The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical meaning, therefore it characterizes only some certain word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. Lexical meaning expressed by the stem of the word, grammatical - by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, noun a wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucracy with a wolf (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case (meaning of comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.
For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and an ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. Number of members opposed to each other in grammatical category predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by forms plural(tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. Thus, nouns have 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects different techniques highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, feather indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate the plural, large is masculine, large is feminine, and large is neuter, the form large does not indicate gender.
3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This required condition to highlight a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the contrast between transitional and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and functional parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammar classes words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of the proposal.
In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.
Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are not included in the number of either independent or auxiliary parts of speech; they constitute a special grammatical place words Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.
Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.
Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words morphological feature Changeability-immutability is distinguished, on the one hand, by names and a verb, on the other - by an adverb and a category of state.
The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as adverbs, the category of state - as a predicate impersonal offer: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), as well as the fact that, unlike adverbs, words of the category of state are able to control (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, to slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).
Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles participate in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word
MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR
Subject of morphology
Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of study of which is grammatical meaning and forms of expression of this meaning. If at the level of syntax the forms of expression of grammatical meaning are phrases and sentences, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e. individual forms of a specific word (table, table, table etc.).
Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, and determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.
Morphology also includes the study of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.
Thus, the subject of morphology is the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and the rules of their inflection.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), necessary mainly to connect the given word with other words in the text.
The lexical meaning of a word is specific and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole denote various items and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.
The indicator of the lexical meaning in a word is the stem of the word, and the grammatical meaning has special indicators: ending (window- O, beautiful- th, growth ut), formative suffix, prefix (a game- l, white- her, With-do), emphasis (neg e shut up- cut A t), phoneme alternation (sl. ah at- sl cool it), function word (will play, O coat) and etc.
Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I'm reading- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective, indicative, present tense, etc.
Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. General grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, a feature of an object - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).
The general grammatical meaning of a word consists of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of the particular grammatical meanings of gender, number and case. In other words, if a word has meanings of gender, number and case independent of the words combined with it, then it has the meaning of objectivity and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.
The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).
The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (particular) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.
A grammatical category unites grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings: nominative, genitive, etc. cases; grammatical category of case in English language includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.
Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a whole series of words or syntactic constructions and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.
In a word, grammatical meanings are a mandatory addition to the lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:
a) lexical meaning is inherent in a specific word, grammatical meaning is inherent in a number of words.
b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, signs, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) on the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (mood, tense, person); 3) on the speaker’s attitude to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categoricalness / conjecture).
c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with a emptied lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives of the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address it is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. IN in this case the word girl does not indicate age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.
The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, gender inanimate nouns– stream – river – lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.r.); neuter gender animate nouns – Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, kuche ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).
Grammatical form is the external (formal) side of a linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. Grammatical form is a representative of a grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the genitive case, a verb in the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.
Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways: synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method there are various means expressions of grammatical meanings.
Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix of a species pair): mother (ip.) – mothers (r.p.); run (infinitive) – ran (past tense); did (non-sov. kind) – did (owl. look).
2. Emphasis – hands (ip.p., plural) – handsu (p.p., singular).
3. Alternation at the root (internal inflection): collect (non-sov. view) - collect (owl. view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.
4. Reduplication – doubling of the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical device (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic device). In Malay, orang ‘person’ – oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication – Tagalog. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.
5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another base: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form in ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation in the root – τρέφ / τροφ.
Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Actually analytical means - special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: teach - I will read (weekend tense); fast (positive degree) – faster ( comparative) – the fastest (superlative).
2. Means of syntactic connections - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For indeclinable words of the Russian language, this is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns usually belong to the masculine gender: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: harmful tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).
3. Function words - grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (ip.) - stand by the highway (r.p.) - approach the highway (d.p.) - go onto the highway ( v.p.) – turn around on the highway (p.p.); found out (indicative mood) - would know (subjunctive mood).
4. Word order – grammatical meanings are determined by the position of a word in a sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second - as its passive role (object): A horse sees a mouse (horse - sp., subject; mouse - v.p., object ) – The mouse sees a horse (mouse – i.p., subject horse – v.p., addition).
5. Intonation – expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓Money went to the phone: 1) with logical emphasis on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase “The money was spent on purchasing a telephone”; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase “You need to put money on the phone.”
Questions and tasks for self-control:
1. What is grammar?
2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?
3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?
4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?
More on the topic § 2. Grammatical category. Grammatical meaning. Grammatical form:
- Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GC), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).
Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.
Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.
If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.
For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).
1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.
3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.
4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.
All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)
. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:
1. Name words, or parts of speech;
2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;
3. Modal words;
4. Interjections.
1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.
2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).
3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.
4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.
In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,
2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow
Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
| Noun | Who? What? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. | |
| Verb | what to do? what to do? | To saw, to saw, to know, to find out. | |
| Adjective | Which? whose? | Nice, blue, mom's, door. | |
| Numeral | How many? which? | Five, five, five. | |
| Adverb | How? When? Where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. | |
| Pronoun | Who? Which? How many? How? and etc. | I, he, so, my, so much, so, there. | |
| Participle | Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. | |
| Participle | How? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding. |
Notes
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.
Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.
- Functional words cannot be questioned.
- Function words are not parts of the sentence.
- Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
- The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:
- pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
- union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
- particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).
6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.
- Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
- Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.
Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.
Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.
Ticket number 8
Noun
The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.
Words act as building material for the tongue. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be combined into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The branch of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its modification.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies combinations of words and sentences.
Thus, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of a word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar studies a word from the point of view of generalizing its signs and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house And smoke, table And chair, then for grammar all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same case forms and numbers, and have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning, inherent in a number of words, independent of their real-material content.
For example, words smoke And house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collective) people living in it; smoke– an aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be defined by an adjective, change according to cases and numbers, and act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using function words, alternating sounds, changing the place of stress and word order, and intonation.
Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): read– verb in the past tense form.
When grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, it is formed complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with a service word): I will read, let's read! In the Russian language, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural meanings are combined into a number meaning system. In such cases we talk about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.
Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, and that of adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm happens:
universal– all forms (full);
incomplete– there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings interact: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning and form. For example, adjective voiced in a phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: sonorous, more sonorous, most sonorous). This is the same adjective in the phrase media is relative adjective(voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, verb run in the meaning of “to move quickly” is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite a long time until he fell completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning – the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
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