Some features:
Father of Irina Mikhailovna Posnova.
Origin
Genus. in the Ryazan province.
Education
Graduated from the Kyiv Theological Academy
Acts
Since 1908 - private associate professor at Kyiv University in the department. history of the Church.
Since 1910 the course was taught by St. Scriptures of the NT at the Kyiv Theological Academy (extraordinary professor?)
From 1913-1919 - professor at the Kyiv Theological Academy in the department. history of the ancient Church.
1919-1931 - Professor of Dogmatics and Church History at the Sofia Theological Academy.
Professor of Church History at the Faculty of Theology at Sofia University.
Creations
- The idea of the Covenant of God with the Israeli people in the Old Testament: Theological and philosophical experience. review of the history of the Israeli people. - Kyiv., 1898.
Master's dissertation
- The interaction of two factors in the history of the Israeli people - divine and human. - Kyiv, 1903.
- Judaism (to characterize the internal life of the Jewish people in the post-exilic period). - Kyiv, 1906.
Download djvu (file size: 7.48 MB, 273 pages)
From the “Bibliological Dictionary”
priest Alexander Men
- On the question of the sources of Christ. creed and its tasks. - St. Petersburg, 1906.
- About the fate of biblical Israel. - Kyiv, 1907.
- First Christ. community and communism. - St. Petersburg, 1909. (?)
- New types of construction of the ancient history of the Church. - Kyiv, 1909.
- About the personality of the founder of Christ. churches. - St. Petersburg, 1910.
- The Gospel of Jesus Christ and the Gospel of the Apostles about Christ. - Kyiv, 1911.
- Gnosticism 2nd century. and victory of Christ. church above it. - Kyiv, 1917. 826 p.
(2nd edition (reprint) - Brussels: Living with God, 1991).doctoral dissertation
- Samarian magicians - Christ. herearchs: In 2 vols. - St. Petersburg; Kyiv, 1917.
Download:
Posnov M.E. Samarian magicians are Christian heresarchs. 1915.djvu (file size: 1.5 MB, 44 pages)
Posnov M.E. Samarian magicians are Christian heresarchs. 1917.djvu (file size: 1.38 MB, 50 pages)Response to criticism from Prof. Rybinsky
(Rybinsky Vl., Samaritanism and Gnosticism, “The Wanderer”, 1914, #3; 1916, #1.)
Metropolitan Anthony as an Orthodox theologian-dogmatist. - Warsaw, 1929.
(Metropolitan Anthony, as an Orthodox theological diplomat. - Warsaw, 1929. 32 p.)
History of Christ. churches. (before the division of churches - 1054) - Brussels: Life with God, 1964. 614 p.
(2nd edition (reprint) - Brussels: Life with God, 1988).
Several articles on the Bible stories for Pravosl. theologian encyclopedia"
(Jeremiah - vol. 6; Scribes - vol. 12, etc.).
M.E. Posnov. History of the Christian Church
M.E. Posnov. History of the Christian Church.. 1
Preliminary information. 1
Introductory chapter. 12
First period (30–313) 28
Chapter I. The mission of the Church in the first three centuries. 28
Chapter II. Christian Church and the outside world. 51
Chapter III. The internal life of the Christian Church in the 1st-3rd centuries. 67
Chapter IV. Church doctrine in the first three centuries. 91
Chapter V. Christian Worship. 130
Chapter VI. Religious and moral life of Christians. 141
Part 2. The period of ecumenical councils. 146
Chapter I. Spread of Christianity. 147
Chapter II. The relationship of the Christian Church to the outside world. Church and State. 160
Chapter III. Church organization. 184
Chapter IV. Disclosure of Christian teaching during the period of the Ecumenical Councils (IV-VIII centuries) 207
Chapter V. Christian Worship. 351
Chapter VI. Moral life. 374
Concept of science. The history of the Christian Church, as a discipline, is the study of the past in the life of the Church and its presentation in a systematic order, i.e. in chronological sequence and pragmatic connection.
Subject and nature of science is more precisely defined and appears more clearly from the name given to it by the historian of the 4th century, bishop. Eusebius of Caesarea εκκλησιαστική ιστορία, ς.e. from the words ιστορία θ εκκλησία. The word ιστορία, like ιστωρ, comes from οιδα, which, in contrast to γιγνώσκο, means factual knowledge obtained through observations. "Ιστορία is the questioning, finding out by people about something that happened, when for some reason it was not possible to be a personal witness to it. In this case, at first glance, the meaning of the Greek word ιστορία κ seems to be correctly conveyed by the German Geschichte, but in fact there is a significant difference between them : Geschichte, from geschehen, capable of denoting All what happened; however, the first Greek historian, the father of history, Herodotus, in his narrative, for example, reports about the Scythians only, in his opinion, what is remarkable, characteristic, worthy of the attention of his contemporaries and posterity. This meaning has become established in the universal human consciousness: “historical” is something important, serious, great, so as to remember the “ancient days” and “learn from them.” Therefore, under history Of course, now the story is about remarkable events of the past, about which it is interesting to receive a story from an eyewitness, in any case, from a well-informed person, in a word, from a completely reliable source. Εκκλησία comes from καλέω, καλειν - to call, to call, to invite. According to the law of the Athenian legislator Solon, εκκλησία is an extraordinary meeting of the entire people to resolve the most important state affairs that exceed the powers of permanent government or βουλή. The idea is very clear and rich in its content. But it is preserved only among those peoples who kept this word. For example, the Romans accurately conveyed this word, rewriting it in Latin letters - ecclesia, and from them the nations that became Christian thanks to the Roman Church, for example, the French - eglise, the Italians - chiesa, the Spaniards - iglesia, borrowed. The Slavic word “church” is already devoid of this idea. The ancient Slavic word “tsarky,” church, the German Kirche come from the Greek τό κυριακόν, which means a meeting of believers who take a living, active part in the life and events of the Church. In the gospels the word "εκκλησία" appears only three times and this is precisely in the gospel of Matthew (16:18): " I will build my Church" and in ch. (18:17): " Tell the church: what if the church doesn’t listen..." In the apostolic epistles, especially in the Apostle Paul, the word εκκλησία θ akin to it - κλησις, κλητος - σ are used very often. Of course, Jesus Christ preached to his contemporaries in Aramaic and probably used Aramaic for the name of the church Edma. However, the apostles and followers of Christ, who, of course, knew, along with Greek, the Aramaic or Syro-Chaldean language, are undoubted witnesses to the fact that the translated Greek word they used as a translation “εκκλησία” most accurately corresponds to the Aramaic word in the mouth of Jesus Christ.
Church(η εκκλησία του Χριστου - Matthew 16:18; 1 Cor. 10:32; Gal. 1:13) is a society founded and led by Jesus Christ, the Son of God, of those who believe in Him, sanctified by the Holy Spirit in the sacraments in the hope of cleansing from sins and salvation in the future life. The Church is not only an earthly institution; it pursues unearthly goals: the implementation of the Kingdom of God among people, their preparation for the Kingdom of Heaven (τήν βασιλείαν του Θεου, του Χριστου, των ουρανων). The relationship between the Church, the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven cannot be understood. There are two elements or factors in the Church - divine And human. The founding of the Church, its leadership and all sanctifying actions are from God. The object of saving influences, the environment, the material are represented by people. However, man is not a mechanical element in the Church; people are not a passive environment. Against the mechanical view of people, the very name of the Church is εκκλησία, as shown above. In the Christian Church, man participates with his free will in his own salvation and the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. Without man's free active participation, God cannot save him. - Actually, the study of church history is subject to the human element, its development, its changes, under the influence or influence of the divine factor. The divine factor itself, as eternal, unchangeable, is not subject to history, and goes beyond its boundaries.
The history of the Christian Church is, on the one hand, a science historical; this defines the subject in general and indicates the method of research: as a historical science, church history sets out change in the past life of the Church, using the historical or inductive method.
On the other hand, church history is a science theological, is part of the family of theological sciences and occupies its specific place here.
Task and method. The depiction of church history is subject to everything in which the life of the Lord’s society, called the Church, which arranges the eternal salvation of people, was and is expressed. The task of history is not simply, so to speak, to describe reality and understand it without pursuing any secondary goals, while maintaining complete objectivity, but to make understandable the whole historical development, all changes and, as far as possible, to explain the course of history. Church history is one of the departments, parts or aspects of general human development; For this reason alone, it cannot be isolated from general history. On the other hand, there is a big difference between them. If secular, civil history refers to the earthly, political, cultural and educational development of peoples (humanity), then church history depicts the desire of people for the eternal, heavenly goal - the salvation of their souls.
In particular, the task of church history is to: a) collect facts, extract data from all relevant areas characterizing the life of the Church, in a word, bring into play all available historical material, b) study it critically, establishing the true, authentic, rejecting the forged, falsified and pointing out the doubtful and c) finally, present all the obtained and critically verified material in compliance with the proper rules. It is obvious that the presentation of historical facts cannot be a simple chronicle narration of events, but must be compiled according to historical method. The facts must be arranged in strictly chronological order. Only such an order will make it possible to understand the facts in their natural, logical, genetic development and will help establish pragmatic the connection between them, as between reasons and consequences, causes and actions. Of course, the historical method is not applicable to church history to its fullest extent, since it includes a divine element that cannot be taken into account by human research. Using a purely historical method, for example, we cannot find out either the origin of Christianity - since it is a gift from heaven - or the main eras in its development, why, for example, paganism failed - neither its external political state power, nor its internal - philosophical, intelligent - to destroy Christianity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. and prevent his victory in the 4th century.
StoryChristian Church
Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov (1874-1931).
Part I
Preface. Preliminary information.
Sources of church history. Editions of sources Requirements from a historian
objectivity and non-confessionalism. The relationship of church history to other sciences -
secular and theological. The boundaries of the history of the Christian Church and its division into
periods. Church historiography Period I. Period II.
Introductory chapter
1. Preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus Christ. 2. Condition
pagan and Jewish world by the time of the coming of Jesus Christ. Religious
beliefs of the Jewish people in the age of the Nativity of Christ.
First period (30-313).
Foundation, spread and internal development of the Church in the fight against the Jewish and
Greco-Roman world.
Chapter I. The mission of the Church in the first three centuries.
Founder of the Christian Church, Jesus Christ. Biblical sources. About the face
Jesus Christ according to the canonical gospels. The work of Jesus Christ. Birth
Christian Church in Jerusalem. The structure of life in the first Christian community.
The first persecution of the Jerusalem Church. The beginning of Christian mission among
pagans. Apostle Paul. Apostolic Council of Jerusalem (49). Activity
ap. Paul after the Apostolic Council. His arrival in Rome. Apostle Peter.
Founding of the Roman Church. The fate of the first Christian community and death
Jerusalem. The activities of St. John the Theologian and other Apostles. Christian
mission in the 2nd-3rd centuries. Countries, cities and places where Christianity spread to the beginning
4th century Spread of Christianity among various strata of society
Chapter II. Christian Church and the outside world. The relationship between the church and
state
Persecution of Christians by pagans.
Chapter III. The internal life of the Christian Church in the 1st-3rd centuries.
Organization of the Church. Apostles, prophets and teachers. Constant hierarchical and
non-hierarchical ministries in the Church. The so-called monarchical episcopate.
Metropolitans in the first three centuries of Christianity. Roman bishops for the first three centuries:
The relationship between individual Christian Churches in the first three centuries.
Question about the fallen. Church schisms of Felicissimus in Carthage, Novatian in Rome.
Chapter 4. Church doctrine in the first three centuries.
Judeo-Christian misconceptions. Gnosticism. Montanism. Monarchianism.
Manichaeism. The struggle of the Church against heresies of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Positive disclosure
Christian teaching. 1. The Teaching of the 12 Apostles. (?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????
????????? ???? ???????). St. Justin Martyr. Minucius Felix "Octavius." Controversy
with the monarchians. The doctrine of the Logos-Christ. Theological views of Tertullian. His
system Development of speculative theology in the Church. Origen (182-215).
Chapter V. Christian Worship. I II
Holy days and times of the 1st-3rd centuries. Annual holidays and fasts. Places
liturgical meetings. Christian painting.
Chapter VI. Religious and moral life of Christians.
Church discipline. Religious moral state of believers. Start
monasticism.
Part 2. The period of ecumenical councils.
Chapter I. Spread of Christianity.
The Great Migration of Peoples. Armenia and Iveria (Georgia). Arabia and Abyssinia.
Christian mission among the Slavic peoples. Christianity among the Czechs.
Christianity in Poland. Christianity in Rus'.
Chapter II.
The relationship of the Christian Church to the outside world. Church and State. Emperor
Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan. Relations between Church and State on
East and West. Sons of Constantine the Great - Constantine II, Constance and
Constantius. Emperors Julian, Grapian, Theodosius the Great and the Younger. Attitude
between church and state power in the West. The rise of the Pope
emperors. Disasters of the Church. The reaction of paganism. Emperor Julian the Apostate.
Persecution of Christians in Persia. Pagan polemics and Christian apologetics with
IV century. Islam.
Chapter III. Church organization.
Roman Pope. Patriarchate of Alexandria. Patriarchate of Antioch. Jerusalem
patriarchy. Rise of the Bishop of Constantinople "New Rome." Here is a list
Patriarchs of Constantinople until the 9th century: Bishops. Chorebishops. Episcopal
control. Special ecclesiastical positions. Low clergy.
Church Legislation.
About the Local and Ecumenical Councils. Canonical (legal) side in
activities of Local and Ecumenical Councils. About the collections of canons. Apostolic
canons. Apostolic didascalia. The so-called Apostolic Constitutions.
Donatist split. Meletian Schism.
Chapter IV. Disclosure of Christian teaching during the period of the Ecumenical
cathedrals (IV-VIII centuries).
The First Ecumenical Council was convened regarding the heresy of Arius in Nicaea in 325. Teaching
Athanasius of Alexandria. Performances Aria. First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea
325th year. The fight for the Nicene Creed. "New Nicenes," Cappadocians.
Theodosius I (379-395). Council of Constantinople 381 (II
Ecumenical). Christological question. The beginning of Christological disputes. Diodorus
Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia. Teachings of Cyril of Alexandria.
Rivalry between the bishops of Alexandria and Constantinople. Nestorius, how
Archbishop of Constantinople. Third Ecumenical Council in Ephesus, 431
"Cathedral" (Conciliabulum) of John of Antioch. Emperor's orders
Feodosia. Continuation of council meetings. Nestorius's refusal from the pulpit and
his subsequent fate. Attempts by Emperor Theodosius II to reconcile the disputants
parties. The fate of the Council of Ephesus. Union of Antioch. Union of Antioch. Fate
Nestorianism. Nestorians. The origin of Monophysitism. So-called
"robber" Council of Ephesus 449 Council of Chalcedon 451 IV Ecumenical
Cathedral. The meaning of the Council of Chalcedon. History of the Monophysites after Chalcedon
Cathedral. The teachings of the Monophysites and their division. Emperor Justinian I (527-565).
