In the 19th century Great strides have been made in the fields of education, science and technology. Scientific discoveries, pouring out of a cornucopia, contributed to the development of modern industry. Under their influence, people's ideas about the world around them and the centuries-old way of their life changed. Over the course of one century, man moved from a carriage to a train, from a train to a car, and in 1903 he took off in an airplane.

Up to the 20th century. the world's population as a whole remained illiterate. Most people couldn't even read or write. Only in the highly developed countries of Western Europe, embraced by industrialization, was noticeable progress observed. In the 19th century, especially in the second half, education began to spread widely. This became possible due to the fact that society became richer and grew material well-being of people. In addition, industrial civilization needed skilled workers. Therefore, the state began to pay more attention to education issues and began the transition to universal compulsory education. In Great Britain, the law on compulsory education for all children under 12 years of age was passed in 1870, in France - in 1882.

In some European countries ah transition to universal primary education started even earlier. In Lutheran Sweden, for example, in 1686 a law was passed obliging the head of the family to teach literacy to his children and even servants. And this law was strictly followed. After all, the most important duty of a Lutheran was to independently read the Bible. It was even impossible to get married until young people mastered reading. It is not surprising that by the end of the 18th century. The Swedish population was the most literate in Europe. However, the law on compulsory primary education was adopted only in the 1880s.

By the end of the 19th century. number of literate men in Western Europe reached 90%. Universities opened in many cities. However higher education was not accessible to everyone. It still remained elitist. Secondary schools were created for children from wealthy families, from which a direct route to higher education institutions opened.

The science

XIX century often called the age of science. Under the influence of its rapid and rapid development, human ideas about the structure of matter, space and time, the ways of development of flora and fauna, the origin of man and life on Earth changed.

In the 19th century scientists occupied an important place in society and enjoyed great influence. Their work was surrounded by honor and respect. They were looked upon as modern wizards. Not like in previous centuries, when leading the life of a scientist was risky and dangerous.

In the XV - XVII centuries. such a life sometimes ended at the stake of the Inquisition. Remember how the church burned Giordano Bruno. The life of Galileo Galilei, who claimed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, almost ended at the stake. Clashes between science and religion were commonplace back then. The situation became completely different in the 19th century. After all, the world of industry, machine production and transport depended on science. And it was impossible to refuse it. Science advanced along all fronts, changing not only the environment, but also the inner world of man.

Discoveries in mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology and social sciences followed one after another. The geometric theory of Euclid, which dominated for two millennia, was supplemented by the non-Euclidean geometry of N. I. Lobachevsky and the German B. Riemann. The law of conservation of energy made it possible to substantiate the unity of the material world and the indestructibility of energy. The discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction paved the way for the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa. J. Maxwell established the electromagnetic nature of light. A. Einstein discovered that at speeds close to the speed of light, the laws of Newtonian mechanics do not apply.

Another discovery of the brilliant scientist - the theory of relativity - forced us to take a fresh look at time and space, to recognize the existence of a body in four-dimensional space, the coordinates of which are length, width, height and time. It is impossible to depict this system graphically. It can only be imagined with the help of imagination.

One of the largest discoveries of the 19th century. was constructed by D.I. Mendeleev periodic table elements. She not only established the relationship between atomic weight and chemical properties elements, but also made it possible to predict the discovery of new ones.

French scientist Louis Pasteur founded the science of microbes, after which the successful fight against epidemic diseases began.

A revolution in natural science was made by scientists who penetrated the secrets of " strange world" - the world of elementary particles. In 1895, X-rays were discovered (named after the German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen). This discovery immediately found application in medicine and technology. This was followed by the discovery of radioactivity and research in the field of the atomic nucleus, associated with the names of such outstanding physicists as Maria Sklodowska-Curie (Poland), P. Curie (France), J. Bohr (Denmark) and E. Rutherford (England).

Scientists penetrated not only into the secrets of the atomic nucleus, but also got to know the Universe better. New planets Uranus and Neptune were discovered.

Darwin's teachings and the formation of a new picture of the world

The most important achievement of science of the 19th century. was the creation of the theory of the evolution of species through natural selection. It found its complete embodiment in the teachings of Charles Darwin, who had a huge influence on the formation of a new picture of the world.

What seems quite obvious to us was not so obvious in the middle of the 19th century. Most people in Europe and North America at that time believed in the biblical accounts of the creation of the world four thousand years before the birth of Jesus Christ. They believed that God separately created every plant and animal, including humans. All this contradicted the latest scientific discoveries and was incompatible with the data of geologists, who calculated the age of the Earth in millions of years. The usual picture of the world collapsed. Religion demanded that they believe in one thing, and reason suggested another.

