied application.
Links to sources 1. Gulyaev N.A. Theory of literature. M., 1985. S. 127.2. Surovtsev Yu. About poets and poetry. Tbilisi, 1962. P.6667.3. Gusev V. Form and essence // Literary newspaper. 1965. August 19. WITH. 25.4. Vasilkovsky A.G. Genre features of the Russian Soviet poem of 1917-1941. Experience of typological characteristics. Kyiv, 1979. S. 14, 130136, 150, 168169, 178.5. Belinsky V.G. PSS: Ed. USSR Academy of Sciences, vol. VI, p. 415. M., 1955.
The poem differs in style from everything that Blok had previously created.
a) the folklore basis clearly emerges, expressed in the use of ditty rhythms and proverbs of the city romance;
b) poem polyphonic(accommodates many intonations and points of view);
c) the basic principle of the construction of “The Twelve” is contrast (black evening - White snow);
d) the verse of the poem is varied (each of the twelve chapters is written in its own size."
e) the poem is enriched with vivid epithets (“the wind is hard”), metaphors (“the blizzard fills with laughter in the snow”), comparisons (“ old world, like a rootless dog"), interjections, tautological combinations.
29. Bulgakov’s works suffered a difficult fate. During the author’s lifetime, only the first part of his novel “The White Guard”, a book of fantastic and satirical prose, a series of stories “Notes of a Young Doctor” and numerous newspaper feuilletons were published. Only in the sixties did the writer gain widespread fame and, alas, posthumous fame.
We can safely say that Bulgakov’s final work, which absorbed all the ideas and thoughts of the writer sounded in earlier works, was the novel “The Master and Margarita.” It is not surprising that this novel is polyphonic, rich in complex philosophical and moral problems, and covers a wide range of topics. Many critical articles have been written about “The Master and Margarita”, the novel has been studied by literary scholars different countries peace. The novel contains several layers of meaning; it is unusually deep and complex.
Let us try to briefly characterize the problems of the work and its connections with the main characters of the novel. The deepest philosophical problem - the problem of the relationship between power and personality, power and the artist - is reflected in several storylines. The novel contains an atmosphere of fear and political persecution of the 1930s, which the author himself faced. Most of all, the theme of oppression, persecution of an extraordinary, talented person by the state is present in the fate of the Master. It is not for nothing that this image is largely autobiographical. However, the theme of power, its deep impact on the psychology and soul of a person, is also manifested in the story of Yeshua and Pilate.
The originality of the composition of the novel lies in the fact that a story based on the Gospel plot - the story of Yeshua Ha-Notsri and Pontius Pilate - is woven into the plot fabric of the narrative about the destinies of the Moscow inhabitants. Here Bulgakov's subtle psychologism is revealed. Pilate is the bearer of power. This determines the duality of the hero, his spiritual drama. The power vested in the procurator conflicts with the impulse of his soul, which is not devoid of a sense of justice, good and evil. Yeshua, who wholeheartedly believes in the bright beginning in man, cannot understand and accept the actions of the authorities, their blind despotism. Faced with deaf power, the poor philosopher dies. However, Yeshua instilled doubt and repentance into Pilate’s soul, which tormented the procurator for many centuries. Thus, the idea of power is connected in the novel with the problem of mercy and forgiveness.
To understand these issues, the image of Margarita and the posthumous fate of the two are important. loving friend friend of heroes. For Bulgakov, mercy is higher than revenge, higher than personal interests. Margarita trashes the apartment of the critic Latunsky, who killed the Master, but rejects the offer to destroy her enemy. After the ball at Satan's, the heroine first of all asks for the suffering Frida, forgetting about her own passionate desire to return the Master.
Bulgakov shows his heroes the path of spiritual renewal and transformation. The novel, with its mysticism and fantastic episodes, challenges rationalism, philistinism, vulgarity and meanness, as well as pride and spiritual deafness. Thus, Berlioz, with his smug confidence in the future, leads the writer to death under the wheels of a tram. Ivan Bezdomny, on the contrary, turns out to be able to transform himself, abandoning past misconceptions. Here another interesting motive arises - the motive of spiritual awakening, which comes with the loss of what is considered reason in an inert society. It is in a psychiatric hospital that Ivan Bezdomny decides not to write any more of his pathetic poems. Bulgakov condemns militant atheism, which has no true moral basis. An important idea of the author, affirmed by his novel, is the idea of the immortality of art. “Manuscripts don’t burn,” says Woland. But many bright ideas live among people thanks to students who continue the work of the teacher. This is Levi Matthew. Such is Ivanushka, whom the Master instructs to “write a sequel” to his novel. Thus, the author declares the continuity of ideas, their inheritance. Bulgakov’s interpretation of the function of “evil forces”, the devil, is unusual. Woland and his retinue, while in Moscow, brought decency and honesty back to life, punished evil and untruth.