Fifth Ecumenical Council of 553 in Constantinople. Monothelitian dispute. VIth
Ecumenical Council 680-681. Iconoclastic dispute. Question about icon veneration after
VIIth Ecumenical Council. Iconoclasm in the West. Pavlikians. Results. General
development of dogmatics in the East up to St. John of Damascus (inclusive).
Chapter V. Christian Worship.
Daily, weekly and weekly services. Yearly circle of holidays. Circle
Christmas holidays. Veneration of martyrs, saints, the Blessed Virgin Mary and
angels. Veneration of relics. Travel to holy places. Icons. Church
chants from the 4th-11th centuries. Western Songwriters. Church Sacraments.
Eucharistic liturgy. Liturgical regulations. Places of Christian worship.
Christian art.
Chapter VI. Moral life.
The state of religious and moral life in general from the 4th to the 11th centuries. Monasticism.
History of monasticism. Monasticism in the West. The historical significance of monasticism and
regulation of his life by the Church.
Great Church Schism.
"Division of Churches." The last clash between Byzantium and Rome in the middle of the 11th century
century. The so-called division of churches.
Part I
Preface.
Professor Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov (1874-1931) graduated from the Kyiv Theological
Academy and subsequently maintained constant contacts with Western universities. He
was a professor in Kyiv, and later in Sofia, where he lectured on dogmatics and, in
features on church history. The book offered here is
a generalizing work, which he himself intended to revise and publish again.
The death that befell him in Sofia in 1931 prevented him from carrying out his last
finishing of this work, which appeared in an abridged edition in Sofia in 1937.
Deeply devoted to his Church and its traditions, Prof. Posnov at the same time
He was distinguished by great directness of mind, constantly seeking the truth. Real work -
published this time in full, through the efforts of the author’s daughter, I. M. Posnova, -
reveals the essence of his views on the past and on the relationship between Eastern and
Western Christianity during the first eleven centuries.
Over the past three and a half decades, many historical facts have been touched upon
on these pages have been re-examined and some of them are now presented
in new lighting. But the successes that the latest knowledge could achieve are not
detract from the value of this book. It consists mainly of scientific
direction of this work, in the truthfulness and impartiality of the author, and in the fact
a method by which he was constantly inspired. According to Prof. The basis, isn’t it
The task of the historian is to establish facts in their primary truth and give
the opportunity to understand their historical development? In applying this method to facts
church history, he saw a living source of genuine Irenism, that, through
which modern man himself comes to terms with the past, which is revealed to him in
light of truth.
This book is published by the Russian religious publishing house "Life with God" in Brussels,
has already published a number of works that can promote mutual understanding between Catholics
and Orthodox, under the auspices of the Committee for Cultural Cooperation under
Secretariat for Unity. Its publication is intended as a matter of fraternal friendship.
The history of the Church of the first eleven centuries puts into the hands of the Orthodox a valuable work,
created by one of their best historians; she will allow other Christians
get acquainted with this view of history, of the past of the Church in the era when it
was still undivided, a gaze that strives to be objective and
unbiased.
We consider it our pleasant duty to express gratitude to everyone who in any way
collaborated in the preparation of this book for publication. In particular we mean here
some professors of the University of Auven and monks of the Benedictine
monastery in Shevton.
The bibliography has been reviewed and supplemented with the latest sources.
Canon Edouard Baudouin.
Preliminary information
Concept of science. The history of the Christian Church, as a discipline, is the study
past in the life of the Church and presenting it in a systematic manner, i.e. V
chronological sequence and pragmatic connection.
The subject and nature of science is more precisely defined and appears more clearly from the name,
given to her by the historian of the 4th century, bishop. Eusebius of Caesarea?????????????
???????, i.e. from words??????? And????????. The word ???????, like ?????, occurs
from????, which is the opposite of???????? means actual knowledge
obtained through observations. "??????? there is questioning, people finding out about
something that happened when a personal witness to it for some reason failed
be. In this case, at first glance, the meaning of the Greek word is ??????? as if
is correctly rendered by the German Geschichte, but in fact there is
significant difference: Geschichte, from geschehen, is capable of denoting everything
what happened; however, the first Greek historian, the father of history, Herodotus in his
the narrative, for example, about the Scythians reports only, in his opinion, remarkable,
characteristic, worthy of the attention of contemporaries and posterity. Such a meaning
established itself in the universal consciousness: “historical” is something important,
serious, great - so as to remember “the days of old” and “learn from them.”
Consequently, history now means the story of remarkable
events of the past tense, about which it is interesting to receive a story from the mouth
an eyewitness, at least from a well-informed person, in a word, from a source
quite reliable. ??????? derived from?????, ?????? - call, summon,
invite. According to the law of the Athenian legislator Solon, ???????? - this is an emergency
a meeting of all the people to resolve the most important state affairs,
exceeded the powers of permanent management or?????. The idea is very clear and
rich in content. But it is preserved only among those peoples who
kept this word. For example, the Romans accurately conveyed this word by rewriting it
in Latin letters - ecclesia, and from them the nations that became
Christian thanks to the Roman Church, for example, the French - eglise, Italians -
chiesa, Spanish - iglesia. The Slavic word “church” is already devoid of this idea.
The ancient Slavic word "tsr'ky," church, the German Kirche come from
Greek?? ????????, which means a meeting of believers who receive living things,
active participation in the life and events of the Church. In the Gospels the word "??????????"
occurs only three times and this is precisely in the Gospel of Matthew (16:18): “I will build
My church" and in chapter (18:17): "Say to the church: what if he does not listen to the church..." In
in the apostolic epistles, especially in the Apostle Paul - the word???????? and related
to him - ??????, ?????? - are used very often. Of course Jesus Christ
preached to his contemporaries in Aramaic and probably used it for
The Aramaic name of the church is Edma. However, the apostles and followers of Christ,
who, of course, knew, along with Greek, Aramaic or Syro-Chaldean language -
undoubted witnesses in favor of the fact that what they used as a translation
the Greek word "????????" corresponds exactly to the Aramaic word in
mouth of Jesus Christ.
The Church (? ?????????? ??? ??????? - Matt. 16:18; 1 Cor. 10:32; Gal. 1:13) is
founded and led by Jesus Christ, the Son of God, a society of believers in
Him, sanctified by the Holy Spirit in the sacraments in the hope of cleansing from sins and
salvation in the future life. The Church is not only an earthly institution; she's stalking
unearthly goals: the implementation of the Kingdom of God among people, preparing them for
Kingdom of Heaven (??? ????????? ??? ????, ??? ???????, ??? ???????). Attitude
between the Church, the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven cannot be explained. IN
The Church has two elements or factors - divine and human. Founding of the Church
its guidance and all sanctifying actions are from God. The object of salvation
influences, environment, material are represented by people. However, the person is not in the Church
the element is mechanical, people are not a passive environment. Against the mechanical gaze
the very name of the Church already applies to people????????, as shown above. IN
of the Christian Church, man participates with his free will in his own
salvation and establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. Without free active participation
man, God cannot save him. - The actual study of church history and
subject to the human element, its development, its changes, under the influence or
influence of the divine factor. The divine factor itself, like
eternal, unchangeable, not subject to history, goes beyond its boundaries.
The history of the Christian Church is, on the one hand, a historical science; this
the subject is defined in general and the research method is indicated: as science
historical, church history sets out changes in the past life of the Church,
using the historical or inductive method.
On the other hand, church history is a theological science, part of the family
theological sciences occupies its definite place here too.
Task and method. Everything in which it is expressed is subject to the depiction of church history.
and the life of the Lord’s society is expressed, called the Church, which organizes the eternal
saving people. The task of history is not simply to describe reality, so to speak.
and cognize it without pursuing any side goals, while observing complete
objectivity, but to make understandable the whole historical development, all the changes and,
explain the course of history as far as possible. Church history is one of
departments, parts or aspects of general human development; because of this she
cannot be isolated from general history. On the other hand, there is also a big
difference between them. If secular, civil history means earthly things,
political, cultural and educational development of peoples (humanity), then
Church history depicts the desire of people for the eternal, heavenly goal - salvation
their shower.
In particular, the task of church history is to
areas: a) collect facts, extract data from all relevant areas,
characterizing the life of the Church, in a word, to involve in the work all available
historical material, b) study it critically, establishing the authentic,
authentic, rejecting the forged, falsified and pointing out the dubious and c)
finally, present all the obtained and critically checked material in compliance with
proper rules. It is obvious that the presentation of historical facts cannot be
a simple chronicle narrative of events, but should be compiled according to
historical method. The facts must be arranged in strictly chronological order.
Only such an order will make it possible to understand the facts in their natural,
natural, genetic development and will help establish a pragmatic connection
between them, as between reasons and consequences, causes and effects.
Of course, the historical method is not applicable to the church to its fullest extent.
history, since it includes a divine element that cannot be taken into account
aspects of human research. Using a purely historical method,
for example, we cannot find out the origin of Christianity, since it
there is a gift from heaven - no major epochs in its development, why, for example, it was not possible
paganism - neither its external political state force, nor its internal -
philosophical, intelligent - to destroy Christianity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. And
prevent his victory in the 4th century.
Sources of church history.
The source for church history is everything that helps in one way or another
establishing historical actual facts from the past life of the Church. Between
sources, the most ancient monuments occupy the first place in history
and written documents. Ancient Church historians can also be classified as
sources - direct, since they describe directly from experience what is observed
they are life, and mediocre, since they depict the course of church events,
using other people's written data or oral stories.
Monumental springs. These include a) works of Christian painting,
architecture and sculpture. They do not tell the stories of the life of the Christian Church
in human language, but serve as an expression of the spirit and life of Christians, a reflection of their
beliefs and sentiments. These are especially the Roman catacombs with their
symbolic painting, Christian altars and tombs. They are detailed
described by Prof. De Rossi, Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae septimo
saeculoantiquiores. Bd. I. Romae 1857. Bd. lI. Tl. I. Romee 1887. Christian
the inscriptions of Gaul are described by Le Blunt, Spanish and British - by N?bner. - b) K
monumental monuments also contain various inscriptions on seals,
coins and other items. Sources of this kind should be placed very
high. It is not so easy to write on stones, marble monuments, or walls. If anyone
made such inscriptions, he had serious motives for doing so. From the monuments of this
genera are known, for example, discovered in the 16th century. statues of Hippolytus of Rome and Sabina
deity Sema (Semo).
Written monuments: a) These include Roman-Byzantine legal
instructions regarding Christians - edicts, decrees, novellas collected in Codex
Theodosianus (ed. Th. Mommsen et R.M. Meyer, Berol. 1905), Corpus juris civilis
Justiniani (ed. Mommen, Berol. 1892-1895), in later legislative
monuments of kings Basil, Leo and Constantine (in Leuenclavius. Jus
graeco-romanum. 2 Bd., Frankof 1596). Spiritual and secular regarding
Christian Church gathered in ????????? Rhalli and Potti and published in Athens in
1852-1859, in six volumes in 8-vo, and then by Cardinal Pitra, Juris ecclesiasticae
graecorum historia et monumenta, b) various Christian acts of official,
legal nature - resolutions of local and ecumenical councils, messages
bishops, metropolitans, patriarchs to various churches, societies and individuals, c)
the most ancient liturgies and religious orders, symbols and heterogeneous confessions,
or statements of faith, acts of martyrdom, - d) the works of Sts. fathers and teachers
Church and church writers.
Editions of sources
Already in the last centuries of the Middle Ages, the need to ascend from
traditional, church and school theology to the pure sources of Christian
knowledge in the Holy Scriptures and from the Holy Fathers. Study and publication of ancient patristic works
monuments begins from the time of humanism and increases significantly in the century
reformation. On publications and polemical writings by Protestants
followed the response of the Catholic Church. At the beginning of the 17th century. (1618) founded
The Benedictine Congregation of St. Maurus, through its publishing works, acquired
immortal glory for yourself. Such, for example, are “Asta santorum” by the Belgian John
Bolland (1665), "Asta martyrum" by Ryumnar (1709); from the 18th century must be
mentioned: "Bibliotheca veterum patrium" by Andrei Hollandi and "Biblioteka
orientalis" Assemani. - In the 19th century, the cardinal and director became famous for his publications
Vatican Library Angelo Mai Pitra. - Played a huge practical role
still continues to play, not distinguished by any special merits in scientific terms
edition of Abbot Migne (J.P. Mingae, 1875): Patrologiae cursus completus, - series
latina - 221 Vol. (Paris 1844-1864), series graeca, 162 Vol. (1857-1866). In view of
textual deficiencies of Minya, Vienna Academy of Sciences from the 2nd half of the 19th century. (With
1866) began publishing the Latin Fathers "corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum
latinorum," and since 1891 the Prussian Academy of Sciences has set itself the task of publishing
Greek writers: "Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten
drei Juhrhunderte." In France, continuing the work of Assemani, Grafin and F. Nau began
publish: "Patrologia orientalis." Among the Slavic peoples among Russian theologians
Many translations and editions of patristic literature appeared. Yes, men
apostolic, writings of apologists and writings of St. Irenaeus of Lyons
translated by Archpriest Preobrazhensky. Western Fathers and Writers - Tertullian,
Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Arnobius were transferred to the Kyiv Theological Academy;
Eastern fathers - in the St. Petersburg and Moscow Academies.
The publication of acts of ecumenical councils is available in Mansi (1798) sacrorum conciliorum
nova et amplissima collectio in 31 volumes (ending with the Council of Florence 1439).
Mansi's work was continued at the end of the 19th century. and the beginning of the 20th century. Abbot Martin and
Archbishop Louis Petit.
The publisher of the continued Mansi was a certain G. Welte. Full title
new edition is: "Sacrorum conciliorum nova amplissima collectio" (Mansi,
Martin et L. Petit). Hubert Welte, Editeur (de 1879 a 1914:Paris), depius 1914 a
Arnhem (Hollande); it is assumed in LIII T. (and practically, due to the doubling
volumes - a, b, or and c in LVI); the last 5 volumes (49-53) contain acts
Vatican Council; of these, the first two volumes (49-50) were printed. There is also Russian
publication of acts of the Ecumenical Councils and translation of the Kazan Theological Academy in seven
volumes
The publication of the canons of the Eastern and Western Churches was carried out by N. Bruns,
Lauchert. In Russia there was, in addition to the "Book of Rules of the Holy Apostles,"
capital publication of the "Society of Lovers of Spiritual Enlightenment" in Moscow:
"Rules of the Holy Apostles, Holy Councils - ecumenical and local and Holy
Fathers" with interpretations, vol. 1-Sh. Moscow. Last edition 1884.