In 1859, Charles Darwin’s book “The Origin of Species” was published in England. She brought the conflict between religious and scientific worldviews to a boiling point. Darwin's main idea was that plant and animal world constantly changing through natural selection. Only that type of plant or animal life survives that is most adapted to living conditions, and, conversely, unadapted organisms are thrown aside and die. There was no place left for God in this development. The Church opposed Darwin, seeing in his teachings the basis for atheism.

The attacks became more fierce after the publication of the scientist’s new book, “The Descent of Man” (1871). It proved that man descended from a creature common to the monkey.

Darwin himself jokingly called his books “the gospels of Satan.” The Descent of Man has been the subject of intense controversy. Many scientists did not accept Darwin's theory of human origins. She didn't receive scientific confirmation until now. But her general ideas about evolution and natural selection have remained important.

There is nothing surprising. Back in the 6th century. BC, one Chinese philosopher and biologist came to the same conclusions as Darwin. His name was Zong Jie. He wrote that organisms acquired differences through gradual changes, generation after generation. The only amazing thing is that it took the world two and a half thousand years to come to the same conclusion.

The ruling classes distorted Darwin's theory. They saw in her yet another proof of their superiority. As a result of “natural selection,” they survived the struggle for existence and ended up at the top, becoming the rulers. It was also an argument in favor of imperialist policies and white supremacy. At the same time, K. Marx and F. Engels saw in “The Origin of Species” a natural scientific basis for understanding the historical struggle of classes.

Revolution in technology

The creation of large-scale machine production and machine technology constitutes the main content of the second period of New History.

A powerful impetus for the mechanization of production was given by the invention at the end of the 18th century. steam engine. With its help, working machines of any type could be set in motion. Almost simultaneously, a process for producing iron and steel from cast iron was developed. A new branch of production arose - mechanical engineering. Mass production of various machines began. Steam plants began to be used in various industries, agriculture, land, river and sea transport. It is no coincidence that contemporaries characterized the 19th century. as "the age of steam and iron."

Transport development

Decisive changes in the life of Europe, North America, and the whole world, contributed to the creation of steam transport. The first steamship was a river boat built in the USA in 1807. Steamboats gradually replaced sailing ships. Since 1822 they began to be built from iron, and from the 80s - from steel. At the beginning of the 20th century. Russian designers launched the first motor ship.

A real revolution in transport was made by the invention of the steam locomotive (1814) and the construction railways, which began in 1825. In 1830, the total length of railway lines in the world was only 300 km. By 1917 it reached 1 million 146 thousand km.

The "iron horse" of the English engineer Stephenson reached a speed of about 10 km per hour, 1814

At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, after the creation of the engine internal combustion, new modes of transport emerged - road and air. At first, airplanes had purely sporting significance, then they began to be used in military affairs.

The construction of bridges, canals and hydraulic structures played a major role in the development of transport. In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened, shortening the sea route from Europe to the countries of Southeast Asia by almost 13 thousand km. In 1914, construction of the Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean, was completed.

Relationship between science and practice

Scientific discoveries and technical inventions were closely related. Some scientists developed ideas in some branch of science. Others tested them in laboratories at institutes and universities. In the course of such experiments, ways of practical application of one or another scientific discovery were identified. This is what happened, for example, with the study of electricity.

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta - creator of the first chemical light source - the Voltaic column, 1800.
Battery demonstration before Napoleon Bonaparte

Electrical and magnetic phenomena were known even before the 19th century, but they were considered in isolation from each other. In 1831, the English scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) conducted important experiments demonstrating the laws of electricity. It turned out that in a copper wire crossing magnetic field lines, electricity. This discovery is known as the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. From his contemporaries Faraday received the humorous title “Lord of Lightning.” His ideas were confirmed and developed by the Scottish scientist James Maxwell, who in 1873 proved the connection between electricity and magnetism.

People of the 19th century They believed that they had already invented everything when the first steam locomotives and cars appeared, moving at a speed of twenty kilometers per hour. But how wrong they were! There was so much more to discover! The science of electricity led to the creation of the electrical industry, which began to serve man. First, the electric motor was invented, and in 1880, Siemens produced the first electric train. The world's first power plants began operating, and electric motors began to be used more and more in factories. Electric lighting appeared on city streets, residential buildings, public and production premises. The horse-drawn horse was becoming a thing of the past. Trams rumbled along the streets of European cities, notifying the world of the beginning of the era of electricity.