It is Woland who brings the Master and his girlfriend to their “eternal home,” giving them peace. The motif of peace is also significant in Bulgakov’s novel.
We must not forget about the vivid pictures of Moscow life, remarkable for their expressiveness and satirical sharpness. There is a concept of “Bulgakov’s Moscow”, which appeared thanks to the writer’s talent for noticing the details of the surrounding world and recreating them on the pages of his works.
The problems of the novel “The Master and Margarita” are complex and varied; understanding them requires serious research. However, it can be said that each reader in his own way penetrates into the depth of Bulgakov’s plan, discovering for himself new facets of the writer’s talent. A reader with a sensitive soul and developed mind cannot help but fall in love with this unusual, bright and attractive work. That is why Bulgakov’s talent has won so many sincere fans all over the world.
30. The concept of history and revolution in Boris Pasternak’s novel “Doctor Zhivago”
Boris Pasternak is a prominent representative of 20th century literature, laureate Nobel Prize, author of the famous novel “Doctor Zhivago”.
B. Pasternak set himself the task of comprehending the historical experience of Russia in the first era.
half of the 20th century. This meant that pi-
satel needed to talk about the alarming beginning of the century, about
the first world war, revolutions, Civil War, increased
at the same time express your views on human life in history, on
Gospel and art, in order to ultimately “give a historical image
Russia."
At the center of this turning point in history - Yuri Zhivago, not only a doctor, but
thinker and poet.
In the title of the book both the surname and the character are significant.
ter profession of the main character. "Zhivago" - this Russian fa-
milia came from prayer and is intended to emphasize involvement
Yuri to the Spirit of Zhivag, and his spirituality, and his ability to be
the bearer of the idea of life, to embody it, and his immortality (rec-
this is the earliest title). "Doctor" - this profession makes
the hero was initially neutral in the political battles of the time
nor those standing above them; this is a humane occupation that affirms
peace and humanity; this profession should prompt the hero to go
to go to the front, to be treated in hospitals, where the plot opens
the opportunity to meet other significant characters; boo-
being a Doctor in the highest sense, Zhivago must try
treat social diseases and ulcers of an unhealthy society.
The concept of history and revolution in B. Pasternak’s novel “Doctor Zhivago”. The beginning of the novel is unusual: “They walked and walked and sang.” Eternal memory“... Who is being buried?.. “Zhivago”. Thus, the entire work of Pasternak is built on the opposition of the living and the dead.
The main issue around which the “external and internal” life of the main characters revolves is relations with the revolution, attitude towards the revolution. Least of all, Yuri Zhivago and the author himself were its opponents; least of all, they argued with the course of events and resisted the revolution. Their attitude to historical reality is completely different. It is to perceive history as it is, without interfering with it, without trying to change it. This position allows you to see the events of the revolution objectively. “The doctor remembered the recent autumn, the execution of the rebels, the infanticide and wife-murder of the Palykhs, the bloody slaughter and slaughter of people, which had no end in sight. The fanaticism of the whites and reds competed in cruelty, alternately increasing one in response to the other, as if they were multiplied.”
The story of Doctor Zhivago and his loved ones is the story of people whose lives were first unsettled and then destroyed by the elements of revolution. Deprivation and devastation drive the Zhivago family from their settled Moscow home to the Urals. Yuri himself is captured by the Red partisans, and he is forced against his will to participate in the armed struggle. Zhivago’s beloved Lara lives in complete dependence on the arbitrariness of successive authorities, ready for the fact that at any moment she could be called to account for her husband, who has long since left them with their daughter.
Zhivago’s vitality and creative forces are fading away, as he cannot come to terms with the untruth that he perceives around him. The people around the doctor disappear irrevocably - some into oblivion, some abroad, some into another, new life.