Hagiographic monuments - acts of martyrs and biographies of Saints - began
published by the Flemish Jesuits, the Bollandists, under the title "Asta sanctorum,
quot-quot toto in orbe coluntur," i.e. "The Acts of the Saints, whatever they venerate
in the universe." Their work, interrupted by the French Revolution, was continued in
XIX century Belgian Jesuits. The publication is currently up to "November"
month. - An abridged edition of some critically reviewed acts has been made
Ruinard, Knopf, Gebgart. - The Russians have the Chetyi Menaion Metropolitan. Macarius from XVI
c., Chetyi Menaion Met. Dmitry of Rostov, study of Sergius, Archbishop
Vladimirsky "Monthology of the East," Professor Klyuchevsky "Lives of the Saints, as
historical source" and Professor Golubinsky "On the canonization of Saints in Russian
Churches."
Requirements from a historian of objectivity and aconfessionalism.
When collecting sources, researching material and processing it, the historian
must be objective, free from false patriotism (chauvinism), and the church
historian of confessional tendencies. - Ancient orator Cicero (Ogaiop. II,
9-15) says: “Ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne quid veri non audeat” i.e.
"The historian should not say anything false and not hide anything true."
Christian writer of the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. Hieromartyr, Bishop Lucian
said: "???? ?????? ?? ???????, ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????." "Only one
Truth must be sacrificed by those who intend to write history."
The relationship of church history to other sciences
- secular and theological.
A. Church history has a connection with civil history, being inseparable
part of it. A church historian needs a lot of attention, effort, art and
experience in order to distinguish church-historical material from secular and, with
clarification of acts and events of both religious and political significance,
introduce a civilian element to the extent that it is essential
necessary for the correct understanding and illumination of church data. Political
history is often the background, the canvas on which church events are woven; she
can influence beneficially the development of church affairs, but can delay,
constrain or directly stop their progress. All this, of course, must be noted,
when presenting the life of the Church for certain periods. - Church history has
deep connection with ancient Greek philosophy, especially with Platonism,
stoicism and neoplatonism. Church historian, without knowledge of Greek philosophy,
will not only not understand the origin of heresies, but also the positive
church and theological development. Apologists, hereseologists, Alexandrian teachers -
Clement and Origen, fathers and teachers of the Church of the 4th and 5th centuries. everyone was taught Hellenic
Sciences, first of all, knew philosophy. And this clearly had a beneficial effect
only on a general cultural level, but also on their exploration of theological truths.
This was well noticed by Emperor Julian, who betrayed Christianity, and forbade Christians
visiting pagan schools. - Church history is tightly connected with the history of religions,
of which some were serious "rivals of Christianity," as religion
Mithras, god of the sun. Without knowledge of the history of religions it is not always clear
the spread of Christianity and obstacles to its propaganda. No story
religions do not understand Gnosticism and other heresies of Christianity, for example,
Manichaeanism.
In addition to those listed, there are other secular sciences that are auxiliary to history.
Extracting material from historical sources is not as easy as it might seem
at first sight. This requires knowledge and ability to determine the origin
source, its authenticity, read it correctly and understand it correctly. - There is a whole
a number of sciences that help the historian to thoroughly take advantage of what is offered
historical material. These are:
1. Diplomacy (??????? - a document folded in half) - a science that helps
determine the type of document by appearance. In the east in the form of diplomas
there were chrysobulos, royal letters with a golden seal; usually basileus
(kings) signed in purple ink??????????, i.e. indict and month.
2. Sphragistics or sigillography - the science of seals - emerged from diplomacy.
The seals stood out as wax; sealing wax is a Spanish invention of the 16th century.
3. Epigraphy is a science that deals with inscriptions on solid material, as a type of it -
numismatics.
4. Paleography deals with manuscripts on papyrus, parchment and paper.
5. Philology. Paleography helps to read the manuscript correctly, and philology gives
means to correctly understand what is written and read. In this regard, for
For a historian of the ancient Church, knowledge of ancient and classical languages is especially important -
Greek and Latin.
6. Geography and chronology - make it possible to determine the source by location and
the time of its origin.
B. Theology (??????????) - scientific research and explanation of data
Christian religion - began in the 2nd century, when the service of the new
religion was called upon by the means of Greek education. In the area itself
theology specialization was expressed in the division into departments of theological sciences and
the requirement for their methodological development in accordance with special tasks.
Theology is usually divided into 4 departments: 1. exegetical theology, 2.
historical, 3. systematic and 4. practical theology. They come down to
three and even two - historical and systematic theology. Task
historical theology - depiction of the history of the message of revelation to humanity
and its assimilation by man. This includes stories - biblical and church.
The history of the Christian Church strives to depict as fully and
comprehensive life of the Church in its consistent development. Special development
certain aspects of church life resulted in the emergence of a whole series
theological sciences of a historical nature, - history of dogmas, symbolism,
patrolology, history of Christian literature, church archeology, history
worship and the history of Christian art. General church history has
the importance of the connecting center and basic science among all these particular disciplines.
- Being the mother science for many historical disciplines, church history
associated with exegetical theology, serving as a source for church
theology. In turn, church history helps exegetical
theology, following the history of the canon.
Boundaries of the history of the Christian Church
and dividing it into periods.
If by the Christian Church we mean the society of believers in Jesus Christ, as
our Savior, then the history of the Church should begin precisely with Jesus Christ, as
preacher of the Gospel and Redeemer, and His first followers, as a society,
who received from Jesus Christ the starting point of his life and development.
Consequently, the starting point of church history is the activity of Jesus Christ and
His students. Jesus Christ preached the Gospel. This is the sermon
constitutes itself?????? ??????, from which the complex of phenomena emanates,
components of Christianity. This means that the starting point of Christian preaching is not
simply the Gospel of Jesus, as God appeared in the flesh, but also the Gospel about Jesus, as
one who passed through death to life and through this made it possible
further development of your business and at the same time history.
However, the appearance of Jesus with the preaching of a famous doctrine and the success of the sermon
suggest the preparedness of the human world for the preaching of Christ. "I sent
you are reaped by what you did not work on; others labored, and you entered into their labor."
(John 4:36-38) - Jesus Christ once said to his disciples. Therefore it is necessary
first depict the process of preparing the human race for the coming
Christ the Redeemer, both in the pagan and Jewish worlds, and then
present a picture of the state of the pagan and Jewish peoples during
the coming of Jesus Christ. - But the preparation of humanity and its condition in the century
The Nativity of Christ are introductory subjects, propaedeutic in relation to
Our main task is the life of the Christian Church. Therefore they are not included in the scope
history of the Church, but constitute an introductory chapter to it.
The first chapter of the history of the Christian Church should be about Jesus Christ, i.e. her
Founder. This is the terminus a quo of our science. And it is not indisputable. Some scientists
for example, professors Lebedev, Bolotov, Diamonds and others are released from
church history programs the activities of Jesus Christ and His disciples, i.e. all
the apostolic age on the following basis: "Apostolic age," says for example
Professor Bolotov (Introduction vol. 1, 227), “I do not consider it to be related to the church
stories. Metropolitan Filaret attributed this period to biblical history, and this
true for many reasons. Biblical history has its source
divinely inspired books, the contents of which we believe; as a result we
we are deprived of the right to conduct a critical study of the sources of biblical history with
the same freedom as the study of the sources of later history... That's why,
When presenting church history, we consider it our task to present only such
events that do not take place in the Bible." - Others add to this:
The Christian Church, as a well-known canonical institution, arose only in
2nd century: The 1st century was the century of charisma, extraordinary talents. However, how can
study the history of the Christian Church without first saying anything about Jesus
Christ, as its Founder, - about the apostles, as continuers of the work of Christ, - and
about the birth of the Church on the day of Pentecost and the development throughout the apostolic period
century? This would be a more serious omission, as if studying an important
essay, leaving out its first fundamental chapter.
Another question raises incomparably more controversy: what boundaries need to be specified?
when dividing the extensive church-historical material spanning the 19th centuries, -
for certain periods. Most historians in this case follow the example
universal history, i.e. They divide church history into ancient, middle and modern. At
This point of division between the middle and the new is indisputable: this is a reformation, i.e. Start
XVI century, for the West, and for the East - the fall of Constantinople (1453). But here in
In indicating the boundaries between ancient and middle history, there are great disagreements.
Some see the line at the end of the 6th century. - death of Pope Gregory (in 604), others - in
the end of the 7th century, - the conclusion of the Monophysite disputes at the V1st Ecumenical Council and
streamlining of church life at the Trullo Council, closely connected with V1
ecumenical council. Professor Bolotov, from the point of view of historical development,
inclined to draw the border precisely at the end of the 7th century, when after the 6th ecumenical
Council, there was a formal falling away from the Church of the Monophysite communities (g. I,
Introduction, 217-220). - It seems to us, from a church-historical point of view,
The 11th century should be recognized as the conclusion of the ancient period, i.e. time (1054 g).
division of the Churches, although, it must be admitted, for contemporaries and immediate descendants
this event did not at all have the importance that it acquired later. - But
this long period is primarily divided into two parts by the time of Constantine
the Great, more precisely, the Edict of Milan issued by him in 313; then he has more
suitable units. These are: a) half of the 5th century. or the Council of Chalcedon is
the end, the conclusion of the Greek classical period in the history of the Church and
the transition to Byzantine is an event of great importance not only in the church, but also in
state life, b) we consider the second division to be the 8th century, the time
the end of the ecumenical councils. From this time on, relations between Eastern and
Western Church are changing dramatically. Under the influence of various circumstances,
The Patriarch of Constantinople, feeling the strength, began to fight with the popes for
his recognition by the latter as the “Byzantine pope” in the East, including
sense, so that the popes would no longer interfere in the affairs of the Eastern Church, leaving it
under the authority of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The popes could not agree with this. Then
The Patriarch of Constantinople preferred to break with the popes, and thus, by
break with the Western Church, he received what he could not achieve peacefully
negotiations. The crisis dragged on until the middle of the 11th century, i.e. before 1054
1. The ancient period of the undivided Church extends to the half of the 11th century. (1054).
2. Medieval embraces the time from the half of the 11th century. before the fall
Constantinople in 1453, and in the West before Luther's speech (1516).
3. The new period begins from the indicated points - in the East from 1453, and in
West since 1517 and continues to this day.
Church historiography
The name historiography refers to experiments in more or less coherent presentation
life of the Church according to historical sources and personal observations. Appearance
such experiences testify that the Church has already become a historical force, and
Her position in the world is beginning to be clearly recognized.
The first historiographical monument is the book of the Acts of the Apostles,
belonging to Saint Luke, depicting the birth of the Church of Christ in the world and
the first decades of its existence. Then you should mention ""??????????"
(Memorabilia) Hegesippus, a work that appeared around 170, was distinguished
however, more polemical than historical in nature. - In the first half
III century Julius Africanus was the first to indicate in his chronicle the most important dates of the Christian
church history and put it in relation to the events of secular history. To that
The chronicle of Hippolytus also dates back approximately to this time.
Church history is usually divided into two periods: the first from the beginning to the appearance
Lutheranism, the second from Lutheranism to the present day. The first period, in general
speaking, the time of collecting church historical material, and the second - processing
his.
Period I.
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (338), is considered the father of church history.
He composed four historical works of varying merit and significance:
1. Chronicle (????????? ?????????), in two books, a brief history of the world from the beginning and
before his time, with the main attention paid to chronology,
2. Church history in ten books, covering time from the beginning
Christianity until 324. The work is very important, although not free from shortcomings
in terms of criticism of sources, interpretation of them, incompleteness (almost absent
Western) and unsystematic presentation.
3. The life of Constantine the Great in 4 books, mostly essays
panegyric, but not without great historical significance, especially
due to the fact that it contains many official documents
4. "Collection of Ancient Martyrs" (Ecclesiastical History IV, 15), from which
Only perhaps a separate chapter or appendix has survived about
"Palestinian martyrs." Eusebius's main merit lies in his careful study
church traditions and rich, literal borrowing from ancient writings -
sources that have not survived to us. Second ecclesiastical history of the Cappadocian,
Eunomian Philostorgia, extending from 318-423, preserved only in
extracts from Photius. Philostorgius wrote in the interests of Arianism.
The successors of Eusebius in the 5th century were Socrates, lawyer of Constantinople
(scholastic): he wrote church history in Books VII (305-439); Ermiy Sozomen,
also a lawyer; his church history in nine books (324-423) is in
strong dependence on Socrates; Bishop Theodoret of Cyrus wrote the church
history in five books (320-428). In the 6th century, Theodore the Reader, who first made
extracting from the mentioned sources (1st book), and then continuing Socrates
until 527 i.e. the year of the death of Justinian I (2nd book). Antiochian scholastic
Evagrius left a historical work in six books, covering the time from
431 to 594
In the Middle Ages, a decline was noticed in church historiography; special works
does not appear, and church history joins the universal one. This is the chronicle
Theophanes, from 285 to June 11, 813 with numerous successors - chronicle
George Sincellus, George Amartol, Patriarch Nicephorus, Leo the Deacon (10th century),
Anna Komnenos, Zonara, Kedrin and many others (in the 11th-12th centuries). From the following
time, the most informative are the chronicles of Niketas Choniates (XIII century),
Nikephoros Grigor (XIV century), John Kantakouzenos and Nikephoros Callistus. From last
(T in the 1st half of the 14th century) we have church history in eighteen books,
from the Nativity of Christ to 610
From Syrian sources, the historian of the 6th century is worthy of special mention. John of Ephesus;
from the East in general - the Patriarch of Alexandria Eutyches († 940), who wrote in
Arabic.
In the West, the matter began with translations and compilations of Eastern historiographical
essays.
Blessed Jerome translated the chronicle of Eusebius and continued it until 378. Presbyter
Rufinus translated the church history of Eusebius and continued it until 395. Then follows
mention Historia sacra (beginning of the 5th century). Sulpicius Severus, chronicle of Paul Orosius,
disciple of St. Augustine. Cassiodorus (died in the 2nd half of the 5th century).
used Greek translations translated into Latin by the scholastic Epiphanius
historians Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret and compiled an abbreviated church
history, the so-called Historia tripartia - the main textbook for the Middle Ages.
From the 9th century. Abbot Anastasius is famous for compiling church history.
Period II.