The electric light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. Cheaper and more practical, it replaced the gas jet. Edison is the author of over 1000 inventions. He improved the telegraph and telephone, invented the phonograph (1882), built the world's first public power station (1882)

The new kind energy opened up new horizons for European countries. But it, like many other inventions, was soon used for military purposes.

Means of communication

In the second half of the 19th century. There was a revolution in communications. For centuries, people have communicated with each other through letters. In the navy and in the land army - with the help of signal flags, lights or any other conventional signs. The development of industry and trade required more advanced means of information transmission. Scientific discoveries in the field of electricity and magnetism fully satisfied this need.

In 1836, an American named Samuel Morse invented a fundamentally new type of communication - the telegraph. Morse's electrical apparatus transmitted messages in coded dots and dashes over wires. By the end of the century, the main cities of the world were connected by telegraph communications. It took scientists forty years to move from coded messages to the transmission of live voices over wires. In 1876, the telephone was invented and gained universal recognition. At the turn of the 20th century. the third important discovery in the field of information transmission was born - wireless communication over the air using radio waves. Since that time, radio has become the main source of information for the whole world.

At the end of the 19th century. Thanks to technological progress, cinema appeared. The Lumière brothers invented the first film projector in 1895 and founded the world's first movie theater in Paris. Cinema very quickly became a form of art and entertainment of the 20th century.

The triumphant march of science has greatly changed people's lives. The telegraph, telephone, railways and steamships, automobiles, and later airplanes shortened distances and made the world suddenly small. But man made bad use of the gifts of science. Brilliant discoveries blinded him. With the help of science, the most advanced methods of destruction were developed. Power over nature led to the gradual destruction of the environment. True, man at that time did not yet realize this.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History Modern times XIX - early XX century, 1998.

In the article we will talk about the great discoveries of the 20th century. It is not surprising that since ancient times people have tried to make their wildest dreams come true. At the turn of the last century, incredible things were invented that changed the life of the whole world.

X-rays

Let's start the list of great discoveries of the 20th century by looking at electromagnetic radiation, which was actually discovered at the end of the 19th century. The author of the invention was the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. The scientist noticed that when the current was turned on, a slight glow began to appear in the cathode tube coated with barium crystals. There is another version, according to which the wife brought dinner to her husband, and he noticed that he could see her bones visible through the skin. These are all versions, but there are also facts. For example, Wilhelm Roentgen refused to obtain a patent for his invention, because he believed that this activity could not generate real income. Thus, we rank X-rays among the great discoveries of the 20th century, which influenced the development of scientific and technological potential.

A television

More recently, a television was a thing that testified to the wealth of its owner, but in the modern world television has faded into the background. Moreover, the idea of the invention itself originated in the 19th century simultaneously with the Russian inventor Porfiry Gusev and the Portuguese professor Adriano de Paiva. They were the first to say that a device would soon be invented that would allow image transmission via wire. The first receiver, whose screen size was only 3 by 3 cm, was demonstrated to the world by Max Dieckmann. At the same time, Boris Rosing proved that it was possible to use a cathode ray tube in order to be able to convert an electrical signal into an image. In 1908, physicist Hovhannes Adamyan from Armenia patented a signal transmission apparatus consisting of two colors. It is believed that the first television was developed at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It was collected by Russian emigrant Vladimir Zvorykin. It was he who split the light beam into green, red and blue, thus obtaining a color image. He called this invention an iconoscope. In the West, John Bird is considered the inventor of television, who was the first to patent a device that creates a picture of 8 lines.

Cell phones

The first mobile phone appeared in the 70s of the last century. One day, an employee of the famous Motorola company, which was developing portable devices, Martin Cooper, showed his friends a huge handset. Then they did not believe that something like this could be invented. Later, while walking around Manhattan, Martin called his boss at a competitor's company. Thus, for the first time in practice, he demonstrated the effectiveness of his huge telephone handset. Soviet scientist Leonid Kupriyanovich conducted similar experiments 15 years earlier. This is why it is quite difficult to definitively talk about who is actually the opener of portable devices. In any case, mobile phones are a worthy discovery of the 20th century, without which you can’t imagine modern life It's simply impossible.

Computer

One of the greatest scientific discoveries of the 20th century is the invention of the computer. Agree that today it is impossible to work or relax without this device. A few years ago, computers were used only in special laboratories and organizations, but today they are a common thing in every family. How was this super machine invented?