The scene of Zhivago's death is the climax of the novel. In a tram car, the doctor has a heart attack. “Yuri Andreevich was unlucky. He got into a faulty carriage, which was constantly beset by misfortunes...” Before us is the embodiment of a suffocated life, suffocated because it fell into that period of historical trials and catastrophes that entered the life of Russia since 1917. This climax is prepared by the entire development of the novel. Throughout it, both the hero and the author increasingly perceived events as violence against life.
The attitude towards the revolution was expressed as a combination of incompatible things: the rightness of retribution, the dream of justice - and destruction, limitations, the inevitability of victims.
On the last pages of the novel, fifteen years after the death of the hero, Zhivago’s daughter Tatyana appears. She adopted the features of Yuri Andreevich, but knows nothing about him: “... well, of course, I am an uneducated girl, without a father, without a mother, I grew up an orphan.” Back in the summer of 1917, Zhivago predicted: “... having woken up, we will no longer regain our lost memory. We will forget part of the past and will not look for an explanation for the unprecedented...”
But the novel ends with the author’s monologue, accepting this world, whatever it may be at the moment. Life in itself carries the beginning of eternal renewal, freedom and harmony. “A happy, tender calm for this holy city and for the whole earth, for the participants in this story who lived to this evening and their children, tyrannized them and covered them with the inaudible music of happiness, spreading far all around.” This is the result of love for life, for Russia, for the reality given to us, whatever it may be. “How sweet it is to live in the world and love life! Oh, how I always want to say thank you to life itself, to existence itself, to say this... at the end of the most difficult winter of 1920.”
These philosophical reflections are also expressed in the cycle of poems that conclude the novel.
31. The tragedy of Grigory Melekhov in M. Sholokhov’s novel “Quiet Don”
M. Sholokhov’s greatest achievement in the novel “Quiet Don” is the revelation of the individual destinies of the central characters. By showing them, the writer strives to show a unique character, often endowed with contradictions, to give a portrait, full-blooded, visible, plastic, to convey peace of mind, emotional sphere personality. The author knows how to trace emotional movements through facial expressions, hand gestures, gait, speech patterns and relationships with other Cossacks.
In first place among the most important figures in the novel is Grigory Melekhov. The writer immediately singles out Gregory from the Cossacks with his rare, wild beauty, daring, and indomitability. It is difficult to forget his “dangling kite nose”, “almonds of hot eyes”, “sharp slabs of cheekbones”, “beastly” smile, the grace of his strong body. He is notable for his great diligence (we see him hunting, fishing, and in the mowing scene), and his sensitive attention to surrounding nature, and a character whose distinctive features are courage and love of freedom, truthfulness and sincerity, pride and thirst for justice. But Gregory’s fate is difficult from the very beginning: he has a passionate feeling for Aksinya, but is forced to marry Natalya, whose life immediately turned out badly. Having allowed a compromise, he took some difficult, middle position between women. To one he is tied by children, the desire for peace and property, the power of the father and public opinion, the other is attracted by a deep, all-consuming passion that overcomes more and more. The heroes were connected not only by sensual passion, but also by a common attitude, spiritual closeness, and a challenge to the farm. However, Grigory cannot finally unite his life with Aksinya for a long time, because he is unable to break with property, farming, land, and farmstead.
The same dual position arises for the hero of the novel in the army, where he ends up with the outbreak of military events. An owner and worker, infected with prejudices, and exceptionally fair and humane, Gregory bravely fights in battle and experiences oppressive pain, shame, and disgust from the shedding of blood. The in-betweenness also manifests itself in another way: he is thrown from one camp to another, from whites to reds, from officers of the tsarist army, who evoke his rage and contempt, to the Bolsheviks and soldiers. The son of a grain grower and an “illiterate Cossack,” as he attests to himself, Gregory acquires a dubious military glory and becomes the commander of a division of the rebel army. He ends up on the wrong furrow, finds himself in the middle, and moves towards a dead end. “And because he stood on the brink in the struggle of two principles, denying both of them, a dull, incessant irritation was born.” It was difficult, painfully difficult to find the right path. Having rejected the old world, he did not find a new one. Fate brought him to a historical crossroads. Avoiding arrest for his crime, he is forced to cowardly go into hiding and then join Fomin’s gang.