If in the first period, as already noted, there was actually only the collection of facts,
accumulation of church-historical material and only the most
imperfect experiments in processing it, then in the 2nd period a comprehensive
critical study of finished material and systematic construction of past
life of the Church. The main reason for the scientific upsurge was the reformation, the desire
justify and defend a huge religious movement. At the same time, it is natural
trends appeared that were so detrimental to the scientific nature of the work. First
Church historical work on Protestant soil was the "Magdeburg
centuries" (1559-1574), collective work, under the leadership of Matej Flocius,
embracing 13 centuries and aiming to prove the entire necessity of Luther’s work,
its correspondence with the first Christian centuries and vice versa is decisive
evasion of Catholicism from them. The Catholic Church responded with no less solid
the work "Annals" of Caesar Baronius in 12 volumes (Cotai, 1588-1607), brought to
1198, with many important documents attached. In the 17th century a special one awakens
interest in historiography in the Catholic Church in France.
The Jansenite-minded, richly gifted S. Tilmon compiled “Memoires pour
servir a l "historie ecclesiastique des six premiers siecles," in 16 volumes
(Paris 1693-1712). This work is an extremely skillful mosaic of
sources, and gives monographs on individuals, sects and councils. Claudius
Fleury wrote a detailed church history in 20 volumes, Histoire
ecclesiastique" before 1414, Paris 1691-1720. Dogmatic-polemical direction
centuriators by the end of the 17th century. is pushed aside by the practical-religious. Pietism, in
in the person of the mystic Gottfried Arnold († 1714), who simultaneously attacked the Catholic
church and Protestant orthodoxy, helped church history to free itself from
dogmatic domination. In his essay "Unparteische Kirchen und
Ketzergeschichte "(before 1688. V. 1-2. Z?rich, 1699) Arnold takes sides
heretics, oppressed and persecuted by official representatives of the Church; he's in them
sees the light, on the contrary, in the official Church - only spiritual death. In the face
John Mozheim (Mosheim, † 1755) is a representative of the new church
history, frees church history from elements unusual for it and
paves the way to a pragmatic understanding of church history. His student
there was Shrekk († 11812), who left valuable church-historical works. XVIII century was
the beginning of rationalism in theology, the first culprit of which is considered to be the Jew
Solomon the Lander († 11791). The supernatural element of his followers was
expelled, and they tried to explain everything in church history from ordinary human
motives and actions. In the sense of this subjective pragmatic illumination
wrote A.T. Schlittler (“Grundriss der Geschichte der dmstiichen Kirche.”
Gottingen, 1782) and Genke. Jacob Planck (11832), counted among the same
direction, more thorough than them and less subjective.
The 19th century brought many new beneficial things to our region, now freed from
confessional interests and subjectivity and embarked on the path of objective
research into the past life of the Church. New historiography is scientific and
imbued with the idea of organic development, the 19th century was marked by
the emergence of three church historical schools - Neander, New Tübingen and
Richlianskaya. The Schleiermacher-Neander school recognizes the divine character for
the personality of Jesus Christ, is distinguished by its orthodox direction in the construction
church history, only in church organization and cult, and especially sees
admixture of the human element in the "presbyterian caste." "Humanity has not yet
could establish itself at the height of a purely spiritual religion; the Jewish point of view was
closer to understanding Christianity for the educated masses who have just fallen behind
from paganism" (Aug. Neander. Allgemeine Geschichte. V-I. S. 297-298). To this
the school belongs to Biedemann, Guericke, Kurtz, Schenkel, Hagenbach, Ullmann, Gase (11891
G). and Von Schaff (1819-1893).
Baur's school, or New Tübingen, sees struggle in the history of the primitive Church
between Judeo-Christianity and linguistic Christianity, which ended in the II
century of mutual concessions and reconciliation. Zeller belongs to the Baur school,
Schwegler, Strauss, Koestlin, Gilgenfeld, O. Pfleyderer and others.
The Richlian school is only a branch of the Tübingen school, but denies the struggle between
apostles and does not attribute any role to Judeo-Christianity in education
the original Church. However, this school also recognizes the change in teaching by the apostles
Jesus Christ and the message to him of a universal nature. Tübingen and
The Richlian school does not recognize Jesus Christ as the Son of God in the proper sense.
The most prominent representative of the Richlian school is Harnack, who
belongs, among other things, to such outstanding works as “Geschichte der
a"ltchristlichen Literatur bis Eusebius," B. I-III, "Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte," B. I-III, "Das Wesen des Christentums" and many others.
From other works of German Protestant authors we mention:
D.W. Moeller-Kaweran, H. v. Schubert, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. T?bitigen
und Leipzig, 1902.
D.K. Mutter, Kirchengeschichte. I-II. Breslau, 1902.
Gust. Kr?ger, Kirchengeschichte. 1909.
Sammlung von G. Kruger, Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte...
From Catholic:
F.K. Funk, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. V. Aufl., 1907.
Joseph Kardinal Hergenrother, Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte,
neubearbeitet von Joh. Peter Kirch, VI. AufL, Freiburg, 1924.
L. Dwhesne, Histoire ancienne de 1 "Eglise, I-III. Paris, 1908; Origins du culte
chretien. 4th ed. Paris, 1908. Eglises separees, 1896.
Pierre Bafiffol, L "Eglise naissante et le Catholicisme. Paris, 1909. La Paix
Constantinienne et "le Catholicisme. Paris, 1914.
J Tixeront, Histoire des dogmes. Paris, 1909.
Theological encyclopedias:
1. Wetzer und Weltes, Kirchenlexikon oder Enziklop?die der katholischen
Theologie und ihrer Hilfswissenschaften. Aufl., begonnen von J. Kard.
Hergenr?ther, fortgesetzt von Fr. Kaulen. 12. Bd. Freiburg, 1882-1901;
Registerband, 1905.
2. Kirchliches Handlexikon, herausgeg. von M. Buchberger, 1. Bd. M?nchen, 1907-
II Bd. 1907 ss.
3. Realenziklop?die f?r protestantische Theologie und Kirche, begr?ndet von J.J.
Herzog, in Aufl. herausgeg. von A. Hauck. 21 Bd. Leipzig, 1896-1908. Bd. XXII
(Register), 1909.
4. Dictionnaire de th?ologie catholique pu"blie par Vacant, continue par
Mangenot. Paris, 1899 ss.
5. Dicdonnaire d'histoire et de g?ographic ecclesiastiques, publi? sous la
direction de A. Baudrillart, A. Vogt et U. Rourles. Paris, 1909.
6. A. d"Ales, Diceionnaire apologetique de la foi catholique. Paris, 1908 ss.
7. There are a lot of historical treatises in The Catholic Encyclopedia. New
York, 1907 ss.
8. For Church History of the First Centuries Smith and Wace, Dictionary of Christianity
Biography, literature, Sects and Doctrines during the first eight Centuries. 4
Vol. London, 1877-1887.
Introductory chapter
The introductory chapter to the history of the Christian Church contains an answer to two
Question: What was the preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus?
Christ? And what was the state of the pagan and Jewish world at the time
the coming of Jesus Christ?
1. Preparation of the human race for the coming of Jesus Christ.
The promise of salvation was given to the sinful forefathers very quickly, during
pronouncing judgment on them (Genesis, chapter 3). However, thousands of years passed before
this salvation came in Christ the Savior. According to the apostle (Gal.4.4), Son of God
became incarnate only when the “fullness of times” was fulfilled, ??????? ??? ??????;
Why was it necessary to have a long period separating the Fall from sin and salvation?
Salvation could not be forced upon people. It was impossible to save a person without
consciousness of their need for salvation, without the desire for this salvation, without active
participation in the salvation of his free will.
Throughout Old Testament history, the preparation of the human race took place
to Christ: in Judaism salvation was prepared for Judaism, and in paganism -
salvation for humanity. The Jewish people prepared themselves in a positive way,
through the direct guidance of God. The pagan peoples were given
themselves (cf. Acts 14:16-17), they remained outside the immediate knowledge
God's They "went on their ways." However, they were not completely deprived of mercy
God. “For what can be known about God is manifest to them, because God has made it known to them” (Rom.
1.19-20). "They show that the work of the law is written in their hearts, about which
their conscience and their thoughts bear witness..." (Rom. 2:14-15).
Holy Scripture calls pagan idols demons; but so that in paganism everything
there was only the demonic - it doesn’t say that. If many church writers
(Tertullian, Lactanpius, Arnobius) emphasized the demonic, repulsive
side in paganism, then others (St. Justin, Theophilus, Origen, Clement
Alexandria, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom) found deep
a premonition of the deity, the divine Logos, scattering the seed, the rays of truth.
The Jewish people were prepared through the promises and the law (Cf. Rom. 9.4). Promises
were given to Abraham and his seed for the salvation of all people through him. The law was
introduced after the promise 430 years later (Gal. 3-17) and did not at all cancel
promise, but played a ministerial role with him. He had precisely the pedagogical
??????????, (cf. Gal. 3:24) meaning, to arouse in a person a thirst for salvation and
lead him to salvation. He achieved this by finding out, proving to man
deep distortion of nature by sin, when a person did not do the good that he
wanted, but did the evil that he hated (cf. Rom. 7:15, 23). Through this law as
would increase the number of human sins. "The law came after, and so
thus the transgression abounded" (Rom. 5:20). The law "Given after for a reason
crimes" (Gal. 3.19). As a result, man came to the consciousness of his
powerlessness, his helplessness, and the more the thirst for salvation was aroused in him.
“O wretched man that I am, who will deliver me from this body of death” (Rom. 7:24). belief
promises and gave this hope of salvation. Positive (and real)
the results of the preparation of the Jewish people were expressed in the creation of a favorable
soil for the appearance of the Savior, in the birth among the Jewish people of the Mother of God and
in the minds of the first followers of Christ's teaching.
The pagan world is a wild olive tree (cf. Rom. 9:17) - had to exhaust
their natural strengths and show what a person can do standing outside
immediate environment of Divine revelation. By the time of Jesus' coming
Christ, the pagan peoples were united under the wings of the Roman eagle not only
political power, but also spiritual power in the form of Hellenism. The idea of the powerful
and the sublime, as it was shown especially by the eastern peoples - the idea is aesthetically
beauty, as the Greeks expressed it, the idea of public benefit, right and
justice, as developed by the Romans, are all positive results
preparation of the pagans for Christ, all this was to find its sanctification in
truly the Holy One, who could sanctify everyone and elevate everything above the earthly.
2. The state of the pagan and Jewish world
by the time of the coming of Jesus Christ.
At the time of the coming of Jesus Christ, the entire Mediterranean world was under
the power of Rome.
Political Review.
In the century of the Nativity of Christ, the Roman kingdom extended from the Euphrates to
Atlantic Ocean, from the African Desert to the Rhine. It covered 600 thousand miles
with a population of over 120 million. Next to the Roman kingdom already then had
meaning the Parthian kingdom adjoining it in the east. It came for III
century BC (from 256). and covered the areas from the Euphrates to the Indus and
from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. This kingdom
ended the founder of the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanian dynasty
Artaxerxes I (IV), in 226 after the Nativity of Christ, and founded the middle
the Persian kingdom, which became a restless neighbor of the Roman kingdom. TO
northwest of the Parthian kingdom was Edessa or Osrom
(?srh?-nisches) state. It lasted until 216, then became part of
Roman Empire. To the north of the Parthian kingdom lay Armenia: Lesser Armenia
even before the Nativity of Christ became part of the Roman Empire, and the great
Armenia was under the rule of Rome under Trajan, from 259-286 it was Persian
province, at other times had its own princes. South of the Roman and
The Parthian kingdom lay in Arabia, and to the west was Africa. In Europe they lived east of
Rhine and north of the Danube Germans. They gradually united with others
Germanic peoples - Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, Goths and others, and
threatened Rome. From the middle of the 3rd century the Goths began to press victoriously on
northern borders of the Roman kingdom, so the Romans had to cede to them
Dacia, conquered at the beginning of the 2nd century by Trajan, from which Emperor Aurelian
(271 g). had to withdraw their legions.
What Alexander the Great strove for was achieved only by the Romans,
those. establish a world monarchy. But the continuous wars with which this
the goal was achieved, turned prosperous countries into deserts, weakened trade and
industry and everywhere created an intolerable state of uncertainty. People
Only gradually did they get used to the new order of things. The East has come
more likely to return to normal than the West. The Roman Principate, which was for
the Roman people is intolerable on both political and religious grounds, there is no
met with opposition; there, on the contrary, they accepted with a feeling of gratitude
benefits of the new management. Christians later saw in the Roman monarchy a special
action of Providence. One thing is certain: within the conditions and limits of the old Roman
kingdom, the preaching of a universal religion was unthinkable. Final victory
the monarchy in the West was helped by Hellenism; he generally became the main support of the world
unity. He gave culture to the Roman state and endowed it with a world language,
which educated people of all nations spoke or at least understood everything
his. He subordinated the proud, victorious and crushing mood of Rome to the feeling
patience in relation to the motley diversity of peoples of the world. State
management completely absorbed this new phenomenon of life in the form of Hellenism.
Thanks to this, trade and various relationships quickly developed. Comfortable
highways covered the country with a network and served both for government purposes and
trade. The destroyed cities were mostly rebuilt. Mutual communication
in the country, in addition to serviceable roads, there were sea routes. Thanks to all this
communication between residents of the state was maintained by correct postal
relations. But mainly the unification of nationalities was achieved thanks to
Greek: it was the language of trade, constant relations and transactions. Certainly,
this language was already very different from classical Greek.
However, in this beautiful picture of life that came to the Roman peoples with
the foundation of the world monarchy, there were also shadows. Next to the accumulation of wealth in
large, commercial cities, with an increase in capital and its concentration in
in the hands of a few, in parallel there was appalling poverty and an increase in the proletariat.
Increasing global communication even at the beginning of the Roman conquests led to the destruction
free peasantry in Italy. The noble aspirations of the Gracchi brothers are not
were crowned with success. The easier it became to import foreign grain, the faster and
the more naturally a fall in prices followed, and the more difficult it became for the peasants
struggle for existence. The consequence of this was the gradual disappearance
peasantry, and their farms began to pass into the hands of rich horsemen and they
turn into huge estates (latifundia) and are processed with the help of slave
cheap labor. The imperial time was accompanied by an unexpected decline in the world
trade, which was naturally inextricably linked with industry and
contributed to its prosperity. As a result, small
artisans in cities. In any case, independent, independent
their existence became almost impossible. The situation has worsened further
due to the fact that the state failed to implement a correct tax system and
distribution of taxes among the population. Since Roman citizens did not bear any
military service, and were also exempted from direct taxes, then the whole burden
taxes were transferred to the provinces. The collection of taxes was transferred there
tax farmers, and the arbitrariness of senior and junior officials knew no bounds. Can
imagine the social condition and experiences of the lower classes, completely
oppressed by economic labor. They were naturally looking for at least a minute
forgetting the hardships of life in dreams of otherworldly bliss, a better life in
another world.