Sholokhov painfully follows the tossing of his hero, sympathizes with him, and this author’s compassion finds outlet in these words: “Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black...” He still clung to the ground, but he himself understood the pointlessness of these efforts, for life was broken. He still manages to lag behind the gang and, together with Aksinya, get ready for the road leading to the village of Morozovskaya. And then the worst thing overtakes Gregory: Aksinya dies from a stray bullet, and he loses the most precious thing that he had in the world and that still remained in life.
Thus, the fate of Grigory Melekhov is tragic, just as the fate of the entire country is dramatic in this critical historical period.
32. To understand and appreciate the true scale of the artist’s talent, his contribution to literature, one must proceed from what he said new about life and man, how his vision of the world relates to the moral and aesthetic ideals, ideas and tastes of the people. Tvardovsky never sought to be original. Any pose, any artificiality is alien to him:
Here are the poems, and everything is clear.
Everything is in Russian.
The brilliant skill and nationality of Alexander Trifonovich’s creativity are visible both in the principles of artistic comprehension of our life and in the creation national characters era, renewal of poetic genres. V. Soloukhin said very correctly: “Tvardovsky is the largest Russian Soviet poet of the thirties, forties and fifties because the most important, most decisive events in the life of the country and people were best reflected in his poetry.”
Throughout the war, while at the front, Tvardovsky worked on the poem “Vasily Terkin” - a work that was at the same time a truthful chronicle of the war, an inspiring propaganda word, and a deep understanding of the heroic feat of the people. The poem reflects the main stages of the Great Patriotic War, from its first days to complete victory over the enemy. This is how the poem develops, this is how it is constructed:
These lines and pages -
There is a special count of days and miles,
Like from the western border
To your home capital,
And from that native capital
Back to the western border
And from the western border
All the way to the enemy capital
We did our own hike.
Depicting war presented considerable difficulties for writers. Here one could fall into embellished reports in the spirit of superficial jingoistic optimism or fall into despair and present the war as a complete hopeless horror. In the introduction to “Vasily Terkin,” Tvardovsky defined his approach to the theme of war as a desire to show “the real truth,” “no matter how bitter it may be.” The poet depicts the war without any embellishment. The melancholy of retreat, painful anxiety for the fate of the Motherland, the pain of separation from loved ones, hard military labors and sacrifices, the ruin of the country, severe cold - all this is shown in “Terkin” as the truth demands, no matter how much it hits the soul. But the poem does not leave a depressing impression at all, does not plunge one into despondency. The poem is dominated by faith in the victory of good over evil, light over darkness. And in war, as Tvardovsky shows it, in the respites between battles, people rejoice and laugh, sing and dream, happily take a steam bath and dance in the cold. The author of the poem and its hero are helped to overcome the difficult trials of the war by their boundless love for the Motherland and understanding of the just nature of the fight against fascism. The refrain runs through the entire poem:
The battle is holy and right,
Mortal combat is not for glory,
For the sake of life on earth.
“Vasily Terkin” is a “book about a fighter.” Terkin appears on the first pages of the work as an unassuming soldier-buffoon, who knows how to amuse and amuse the soldiers on a campaign and at a rest stop, innocently laughing at the mistakes of his comrades. But his joke always contains a deep and serious thought: the hero reflects on cowardice and courage, loyalty and generosity, great love and hatred. However, the poet saw his task not only in truthfully drawing the image of one of the millions of people who took on their shoulders the entire burden of the fight against the enemy. Gradually, Terkin’s image increasingly acquires generalized, almost symbolic features. The hero personifies the people:
Into battle, forward, into utter fire
He goes, holy and sinful,
Russian miracle man.
The poet’s high skill was manifested in the fact that he was able, without embellishment, but also without “downgrading” the hero, to embody in him the fundamental moral qualities of the Russian people: patriotism, consciousness of responsibility for the fate of the Motherland, readiness for selfless feats, love of work. The image of the folk hero Vasily Terkin created by Tvardovsky personifies the unbending character of the soldier, his courage and fortitude, humor and resourcefulness.
Tvardovsky's poem is an outstanding work, truly innovative. Both its content and form are truly folk. Therefore, it became the most significant poetic work about the Great Patriotic War, fell in love with millions of readers and, in turn, gave rise to hundreds of imitations and “sequels” among the people.