From the severe, even disastrous consequences of such developments in political and
economic life tried to take refuge through the founding of various unions, friendships,
partnerships And that time was the classical era of alliances. Along with
craft unions (blacksmiths' and silversmiths' workshops), social unions
position (priests, merchants, musicians) - there were unions that had as their task
foster a simple sense of camaraderie (for example, monthly meetings and
feasts at the expense of the general cash register); there were others who pursued purely
social purposes, like funds for the sick and dying, are the Collegia tenuiorum and
Collegia funeraticia; of these, the latter were especially comforting for
poor. Religious unions, which had
its task is to perform, perform the cult of one or another deity according to customs
their countries (??????, ??????). Everyone had a known connection with religious life
organizations, even if they served secular purposes, which is why the priest was promoted to
first place. It was very important that concern for the veneration of one's local deity
not only organized unions, but along the way received citizenship rights in
the Roman kingdom had foreign cults (Isis, Serapis and Syrian deities). Often
recognized (Weingarten, Heinrici, Goech and others) dependence of Christian communities
from the organizations of these religious unions could not be proven. But what
the emergence of Christian communities was facilitated through the presence of such unions - this
no doubt. Since unions often engaged in politics under innocent names, and,
due to the lack of control over them, their activities were all the more dangerous. Emperor
Trajan prohibited all secret unions and did not allow the establishment of even such organizations
which could pursue the most desirable objectives, as he did not allow
establishment of a fire society in Bithynia.
Political condition of Judea.
The eastward movement of Alexander the Great affected the Jewish people, although
the political consequences of this were insignificant: the Jews now began to depend
from the Macedonians, as before from the Persians. Dispute over the inheritance of Alexander the Great
made Palestine a bone of contention until the country fell under prolonged
domination of the Seleucids. Naturally now the Hellenistic influences begin,
as previously Babylonian and Persian. Hellenistic influence permeated life
Jews so deeply that it led to the formation of parties in Judaism. -
The high priestly class sided with the Hellenists; they were opposed
chasidim "pious," who firmly adhered to national isolation and
religious requirements of the law, the masses stood behind them. Antiochus IV's attempt
Epiphanes (175-164 g). to forcibly Hellenize the entire people, constraining them
religion - failed. The response to his cruel policies was a strong rise
religious inspiration. This led to an uprising led by
Maccabees. The Syrians were forced to yield: limiting themselves to collecting tribute, they
gave the country to the Greek-friendly upper class and the Asmonaeans with their
adherents. The struggle for power over the people that began within the country led to
the formation of religious and political parties: the Hasidim transformed into Pharisees, and
the highest presbytery is the Saddicites or Sadducees. The Asmonaeans took sides
the latter. The ongoing struggle between the aristocratic party and
democratic Pharisees who had constant influence in the Sanhedrin, and especially
between the latter and the Asmonaeans - entailed the intervention of the Romans, who
put an end to Seleucid rule. Namely, Ptolemy in the fall of 63 BC.
conquered Jerusalem and forced the Jews to pay tribute to Rome. From now on, political
changes in Rome also had implications for Palestine. The Asmonaeans managed to get themselves
Rome had some political power over Judea. When was the last Asmonaeus
executed, the Edomite Herod became his heir (37 BC - 4 AD).
Despite his strength of character and openly expressed devotion to religion, he was not
managed to win over the Jewish people. Dissatisfaction with management has increased
even more so when, after his death, his sons began civil strife. Dissatisfied
the Romans now transferred the administration of Judea to the imperial procurator (6 AD
R.H). Through this the foundation was laid for the division between Rome and the Jews.
national party, which led to the disaster of 1970.
Herod the Great and his sons. Herod was born in 37 BC
stadtholder of Idumea Antipater and his wife of Arabian origin, and both half
a Jew, has always been suspicious of the Jewish people. He was energetic, smart, but
extremely ambitious, He lent shine to his name through luxurious buildings
(temples, theaters, castle, water pipes). In the last years of his life he was sad
civil strife among his sons from Mariamne - Alexander and Aristobulus - and
Edomite relatives from his sister Salome. Herod tried to prevent
danger through murder. Of his 9 sons, Alexander and Aristobulus were killed in
7th year before Christ. The elder Antipater fell victim to his suspicions
father a few days before his death. According to his will, Archelaus (4-6
R.H). received control of Judea, Samaria and Idumea with the title of ethnarch. Antipas
(4-39 g). was placed over Galilee and Perea with the rank of tetrarch. Philip (4-34
G). with the title of tetrarch he also took possession of Batanea, the Trachonite region and
Avranitskaya. Antipas was the king of the country where Jesus lived. He shared with his father
passion for luxurious buildings, feasts, women and royal pomp. IN
In recent years he fell under the influence of Herodias, the granddaughter of Herod the Great, who in
in her first marriage she was married to his half-brother; he sent his wife to her father
Arefe. Antipas became a victim of the intrigue of his brother-in-law Agrippa I. Philip -
the only one of Herod’s sons about whom posterity retained a good memory (Joseph
Flavius. Antiquities XVIII, 6-4). For a short time the kingdom was united in the hands of
the already mentioned Agrippa I, son of Aristobulus (41-44). He made an alliance with
the Pharisees and, to please them, persecuted Christians (cf. Acts 12). After him
sudden death (Acts 12.23), Emperor Claudius subjugated Judea to Rome.
Judea under Roman rule.
Augustus introduced in Judea the same form of government that was applied in Egypt.
At the head was the procurator (?????????, ??????), who, having been independent in
his district, was, however, subordinated to the stadtholder in Syria. The first stadtholder
there was Coponius (Coponius, 6-9) ..., Pontius Pilate (26-36), Anthony Felix (52-60),
Portius Festus (60-62), Albinus (62-64), - the last Gessius Florus (64-66).
The final subjugation of Judea to Rome by the Emperor Claudius caused
great irritation. Restless state, energetically maintained
nationalistic chauvinists - zealots (a branch of the Pharisees), reinforced
the inability or meanness of individual procurators - led to a bloody
pacifying the rebellious. Irritation increased when Caligula ordered his
statues in Jerusalem, in the Temple... Along with the zealots, there were sicarii, agents
secret political assassinations. False prophets appeared and rose up (for example -
Fevda); they assured the people that the end of the Roman rule was near (Exit of the Egyptian
prophet to the Mount of Olives). The cruelty and greed of the last two
procurators made war inevitable. This war with the Jews was waged by the Roman
commander Vespasian, and when he, in 69, was elected Caesar, his son Titus
completed the job by finally conquering Jerusalem in the year 70.
Worldview of the ancient world in the century of the Nativity of Christ.
Spiritual, or educational-moral-religious state of the ancient world in the century
The Nativity of Christ is characterized by development and widespread dissemination (i.e.
dominance) of Hellenism.
When did the great Macedonian conqueror Alexander, son of Philip, disciple
Aristotle, victoriously moved towards the Persian kingdom, armed not only
steel sword, but also the Greek enlightenment, then the East, although already decrepit, is still
but found enough strength in himself not to submit to the Greek spirit, but, with
mutual influence, to unite with him in Hellenism. By this name since time
Draizen is the name given to the new cultural movement that was formed from the mixing
Greek educational elements with oriental ones. It is impossible to determine
to what extent they entered into so-called Hellenism and how they united, on the one hand,
heritage of Greek culture, and on the other hand - traditional heritage
East. Here we can only talk about general features and approximately. Undoubtedly
by its nature, the heritage of the East is a predominantly religious phenomenon
character; the philosophical direction was a distinctive feature of the Greek
spirit. Hellenism is a very complex phenomenon of the setting sun of the ancient world; He
made itself felt in the field of politics and law, religion and science, language and
literature, in public life and in private life.
We find a general but also precise description of Hellenism in the famous Harnack.
For Hellenism, according to it, the following phenomena, moods and concepts are characteristic:
1. The penetration of eastern - Syrian and Persian religions into the empire, especially
since the time of Pius, - religions that had some features in common with Christianity.
They aroused new needs in the souls of people, which could only be satisfied
Christianity.
2. The decline that occurred due to the democratization of society and other reasons
exact science and increased respect for mystical religious philosophy seeking
revelations and thirsty for miracles.
3. A sharp division between soul (spirit) and body, more or less exclusive
preference for the spirit and the idea that it came from another higher world and carries
within himself eternal life, or at least capable of it. Affirmation through this
individualism.
4. Sharp division between God and the world and the destruction of naive ideas about
their connection and unity.
5. As a consequence of divisions: clarification of concepts of the Divine - via negarionis et
eminentiae (path of negation and exaltation); only now it becomes
incomprehensible, indescribable, but also great and good.
6. Further, as a consequence of the preference of the spirit, the humiliation of the world and the consciousness that it
prison of the spirit.
7. The belief that connection with the flesh is humiliating and desecrating for the spirit.
8. Seeking salvation, as salvation from the world and the flesh.
9. The conviction that all salvation is preservation for eternal life, that it
associated with consciousness and purification.
10. Confidence that the salvation of the soul, as a return to God, is accomplished
gradually.
11. Almost certainty that salvation, which means the Savior, already exists.
12. The conviction that all liberating means must be involved in knowledge, but
are not limited to it; after all, they have to bring and report
actual divine power.
In short, the characteristic features of the Hellenistic worldview are:
" a) the elimination of boundaries between Hellenes and barbarians, thanks to acquaintance with
barbaric culture (Syrian, Babylonian and Persian) and as a result of this
cosmopolitanism, which saw salvation in the establishment of a world monarchy instead
nation states;
" b) individualism: in place of universal well-being ensured
became a state?????????? individual - the ideal of a sage who makes his own happiness
finds in himself (cynics);
"c) realism - philosophy turns into a teacher of everyday well-being;
" d) religious syncretism due to familiarity with Eastern religions,
attracted to themselves by an enthusiastic or grossly sensual character, as well as
superstitious and magical rituals (oracles, astrological interpretations,
mysterious actions)… As a consequence of such syncretism, the strongest
stimulus to monotheism, in which the rich knowledge of alien cults carried its
a unifying expression and its point of unity... The bearers of this culture were almost
Greeks everywhere, among the barbarians it was only polished.
The just mentioned moods and aspirations of the Hellenistic period were created
mainly due to special philosophical trends and
philosophical and ethical movements, as well as religious beliefs of the era being studied.
We will talk about this.
Having reached, as it were, their ultimate limit in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle
perfection and as if having exhausted his strength, the Greek genius began quickly
lean toward your end. What coincided and was largely determined
Greece's loss of political freedom. Greek thought, tired
theoretical analytical work, invariably strives to build a whole
philosophical worldview, instead of analysis and research, turning to the system and
dogma. Such a worldview is the need of the time and renewed
culture. The Greek mythical religion had lost its power, and for the general public
educated circles, philosophy took its place, which therefore had to
give a system of information with a religious overtone. Development of political, civil
and public life ceased, and the Greek people plunged into everyday life
private life; the horizon of the individual narrowed, and she began to limit herself
small home circle. After political and public interests
were taken out of life, I had to turn to myself, to my inner
life, and the rational structure of personal existence became the main task
existence. Naturally, under these living conditions, they had to move forward
interests are vital and practical. Meanwhile, philosophical thought, as noted,
tired of resolving theoretical issues, she took up ethical problems.
Three new philosophical schools corresponded precisely to this direction of life,
who spoke from the 3rd century - Stoic, Epicurean and Skeptical. They are not
independently dealing with metaphysical issues, and, in this case, adjoining
previous philosophical systems, focused their main attention on
ethical issues and solved the problem of human happiness. Stoic apathy
the complacency of the Epicureans and skeptics meant to create bliss precisely
personal life.
Stoicism. The founder of the Stoic school was Zeno († 264), and most
Chrysiplus (281-208) is a talented successor. The task of philosophy, according to
the view of the Stoics, lies in a scientifically based, scientific-moral
human activity. Together with the Cynics, the Stoics saw in human knowledge
only a means to virtuous behavior and achievement of good, and most importantly
The purpose of philosophy was believed to be a guide to virtue, to correct
actions, through exercise in them. Therefore they defined philosophy as
an exercise in virtue, how??????? ??????, i.e. exercise in reason
activities. But rational activity is impossible without true, objective
knowledge, for reasonable behavior must correspond to the nature of man and all
things, and for this you need to know the laws of the universe and man. Therefore, philosophy
defined as “practice in virtue,” is at the same time “consciousness
divine and human." Here the Stoics obviously follow Socrates,
proving the necessity of knowledge for virtue and making the latter dependent
from the first. From this definition of philosophy follows the need for two sciences
- physics and ethics.
The third science of the Stoic system - logic - has methodological significance,
technical and epistemological. It is necessary in the Stoic system to place ethics in
the center of science or to the top, the path to which leads from logic through physics. Stoics
did not believe any significant difference between God and the world: according to them, between
There is no real difference between deity and prime matter. Stoic system
is strictly pantheistic (but not materialistic, for the concept of force is
dynamism is placed above matter). Universal reason as a world-forming
power has a name????? ??????????. Every creature, every object is earlier than its
appearances in the world were thought of in the world mind as concepts, and desired as
certain goals for the development of the deity (????? ?????????????). Doctrine of Man
The Stoics develop with special interest and complete consistency. It's clear here
the main provisions of the Stoic system appear: materialism - in anthropology,
pantheism - in elevating all human actions to deity and monism in understanding
mental life. The soul, like everything real in the world, is material; she is inextricably
connected with the whole and cannot escape its fate. She must also at the end
of the world process to turn to primary matter, which is also to return to the deity,
like everyone else in the world. This means that the Stoics, considering the life of the soul after the death of the body possible,
allowed, in a sense, an otherworldly continuation of the life of the soul. On
to the practical eye they might seem to teach about immortality. And so it happened
for example, among the followers of the Roman Stoics. Under the influence of the atmosphere
During this time, this idea of the ghostly immortality of the soul was especially developed by the Roman Stoic
Seneca (3-65 A.D.). Stoic ethics sees the highest good and the highest goal or
deity in life in accordance with nature. This is intelligent life, it is also
virtuous; rational life, as a virtue, is the highest good. Unconditional
the value of virtue, as a good, is damaged if something outside is allowed
a person as a good, or the purpose of his life. Who, for example, together with Epicurus
enthrones pleasure, he makes virtue a slave. Virtue is not
does not need any extraneous additions, but carries all the conditions within itself
happiness.
In the Stoic system there is no place for politics; cosmopolitanism takes its place. He
is not something superficial in the system of Stoicism, but is closely connected with it. To all people
the same mind is inherent; all members of one body, or, as beautiful as it is, in
religious form, expressed by Epictetus (c. 120 A.D.): all are brothers, because all
in the same way have God as their Father. A characteristic feature of the Stoic system
is fatalism. Submission to fate is a favorite theme of many Stoic writers...
But fate can put a person (a sage) in a position that is
unbearable for him. In this case, it was possible to get rid of life through
suicide. Many very important Stoics in the development of the school - Zeno, Cleanthes,
Eratosthenes, Antipater and many others committed suicide. Stoicism is not only
philosophical, but also a religious system. Thanks to his connection with Platonism, he
replaced for the educated to a certain extent religion and the support of moral
life. A brilliant representative of later Stoicism is Posidonius from
Apamea in Syria (about 50 BC).
The Romans paid great attention to Stoicism; it was especially in their spirit.
The founder of Roman Stoicism is Panetius, and the main representative was
Annaeus Seneca, very influential in his personal position (Nero's tutor)
and known for his subtle humanism (originally from Cordoba, Spain). His look at
death is like a birthday to eternal life, and discussions about peace-filled bliss
the other world, together with the religious foundations of his teachings - gave rise to
legend that he was converted to Christianity by the Apostle Paul. Emperor Mark
Aurelius found great consolation in his teaching and in the lame slave “he saw his
teachers and models."
Epicureanism. The teachings of Epicurus (341-270). as little original as
stoic, and closely adjoins the latter. The main principle of Stoicism
is materialistic monism, and Epicureanism is based on
materialistic atomism. If the materialistic pantheism of the Stoics came out of
philosophy of Heraclitus, then the mechanical atomism of the Epicureans has its source
philosophy of Democritus, Although Epicurus himself told his disciples that he had no
teachers and books from where he would have borrowed his teaching. Therefore, the students memorized
memorized his sayings and treated their teacher simply with reverence,
They created something like a cult for him, and after his death they elevated him straight into a hero.
Undoubtedly, Epicurus had a close friendship with his students.
The goal of philosophy is the happiness of man, and philosophy is nothing else,
as an activity that helps us achieve happiness through thought and
word. If scientific activity does not serve this purpose, then it is unnecessary and
senseless. Among various knowledge, Epicurus attached importance more than others
the teachings of nature (physics), because this is the only means to free the soul
from the horrors of superstition. If the thought of gods and death did not burden us, then we would not
would need no exploration of nature. Epicurus also attached importance
research about our desires, because they (research) could influence
limiting and moderating them.
In general, like the Stoics, the Epicureans recognized three sciences - logic (canon),
physics and ethics. The only unconditional good, according to the teachings of Epicurus, is
pleasure, and the only unconditional evil is sorrow, sadness. This provision is not
needs proof: it is obvious and is the scale of our
activities. All living beings from birth strive for pleasure and
avoid misfortune. The essential and immediate basis of bliss lies in
peace of mind, or ataraxia; positive pleasure is only
an intermediary condition for peace of mind, insofar as it frees one from
displeasure of unmet need... if we believe, reason
Epicurus, pleasure is the highest good, we do not mean the pleasures of debauchery,
not sensual pleasure in general, but that the body be free from sorrow and
soul from anxiety. For there are no feasts or drinking parties, no pleasures from boys and
women, it is not table friends who make life pleasant, but a sober mind, which
examines the foundations of every action and banishes prejudices, the most terrible enemies
our prosperity. The root of everything and the greatest good is prudence, it alone
makes us free. Our necessary needs are extremely simple and easy to
satisfy, nature itself takes care of our happiness. Who lives according to
nature, he is never poor. The wise man will not grumble against Zeus, having bread and
water. External misfortunes have no power over him, and bodily sorrow cannot
disturb the calm of the sage. A wise man can be happy under torture itself. But
The Epicurean system does not deny that bodily pleasure is primary,
and even the last source of all pleasure. However, it must be entered
within proper limits. (Epicurus subordinated bodily pleasures to spiritual ones). All
life rules are directed towards one thing - to lead a person to happiness through
moderation of desires and abstinence from passions. Not the increase of wealth, but
limiting desires makes us rich. The human soul differs from the body only
quality of atoms, consisting of the most subtle, ethereal. If the connection between the soul and
body completely stops, then its atoms are easily scattered, and the body
exposed to decay.
Attitude to religion in both systems - Stoic and Epicurean -
inconsistent. Having no need with one’s own, i.e. purely materialistic point
perspective to talk about belief in gods, Stoicism and Epicureanism, however, are very
discuss this issue in detail, recognize the gods and even not completely deny
folk religion. According to Epicurus, ideas about gods and demons arose from
ignorance and fear; faith in Providence is a fairy tale (myth). According to Lucretius,
timor fecit primes deos. But on the other hand, the universality of belief in gods and desire
seeing his ideal realized in them prompted Epicurus to recognize the gods. His
the gods are decidedly humanoid, although eternal and blissful. Possessing espheric
body, they cannot live in our worlds, but are placed in the intervals between worlds,
where, as Lucretius says, they are not bothered by any bad weather, but live under
eternally clear sky. The gods cannot in any way be entrusted with the care of
the world and about the circumstances of a person’s life, for painful care would deprive them
bliss. They are completely free from labors and worries, they enjoy pure
happiness in the consciousness of one's superiority. The society of gods is ideal
Society of Epicurean Philosophers. They all have what the last ones can
wish for yourself - eternal life, absence of worries and constant occasions for pleasant
conversations.
The third very significant and important current of philosophical thought of the Hellenistic
period is skepticism - but it is not at all similar to later skepticism,
those. deep doubt about truth, taken to the extreme. Ancient skepticism
was a reflection of its time; he, along with the Stoics and Epicureans, pointed out
philosophy practical task and the merits of theoretical research, measured
their influence on a person’s life and significance for his happiness; also his view
life was distinguished by its ethical character and the highest good relied on abstinence
from judgment (?????), a kind of apathy or ataraxia.
The first skeptic is considered to be Pyrrho of Elis (360-270). He didn't leave behind
yourself writings; one must judge his teaching by the works of one of his
students - Timon from Phliunt (320-230). What little is known about philosophy
Pyrrho can be expressed in three propositions: a) we know nothing about the properties of objects
we know, b) the correct attitude towards them is to abstain from any judgment,
and c) the result of all this is the desired ataraxia. Timon to this
adds that for human happiness it is necessary to give an answer to the following
questions: 1) how things are created, 2) how we should treat them, and 3) what are
there may be consequences for us from such an attitude.
Skepticism led to eclecticism, i.e. uncritical, subjective connection
various elements of knowledge. The fact is that skepticism has leveled all philosophical
currents, denying the truth in each of them; and eclecticism made the equation of the same
systems in a different way, recognizing some truth behind each of them. Skepticism
He also did so that the positions of not just one school, but all of them, were recognized as truth.
little by little. The emergence and development of eclecticism coincides with, or more precisely, is in
connection with the gradual conquest of the Hellenistic world by the Romans. The Romans were
characterized by sober, worldly prudence and a strong will, as distinctive
character traits. From this point of view, they valued philosophy, measuring it
merits in terms of its practical suitability; philosophy that had no influence on
they did not recognize practical life. They saw the task and benefit of philosophy in
strengthening moral principles and training speakers and
government people. In view of this, the Greek philosophers who taught science to their
Roman disciples, had to adapt to their understanding, keep them in mind
mood and needs. This is already noticeable among such outstanding philosophers of their
time, like Panetius and Antiochus. Philo from
Thessalonian Larissa and Antiochus from Ascalon, who lived in the last century BC.
Cicero was a student of Philo. Besides them, Varro, the Stoic Didymus, Paramon and
other. The latter perfectly described the task of his activities
predecessors, together and your own - compiling a true system from
teachings of all philosophical schools, calling his school eclectic.
Eclecticism had great success in the field of religious and philosophical, until it was replaced
here religious syncretism.
When Greek culture collided with eastern culture, the influence of the east was opened
especially ancient folk beliefs and religious rites, customs that are now
gained importance in Greek life. These ancient Greek beliefs were
are related to the eastern ones, and now, with a mutual collision, they have intensified.
Religious sentiment among the peoples of the Roman state rose to its highest level.
degrees. But the masses were not satisfied with the Epicurean consciousness and belief in heaven
earthly life and rushed with feverish zeal in search of the highest
the mysterious satisfaction that she found in the fantastic cults of the East.
Philosophical “wisdom,” which believed the meaning of life in virtue, has lost its
credit and was replaced by tense anticipation of a higher power and liberation from the world.
Under the pressure of such sentiments, Hellenistic philosophy had to give room
new shoots of religious mysticism. Their distinctive character lies in
the desire to receive knowledge and bliss through the revelation of the deity.
At the same time, and in connection with this, the view of deity as a being develops
infinitely towering above the world and standing far from it. It's already in itself
cannot come into contact with the sensual, sinful world. We need a series of events and
divine intermediaries between deity and man; usually like this
demons and the world soul were considered. To enter into communication with the deity through these
intermediaries, individuals must serve the deity and through various
cleansing means and especially the mysteries to make oneself capable of communicating with
deity and worthy of respect among people. So the revelation
declared to be the source of philosophy and all knowledge in general. In a word, "when
lost confidence in knowledge, then rushed into the arms of faith."
The main religious and philosophical movements of this nature are
New Pythagoreanism and Platonism. The center of movement is primarily
Alexandria.
New Pythagoreanism, which appeared in the last century BC, laid claim to
close connection with ancient Pythagoreanism. But it had no right to do so,
in addition to any combinations with numbers. The Pythagorean school leaves the pages
history only in the 4th century. Of the followers of New Pythagoreanism, we can mention -
Nigidius Figulus, friend of Cicero, P. Vatinius, Art. Didyma and Eudora. Later
representatives of neo-Pythagoreanism are Moderatus and Apollonius of Tyana. They have
there was some kind of monistic-dualistic idea about the origin of the world from
unity and indefinite duality, from here geometric
constructions from the unity of lines, surfaces and bodies. Practically Neo-Pythagorism
resorted to asceticism, theurgy and magic in the matter of salvation.
Platonism is very related to neo-Pythagoras. He also owes his
origins in the religious and eclectic movement of time and is closely related
to the philosophy of Antiochus, who sought to recall (as if) from oblivion the ancient teaching
Plato. A typical New Pythagorean Platonist is Plutarch of Chaeronea.
Philosophy, in his opinion, should promote moral life. His
Philosophy achieves its external goal through piety and knowledge of God.
Religious syncretism. The eclectic religious and philosophical movement swept
only the upper classes of society. The masses began to get carried away by Eastern
cults; they were widely borrowed and combined with their previous beliefs.
If eclecticism is a more or less systematic combination of positions from
different philosophical schools, then on religious grounds syncretism is, as it were,
mechanical stringing, accumulation, collection of, for some reason, pleasing beliefs. IN
the end of the 1st century, as Juvenal puts it in his figurative language, Orontes, Nile and
Gaul poured out, to the great chagrin of the ancient Romans, into the Tiber. Isis and Serapis,
Cybele and Attis (Syrian Baal), Sabatius and Mithra - were revered to the extreme
western borders, both in Germany and in Brittany.
Of the historical moments, the annexation of the Seleucid
kingdom to the Roman one, as the point when the Chaldeans rushed en masse to the west and
spread their teachings here. The reason for the widespread spread of oriental
cults in the West had special properties of Eastern religions - their cosmopolitanism (and
individualism) and mysticism. Among the eastern cults, the most popular was the cult
Mithras, who triumphed in Rome, in the end, over all pagans
religions.
Undoubtedly, the main reason for this lies in the syncretic nature of the cult of Mithra.
It is not known exactly where it originated, the cult of Mithras traveled to all eastern countries,
absorbing special elements from all Eastern religions and in particular from
mysticism. As a result, the cult of Mithras became, as it were, international
a cult that united all the cults of antiquity. And this unification did not happen
simply external, mechanical, but, apparently, quite deep, organic.
Being the completion of paganism in religious terms (like Neoplatonism - in
religious-philosophical) - “the cult of Mithra,” says Grousset, “occupies
intermediate position between paganism and Christianity"; however, he fights with
last, but at the same time prepares him - this explains his quick
distribution, as well as its short existence.
To put an end to all major manifestations of ancient thought in the age of Christmas
Christ, who in one way or another influenced the development of Christian science, and before
created the atmosphere and soil during the emergence and spread of Christianity - we
It remains to be said about Neoplatonism, although somewhat ahead of the chronological
development of events.
Neoplatonism is the last form of Greek philosophy, in which the ancient spirit,
using elements of many previous teachings, rose to high
soaring, partly mystical speculation. An inquisitive thought is directed within him
especially on the deity and on the attitude of the world and man to him, but does not neglect
physics, ethics and logic. In contrast to the early cosmocentric and
the relatively late anthropocentric point of view of Greek philosophy,
appears in this last phase theocentric, i.e. with a predominance in the center
religious element. Despite the connection with the early ones, Neoplatonism is still
brought philosophical knowledge into a new philosophical system.
Neoplatonism arose in Alexandria, where in a whirlpool of nationalities they met
Also then significant philosophical and religious movements often merged.
Its founder was Ammonius Saccus (175-242 A.D.), he was raised in
Christian religion, but later again turned to Hellenism. He didn't leave
written presentation of his teachings. This was done by his student Plotinus (204-268),
but it was made public and published only by the latter’s student Porphyry (†304). Except
Dam by students of Am. Sacca were the Neoplatonist Origen and the Christian Origen, also
Longinus, philologist. The Syrian school is distinguished from this Alexandrian-Roman school,
which was headed by Iamblichus, the fantastic theurgist, - and Athens, which again
was more inclined towards theoretical speculation, and in Proclus she found her glorious
representative
Neoplatonic teaching actually means the teaching of Plotinus.
What significantly distinguishes Plotinus from Plato, as well as his immediate
predecessors - this is the recognition of a single principle standing above ????. ???? For
him was not a perfect unity, since he is at the same time a subject
and the object of knowledge????? and?????????, therefore, must split into two. Eat
the need to seek something higher, rising above duality. It's there
absolute unity, one - ?? ??, the highest that can ever be
conceivable. This is not reason, but it is also not unreasonable, but super-rational (??????????? ???
?????). The One or the deity is closer, more accurately defined, positively represented
The dam failed because it is higher than thought, higher than being. Much arises from
one through emanation, radiation (????????????), just like from the sun
there is a glow surrounding him. There is nothing in the One, but everything is from it. What of
the one thing that most immediately arises is ????. It is thought of as a work and
reflection of the one. From one???? receives creative power, it contains??????
??????, as a true conceivable world, rising above the ghostly world. From????"a
comes the soul, the third principle of Plotinus. She is a mediator between the thinkable and
phenomenal world. Matter appears to Plotinus as an emanation from the soul.
Matter for Plotinus, like for Plato, is qualityless, formless???????
(limitless), which receives its forms only through ????? (over). IN?????
are embodied?????, i.e. ideas of the higher world. These????? Dam similar?????
?????????? Stoics, only without their properties of materiality. Theodicy,
Plotinus gives the most detailed information for ancient times in his books???? ???????
(Ann. III, 2 and 3). Here it is proven that this world is the best and
most excellent.
We have examined in general terms religious, moral and philosophical views
in the age of the Nativity of Christ and we come to the conclusion that, on the one hand, the ancient world
at the time in question was a deeply sad spectacle of the fall
ancient genius, and on the other hand, he discovered bright points to which she could graft
new life. The decline affected philosophy itself - as for moral
hand, then in theoretical terms, in ethics there was some kind of trampling on
in one place, repetition with some variations of Socratic views on
virtue, as a phenomenon identical with knowledge, and as the goal of life. Without seeing
exit from such views, people rushed helplessly in life, moving from
Stoic rigorism and neo-Pythagorean asceticism into practical Epicureanism.
The Stoics saw suicide as the best outcome of human life; practical
Epicureans believed that the whole point was in refined hedonism, and people of lower development -
generally in rough entertainment.
The positive side of the development of the ancient world was reflected in man’s evasion from
the external world and in turning to oneself, to one’s inner
religious and moral life. On this path, people came to stage serious
moral and religious problems and to the consciousness of the unity of humanity and
brotherhood. One of the most characteristic features of the time under consideration is the search for
salvation and the desire for purification of the soul in various mysteries. The rescue
delivered depending on the message through the revelation of known truths, from
knowledge of God, the world and man. Thus piety passes into gnosis.
Religious beliefs of the Jewish people in the age of the Nativity of Christ.
Two main tasks were the basis for the education of the Jewish people: that
Yahweh, the one true God of the whole world, called the Jewish people into a covenant with himself and
that Yahweh entered into a covenant with this people not for their selfish national
goals, but for the salvation of the whole world. It took all the time to strengthen in the first truth
until the Babylonian captivity. Only after the captivity did the people not evade Yahweh and
was exposed by the prophets to idolatry (cf. Neh. 9.
6,7) .
The second task of educating the Jewish people is to serve the salvation of all people,
due to various unfavorable circumstances was not achieved or
completed. The Jews, in their incomparable majority, were convinced that they
called only for their own benefit of salvation and inheritance in the messianic kingdom;
other nations will enter this kingdom only as trophies of the chosen one
people, i.e. vanquished, his slaves. This proud, ungodly consciousness
was the reason for the rejection of the people and its complete catastrophe in 70-135 AD.
Before the captivity of Babylon (and some time after the captivity, through the minor prophets)
divine revelation was communicated to the Jewish people. After captivity it began
the people's study of the revealed revelation. This matter took over 10 centuries, from
the time of Ezra (late 5th century). before the conclusion of the Talmuds - Jerusalem (IV-V centuries.
R.H). and Babylonian (VI century). From an objective cultural point of view, post-captivity
era is a very significant time in the history of the development of national
self-awareness of the Israeli people: these are centuries of special excitement of inner life,
times of colossal work. It is enough to point out that at this time the
the Talmud, which made possible the centuries-long existence of a people without
states, territories, without temple, king and high priest.
The time after captivity is characterized as “the rule of law,” nomocracy. Start
This dominion was actually established by Ezra among the Jews of Jerusalem,
founded the Institute of Scribes. A strong enemy of the development of nomism and Judaism
nationalism appeared from the 2nd half of the 4th century. Hellenism. By this time the Jews
Alexandrian, and partly Palestinian, have already largely submitted
the influence of Hellenism. However, the violent pressure of Hellenism, in the person of Antiochus
Epiphanes, gave rise to the Maccabean revolt among an entire nation. From now on, however
However, the development of life under the shadow of the law was disrupted. Political
independence achieved by the people becomes the starting point of the
Jewish, post-prophetic apocalypticism and serves to greatly revive
messianic aspirations.
More than four centuries BC, with the last prophet Malachi, it ceased
prophecy in the history of the Jewish people and any message in general
God's revelation. This was a period of independent assimilation by the Jewish people
received revelation, which opens with the era of scribes.
At the beginning of the 2nd half of the 5th century, the priest Ezra, who was in Babylon, heard about
great unrest among the Jews who returned from captivity to Palestine, with
permission from the king, went to Jerusalem to restore normal order
life in Judea. In the book. Nehemiah (8:1-8) tells about the beginning of activity
Ezra among the people:
"And Ezra the priest brought the law before the assembly of men and women... and read from it
in the square... And the ears of all the people were bowed to the book of the law... And they read
(the Levites) from the book, from the law of God, clearly and added the interpretation, and the people
understood what he read... The people were moved and cried as they listened to the word of the law. Throughout
to this (i.e., expressed in the law) we give a firm commitment and sign"
(cf. - 9:9, 38;10).
This dates back to 445 BC. During this time, the law of God was so studied that
maybe by the half of the 2nd century, i.e. by the time of the Maccabees, were developed
the most important provisions that were included in the Mishnah in the middle of the 2nd century AD,
the codification of which is attributed to Jude St. (Gakodesh, late 2nd century). Running in
A little forward, let's say now that the Mishnah forms the basis of the Talmud. To the Mishnah -
the law - an interpretation was drawn up - the Gemara; The Talmud consists of the Mishnah and Gemara
Jerusalem, compiled in the 4th-5th centuries, and Babylonian - in the 6th century.
The complete dominance of the law has led to the need to limit it, or better -
replenishment
From the time of the Maccabees, the study of the prophets begins. People who looked to the prophets
only an answer to the question of what reward awaits them supposedly for fulfilling the law -
made very meager, even pitiful extracts from them, without at all understanding the whole
depth of their content. People are deeply religious and somewhat mystical
those who were inclined created a majestic image of the future on the basis of the prophets, although
perhaps bearing traces of excessive imagination and undisciplined thought.
Under the influence of the study of the prophets, apocalypticism is created. The very name??????????
rests on the general biblical or religious concept of revelation in general. The most
Its name, apocalypticism, shows that it is closely related to prophecy.
Apocalypticists are busy with the question of the fate of the chosen people: does it not contradict
the concept of one omnipotent God and His people, everything that happens to this people
in the world, under the domination of pagan peoples. The apocalypse is busy with questions
eschatological and solves them within the framework of universal history. Direct transition
from prophecy to apocalypticism the book of the prophet Daniel serves, being itself the first
apocalypse and a model for those to follow. The most important apocalypses are
the book of Enoch (appeared ca. 162-161 BC), then the apocalypses of Baruch and Ezra, according to
a more probable assumption appeared after the destruction of Jerusalem, i.e. V
late 1st century. There is also an apocalypse, but it is no longer an imitation
Jewish prophecy, but wrapped in the clothes of a pagan oracle. We mean
books of the Sibyl (oracula Sibyllina) - a literary collection of different times
origin of Alexandrian Judaism. The wealth of the messianic and
eschatological material differs from the 3rd book of the Sibyl, and namely verses 97-807,
dating back to 140 BC. An unknown author when describing world events and
coups, depicting the disasters that came from Asia to Egypt
“a strong king, a mighty eagle,” continues: “then (when the calamity is destructive
wars will reach extreme limits) from the east (from the sun) God will send a king,
who will calm the earth from destructive war, killing some and fulfilling
promises to others."
Next to this apocalyptic trend, which by no means penetrated deeply into
people, there lived a direction that was the most ancient, national-political or
rationalistic. For his followers, the law was and remains the main support
life and, in a sense, the only source of salvation. From this point of view
the law looked at both religion and the very future of deliverance. Religion instead
the former union, as an intimate relationship between God and the people, received the character
business, life-practical agreement. The people are obliged to fulfill the entire law, and
God must grant him salvation for this. The Messiah was not dear to them
the revelation of the living God, but as a bearer of blessings for his people. Therefore not
It’s amazing that sometimes the Messiah is forgotten behind the trees of future blessings (as,
for example, in the book of Jubilees, the Ascension of Moses, etc.). The first literary
the monument where the rationalist trend makes itself felt is the book
Siraha. It specifically introduces the idea of law as the main source
salvation, and there is no mention of the Messiah. Makes itself felt strongly
rational-political direction in the books of Baruch and Tobit. In the book of Jubilees
or Lesser Genesis, the writing of which can only be attributed to the 1st
century BC, there is no mention at all of the messianic king, but the image of the future
messianic eschatological times, this book devotes ample space to
(special chapters 1 and 23). The apocalyptic book "Psalms of Solomon" is the most striking
expression of national political direction.
As for the views of the Messiah of the masses, they are imbued, according to
our gospels, national-political character; were not from this look
The best Israelis are also free, for example, Zechariah, the disciples of Christ and others. They
they just didn’t insist, didn’t persist in their views, but, in the end,
humbly submitted to the will of God. The idea of Christian mediation
neighbors, especially brotherhood with all nations, was alien to the consciousness of the Jew. This is what
his selfish desire for the kingdom of the Messiah for himself was the Achilles heel for
him, at the first coming of Jesus Christ.
Note. According to the general opinion of researchers, the Jews did not have a doctrine of the Suffering One
Messiah until the 3rd century. according to R.H. In apocryphal books, in particular in apocalypses,
there is no such teaching. - From “Conversation with Tryphon the Jew” (Chapter LVIII)
St. Justin follows that in the 2nd century some of the Jews began to recognize
the necessity of the suffering and death of Christ, but stubbornly disputed the image of death on
cross, referring to the law (“cursed is everyone, hang on a tree”).
First period
(30-313).
Foundation, spread and internal development of the Church
in the fight against the Jewish and Greco-Roman world.
The first period from the beginning of the Church to the Edict of Milan of Constantine the Great, from
29-30 of the Christian era to 313 - is the time of the founding of the Church and the gradual
spread first only among Jews, and then among pagans
only without any support from worldly forces, but even with hostile
attitude from them and open persecution - and under such conditions the Church
has gained a foothold in the world. She conquered a world hostile to her through her
partly by apologists, but mainly through confessors and martyrs.
Threatened by various errors and divisions - heresies and schisms,
The Church has maintained its unity; from moral corruption and vices of modern
peace, in which her members were also involved, she maintained her holiness.
At the same time, she revealed her teaching, taking advantage of all the good and acceptable
elements of the cultural world, ennobling them. In the development of worship the Church
adjoins the synagogue, but renounces particularism and nationalism
isolation; Having borrowed a few liturgical actions and rituals, she
enriched her cult on all sides, attracting art to her service -
architecture, sculpture, painting, music, singing. She elevates and ennobles
lower classes of society and keeps its believers in the circle of their duties through
high discipline and through wise, combined with gentleness, severity... The Church
proves itself to be a divine institution capable of renewing the deeply fallen
peace, attract the wonder and love of all noble hearts, resting on this
God-based, and at the same time progresses in its development from within to without.
Chapter I.
Mission of the Church in the first three centuries.
Founder of the Christian Church, Jesus Christ.
Forerunner of Christ, John, son of Zechariah and Elizabeth, last prophet of the Old
Testament, the first to call Christ the “Messiah”: “Behold the Lamb of God, who takes upon Himself
sins of the world" (John 1:29) and pointed to His approaching kingdom, but he himself did not enter
him. Therefore, Jesus Christ said about him: “Those born of women did not rise up.”
greater than John the Baptist; but he who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he" (Matt.
11:11). His role was according to the prophet Malachi (3:1), angel, messenger of the Messiah and
preparer of the way to His Kingdom. His sermon was exclusively
religious and moral character, as a call to repentance, and is alien to any
political motives. However, Herod could have kept John in prison and then
put him to death - it seems - justified only by the political nature of his
activities.
Those who thought that the murder of innocent John must have been bitterly disappointed
will put an end to this kind of preaching... No, one has been replaced by another,
incomparably stronger than him is Jesus Christ.
Who was Jesus?
I. However, we must raise another question earlier, a more radical one: was there,
did Jesus exist? Isn't He a mythical person?
This is not an idle or artificial question. In the last quarter of the 19th century. Marxists
- Engels and K. Kautsky came out with the statement that Christ did not exist,
Christianity appeared without Christ; it grew out of the movements of the Roman proletariat.
At the initiative of the Marxists, some scientists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. also steel
challenge the historical character of Jesus Christ. Between them acquired
Notoriously, not even a theologian by training, Arthur Drews (Art. Drews.
Die Christusmythe, 1910), and then Robertson, Kalthoff and others. But the view
denying the existence of Christ is an exceptional phenomenon, which until the end of the 19th century.
didn't know anything. During the 19th centuries, Jesus Christ was considered, of course,
historical figure.
II. The whole question was only this: was Jesus Christ the God-man or
just a man? In ancient times, the supernatural origin of Jesus Christ
some pagan scientists, like Celsus, Porphyry and others, denied. Then, after
IV century, when the Christian religion received not only the right to exist,
but it also became the dominant religion - until the 18th century. Divine-human
the character of the personality of Jesus Christ was recognized by all. With the advent of rationalism in
XVIII century a miraculous element in the gospel story was attacked. Someone
Pavlus (1761-1851) with supposedly good intentions, even with apologetic purposes,
tried to sweep away everything miraculous from the gospel story and eliminate everything
supernatural through naturalistic explanation and artificial
exegesis. Without denying the authenticity of the Gospel narratives, Pavlus recognized
historical foundations of Christianity. His task was to bring the gospel closer
history to a rational, historical-pragmatic understanding.
Only from the time of David Strauss (1808-1874) did they begin to suspect the historical
the character of our gospels. "Ancient exegesis, says Strauss, proceeded from two
assumptions: first, that our gospels contain history, second, that
this story is supernatural." But this is not true, according to him. "Or the gospels,"
says Strauss, "truly historical documents, and then a miracle cannot
be removed from the life of Jesus, or the miracle is inconsistent with history, in which case
The gospels cannot be historical documents." All salvation from contradictions
Strauss sees in criticism of the Gospel sources and in myth as the soul of the Gospel
stories. Strauss, of course, was inclined to solve the dilemma posed in the last
sense. "From the mere fact that the gospels speak of supernatural
facts, it is clear that they cannot be historical documents... we will leave
the gospels their miracles, but on condition that they are considered as simple myths." Myths
could not have been created by eyewitnesses of the events, and the gospels cannot be works
disciples of Christ.
Strauss is strong and merciless in criticism, but lacks the power of creativity; its "mythical"
Jesus did not come out as a real person, but as some kind of abstract scheme... A grandiose one
the task of recreating the living image of Jesus from the rubble, precisely in the rationalistic
spirit, was taken over by Ernest Renan (1823-1892). "I have traveled the evangelical region
up and down," says Renan about his preparation for writing about Jesus
Christ... “The 5th Gospel appeared before my eyes, fragmentary, but still
accessible for reading, and from then on, through the narratives of Matthew and Mark, I
a being no longer presented itself as an abstract being, about whom one could say what
has never been in the world, but the wondrous image of a man who lives and moves..."
Renan has neither faith nor serious science. The sad discord between faith and science
in the great question of the identity of the Founder of the New Testament Church, he tries
reconcile on aesthetic, artistic grounds - in an area alien to faith and not
akin to science. That's why Renan turned the "life of Jesus" into a beautiful novel.
An attempt to portray Jesus as a religious figure, as a redeemer and
A. Reville makes a conciliator in his essay “Jesus de Nazareth.” I-II. Paris
1897. According to Reville, Jesus was a "great mystic" who realized
"mutual penetration of the most intense religion and sublime morality..."
The person of Jesus Christ became the subject of such veneration that people did not hesitate to
to see in the Son of Man a being more than human. Its gradual
deification has begun! Thus, Reville's view of Jesus Christ
typically rationalistic, strongly influenced by the Richlian school.
Here is a brief history of rationalistic views on the face of Jesus Christ. Let's move on
to the definition and image of His true Face.
The sources of the life of Jesus Christ are divided into biblical and extra-biblical.
Extra-biblical sources are insignificant in number and volume, and we will talk about them
first of all.
We consider the most important testimony of Tacitus, born in 56 of the Christian era
and wrote his Annals in 115-117. Consequently, Tacitus in his youth could
to move among a generation of people who saw Jesus Christ. So, in the XV book. their
The Annal, in chapter XLIV, briefly describes the persecution of Christians under Nero (54-68).
notes: "ductor nominis ejus (scilicet christiani) Christus Tiberio imperante
per procuratorem Pontium Pilatum supplicio affectus erat" (Culprit of this name
(Christian) Christ was put to death under the reign of Tiberius,
procurator Pontius Pilate). Tacitus, by the time of his life, had a complete
opportunity to verify the reality of the identity of Jesus Christ, and he
positively certifies Him.
Chronologically, a slightly earlier but less definite mention of Christ
makes the historian Suetonius in "Vita Claudii," p. 25: "Judaeos impulsore Chresto
assrdue tumultuantes Roma expulit," i.e. Emperor Claudius (41-54) "of the Jews,
those who were constantly indignant at the instigation of Chrest, he expelled from Rome." This
The event dates back to the early 50s. Wonderful, this is the testimony of Suetonius
confirms Luke, a Greek by origin. Namely, he says that the Apostle Paul
in Corinth "Having found a certain Jew, named Akilu, a native of Pontus, recently
who came from Italy, and Priscilla his wife (for Claudius commanded everyone
Jews to leave Rome)" (Acts 18:2-3) - this means that the fact is undeniable: the emperor
Claudius, by a special decree in the early 50s of the Christian era, expelled the Jews from
Rome. Two historians speak about this independently of each other - Luke and Suetonius.
The latter also explains the reason for issuing this decree - this is the excitement of the Jews due to
"the rebel of Chrest." At the beginning of the 50s of the 1st century. This excitement of the Jews is understandable. It
was caused by the decree of the Jerusalem Council (49-50). about optionality
Mosaic Law for pagans who entered the Christian Church, which through
a year or two reached Rome, causing there, among the Judeo-Christians, especially
heated public debate. The vigilant Roman police caught as best they could
the meaning of disputes and unrest over some reformer (“rebel of Christ”) and
reported to the emperor.
He took the matter seriously and applied the usual radical remedy in history
against the Jews - their expulsion from the country, without distinction between Jews and Christians, for
such a distinction did not yet exist.
Now let us mention another classic, most precious for early Christianity
document - the most famous letter (X, 97) of Pliny the Younger to Emperor Trajan
(98-117), when he was proconsul of Bithynia in 111-112. This document is important
especially for the history of Christian mission, persecution and Christian worship.
It contains the name "Christus" three times as a historical figure, not
subject to doubt.
Pliny, by the way, writes that those who apostate from Christianity "mialedicerent
Christo," or another time "Christo maledixenmt" and then that true Christians
gather before dawn to sing a hymn to Christ as God (convenire carmenque
Christo quasi deo). - There are also references to Jesus Christ by the philosopher Celsus,
Lucian, from the historian Lampridius.
Among extra-biblical data about the face of Jesus Christ, it would seem that the first place
must belong to Jewish reports - for example, contemporaries of Jesus Christ
- Philo and Josephus. However, the historian will be completely disappointed here.
The noble Alexandrian Jew Philo thoroughly abandoned all interest in
Jerusalem or Galilean religious and popular movements and therefore
completely, perhaps deliberately, ignored Jesus Christ and John the Baptist.
Josephus Flavius, when compiling his historical works, timidly looked around
to the Romans; as a result, he deliberately avoided mentioning messianic ideas and
messianic movements of his people. He only briefly, a propos, touches on John
Baptist (Antiquit. XVIII, 5). Of course, one cannot expect information about Jesus
Christ in the one whom Celsus also called one??????? ?? ????? ?????? and silence
which Origen emphasized about Christ. Famous testimony of Christ,
contained in Antiquit. XVIII, 3.3, cf. XX,9,1, which already gives out the confession
a follower of Jesus Christ who believes in the resurrection (it is given by Eusebius T.I.
I,11), despite its presence in all known lists, - not in any
case cannot be recognized as authentic in full; there's a hand visible here
ancient Christian interpolator... Josephus' countryman, Justin from
Tiberias, which at the end of the 1st century. wrote a chronicle of the Jewish princes before Agrippa II,
does not mention a single word about Christ. Photius, (Bibliotheca, pp. XXXIII)
explains this by the “morbidity of Judaism.” Since the middle of the 2nd century this fearful
demonstrative silence gives way to hateful exclamations and blasphemy,
in order - as St. Justin and Celsus already understood, to denigrate, disgrace the memory of
crucified Jesus.
To move on to biblical sources, we must first mention the apocryphal
and the Gnostic gospels. They cannot claim the authority of historical
sources of Jesus' life. Even the oldest and comparatively best of them -
The Gospel to the Hebrews reveals significant shortcomings in its, so to speak,
original originality in comparison with our gospel of Matthew, being
richly filled with messages of an edifying nature. Apocryphal gospels
are products of fantasy that arose from the 2nd to the 7th centuries. in heretical circles, for
filling in the gaps in the life of Jesus, especially the story of the Nativity, childhood and
suffering. By their contrast with the 4 canonical gospels, they serve only
new proof of the high dignity of the latter.
Biblical sources.
Our canonical gospels, as historical sources of the life of Jesus Christ,
have irrefutable evidence for themselves.
1) The antiquity of the gospels is attested by monuments from the end of I and the beginning of II
c., - the message of Clement of Rome, St. Ignatius, “The Teaching of the 12 Apostles” and with
with particular clarity in the last quarter of the 2nd century, namely, from the time of St. Irenaeus.
2) Authenticity, authenticity of the gospels, i.e. they belong to us
evangelists - Matthew, Mark, Luke and John are certified for the first two and 4th
Gospel of John, the apostolic husband Papias of Hieropolis (in Eusebius T.I. III,
39) in the first half of the 2nd century. and with complete certainty for all four of that
aka St. Irenaeus. Amazing thing! Gospel 4 as a "spiritual" gospel
relation to "bodily," which has a special meaning for the image of the divine
personality of Jesus Christ and therefore subject to the most fierce attacks from
side of the rationalists, has the most convincing evidence of his
authenticity - and precisely, in living tradition from St. John through his disciple
Polycarp of Smyrna, in turn the teacher of St. Irenaeus of Lyons, solemnly
testifying: “John, the disciple of the Lord, reclining on His chest, uttered his
gospel, during his stay in Ephesus of Asia "(Against heresies, III,
I,1;avg. Ш, XI, 9).
3) Finally, the reliability of the gospel stories cannot be doubted, for
The disciples of Jesus Christ and their companions had the opportunity to observe the life of Jesus
Christ and hear directly or through the right medium (for Mark - ap.
Peter, for Luke - ap. Paul) His true teaching.
About the face of Jesus Christ according to the canonical gospels.
The earthly life of Jesus Christ, according to the Gospels, is a real human life.
It has its beginning, its development, its zenith and its end in death. Nothing
humanity is not alien to Jesus. He rejoices, just like us. He needs rest and
strives for peace. He cries like everyone else. He works and struggles, just like us.
He lived and suffered like the rest of us. But on the other hand, on the night of Jesus' birth
The angel of the Lord appeared to the shepherds of Bethlehem and announced: “Today he has been born to you in
city of David, the Savior, who is Christ the Lord" (Luke 2:11).
The 12-year-old Child Jesus calls the Jerusalem Temple belonging to His Father (Lk.
2.49) or “my Father’s house” (John 2.16). Addressing the people, Jesus said:
"Come to Me, all you who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest... you will find
rest for your souls" (Matthew 11:28-29). Or "All things have been handed over to Me by My Father" (v. 27). About
There is no talk of metaphysical sonship with God here, and yet those words in the mouth
people like us would be simply unbearable. Neither the prophets nor anyone else did
such an appeal to people and such statements about his power. All the greatness of these
words is that people can have in Him, in Christ, what they can
give only one God... Jesus in other cases forgives sins, which is typical
only to God. He assimilates to Himself the works of the Father and desires for Himself the same worship as
To my father. He finally equates Himself with the Father in essence, which is why the Jews accused
Him in blasphemy (cf. John 5:18).
Jesus Christ knew in advance about His suffering and death and attributed to them
redemptive value for people. Who was Jesus? Once upon a time Jesus Christ
asked the man born blind whom He healed: “Do you believe in the Son of God?.” He
answered, asking: “Who is He, Lord, that we should believe in Him?” Jesus said
to him: “You saw Him speaking to you - He exists.” He exclaimed: “I believe,
Lord, and worshiped Him."
Here in a few words is the essence of the Gospel teaching about Jesus Christ, how
the incarnate Son of God, or the God-Man, as the Savior of people.
The work of Jesus Christ.
“I glorified You on earth, I completed the work that You gave Me to do.”
(John 17:4). “Isn’t this how Christ had to suffer?” (Luke 24:26). "And give my soul
His own as a ransom for many" (Matthew 20.28).
Jesus Christ was not a political or social figure. "Render unto Caesar what is
Caesar, and God of Gods," "My kingdom is not of this world," Christ taught. He
was completely indifferent to the prevailing state mentality and
rejected the political lusts of the people and His disciples.
Neither Pilate nor Herod found Him guilty of anti-state and
anti-social activities, which the Jews tried to accuse Him of! He
exclusively religious and moral figure. Having not undergone systematic
school (cf. John 7:15), which did not provide a definite system of theoretical and
practical teaching, who did not establish a complex organization for His society,
He did not fit the usual type of legislator and organizer; however He put
the beginning of Christian society and its external organization, as well as outlined in
essential features of the teaching of faith and morality.
The concept of rationalistic theologians about the teaching of Christ as something
vague (Zemler), about purified Judaism (Genke and others), or about
moral only, and not about dogmatic teaching together (Ritschl and others) is wrong.
The reality is; Jesus Christ does not break ties with Judaism and highly
states the Old Testament: “Do not think that I came to destroy the law” (Matthew 5:17). He
observes rituals and Jewish holidays, visits the Jerusalem Temple. However, He
rises above ritual and gives a free interpretation of the Old Testament. Dilapidated
The Testament, according to Him, was completed in the New, therefore, does not have a self-sufficient
meanings, but only propaedeutic, like a canopy, like preparation for the messianic
kingdom. He predicts the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, this concentration
Jewish rituals, and teaches that one can serve God everywhere, as long as this service
was spirit and truth. He gives the ritual only a conditional, symbolic character,
placing above the spiritual essence of religion and the demands of morality (Luke 6:1-10; 14:10).
The Son of Man, He teaches, is the Lord of the Sabbath. He goes deep into interpretation
individual commandments and values not the external fulfillment of them, but the internal feeling,
which serves as a stimulus to external action and thus moralizes
commandment. The law says: Thou shalt not kill; but I say: do not be angry, i.e. eradicate it
an inner feeling that leads to the outer act of killing. The law talks about
love for one's neighbor, and the interpretation of the Jewish scribes understood the neighbor as
person of the same nation. Christ expands the concept of neighbor to enemy and gives,
Thus, the concept of love has the broadest character: the love of everyone, not excluding
enemies (Matt. 5:20-27). At the same time, Christ sharply denounced external piety
Pharisees, alien to internal piety and even more emphasized moral
side of His preaching. At the same time, Christ is not alien to religious doctrine. Main His
the provisions, according to the gospels, boil down to the following: God is one, He created the world and
cares about people. He's perfect. He is a loving Father, equally sending rays
light on the righteous and the unrighteous; who once made a covenant with the Jewish people,
He now makes a new covenant through His Son. Jesus Christ is the Son of God,
through His suffering and death, saving the human race. This is the central idea
New Testament. He is the Messiah, but not the Messiah - the King, but the Son of God, the Lamb of God. So
Thus, in the consciousness of Christians He is not only the subject (Harnack), but also the object of faith.
Mikhail Emmanuilovich Posnov is a Russian biblical scholar and historian of the Christian Church. Born in the Ryazan province.
He studied at the Kyiv Theological Academy, and upon graduation taught biblical history there. In 1908 he became a private assistant professor at Kyiv University in the department of Church history. Since 1910, he taught the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament at the Kyiv Theological Academy. In 1913 he became a professor at the Department of History of the Ancient Church of the Kyiv Academy. After the October Revolution he emigrated, from 1919 until his death he was a professor of dogmatics and church history at the Sofia Theological Academy, as well as a professor of church history at Sofia University.
He reposed in 1931 in Sofia.
Essays
- Posnov, M. E. The idea of the Covenant of God with the Israeli people in the Old Testament: Experience in a theological and philosophical review of the history of the Israeli people (master's thesis, 1898).
- Posnov, M. E. Interaction of two factors in the history of the Israeli people - divine and human (1903).
- Posnov, M. E. Judaism (to the characteristics of the internal life of the Jewish people in the post-exilic period) (1906).
- Posnov, M. E. On the question of the sources of Christian doctrine and its tasks (1906).
- Posnov, M. E. On the fate of biblical Israel (1907).
- Posnov, M. E. The first Christian community and communism (1909).
- Posnov, M. E. New types of construction of the ancient history of the Church (1909).
- Posnov, M. E. About the personality of the founder of the Christian church (1910).
- Posnov, M. E. The Gospel of Jesus Christ and the Gospel of the Apostles about Christ (1911).
- Posnov, M. E. Gnosticism of the 2nd century and the victory of the Christian church over it (doctoral dissertation, 1917).
- Posnov, M. E. Samarian magicians are Christian heresiarchs (1917).
- Posnov, M. E. Metropolitan Anthony as an Orthodox theologian-dogmatist (1929).
- Posnov, M. E. History of the Christian Church (before the division of churches - 1054).