The German Konrad Zuse in 1941 created a computer that, in fact, could perform the same operations as a modern computer. The difference was that the machine worked using telephone relays. A year later, American physicist John Atanasov and his graduate student Clifford Berry jointly developed an electronic computer. However, this project was not completed, so it cannot be said that they are the real creators of such a device. In 1946, John Mauchly demonstrated what he claimed was the first electronic computer, ENIAC. Much time passed, and huge boxes replaced small and thin devices. By the way, personal computers appeared only at the end of the last century.

Internet

The great technological discovery of the 20th century is the Internet. Agree that without it, even the most powerful computer is not that useful, especially in the modern world. Many people do not like to watch TV, but they forget that the Internet has long seized power over human consciousness. Who came up with the idea of such a global international network? She appeared in a group of scientists in the 50s of the last century. They wanted to create a high-quality network that would be difficult to hack or eavesdrop on. The reason for this idea was the Cold War.

During the Cold War, US authorities used a certain device that allowed data to be transmitted over a distance without the need for mail or telephone. This device was called APRA. Later, scientists from research centers in different states began creating the APRANET network. Already in 1969, thanks to this invention, it was possible to connect all the computers of the universities represented by this group of scientists. After 4 years, other research centers joined this network. After e-mail appeared, the number of people wanting to penetrate the World Wide Web began to quickly grow exponentially. As for the current state, at the moment more than 3 billion people use the Internet every day.

Parachute

Despite the fact that the idea of a parachute came to the mind of Leonardo da Vinci, this invention in its modern form is still considered one of the great discoveries of the 20th century. With the advent of aeronautics, regular jumps from large balloons, to which half-opened parachutes were attached. Already in 1912, one American decided to jump from an airplane with such a device. He successfully landed on earth and became the bravest resident of America. Later, engineer Gleb Kotelnikov invented a parachute made entirely of silk. He also managed to pack it into a small backpack. The invention was tested on a moving car. Thus, they came up with a braking parachute that would allow the emergency braking system to be activated. Thus, before the outbreak of World War I, the scientist received a patent for his invention in France, and thus became the discoverer of the parachute in the 20th century.

Physicists

Now let's talk about the great physicists of the 20th century and their discoveries. Everyone knows that physics is the basis without which it is in principle impossible to imagine the comprehensive development of any other science.

Let us note Planck's quantum theory. In 1900, German professor Max Planck discovered a formula that described the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body. Note that before this it was believed that energy was always distributed evenly, but the inventor proved that the distribution occurs proportionally thanks to quanta. The scientist compiled a report that no one believed at that time. However, just 5 years later, thanks to Planck’s findings, the great scientist Einstein was able to create the quantum theory of the photoelectric effect. Thanks to quantum theory, Niels Bohr was able to build a model of the atom. Thus, Planck created a powerful basis for further discoveries.

We must not forget about the greatest discovery of the 20th century - the discovery of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. The scientist managed to prove that gravity is a consequence of the curvature of four-dimensional space, namely time. He also explained the effect of time dilation. Thanks to Einstein's discoveries, it was possible to calculate many astrophysical quantities and distances.

TO greatest discoveries The invention of the transistor can be attributed to the 19th and 20th centuries. First working device was created in 1947 by researchers from America. Scientists have experimentally confirmed the correctness of their ideas. In 1956, they already received the Nobel Prize for their discoveries. Thanks to them, a new era began in electronics.

Medicine

Let's begin our consideration of the great discoveries in medicine of the 20-21st centuries with the invention of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. It is known that this valuable substance was discovered as a result of negligence. Thanks to Fleming's discovery, people stopped being afraid of the most dangerous diseases. In the same century, the structure of DNA was discovered. Its discoverers are considered to be Francis Crick and James Watson, who using cardboard and metal created the first model of the DNA molecule. An incredible sensation was created by the information that all living organisms have the same DNA structure. For this revolutionary discovery, scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize.

The great discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries continue with the discovery of the possibility of organ transplantation. Such actions were perceived as something unrealistic for quite a long time, but already in the last century scientists realized that it was possible to achieve a safe, high-quality transplant. The official discovery of this fact took place in 1954. Then the American doctor Joseph Murray transplanted a kidney to one of his patients from his twin brother. Thus, he showed that it is possible to transplant a foreign organ into a person, and he will live for a long time.

In 1990, the doctor was awarded the Nobel Prize. However, for a long time, specialists transplanted everything except the heart. Finally, in 1967, an elderly man received a young woman's heart. Then the patient managed to live only 18 days, but today people with donor organs and hearts live for many years.

Ultrasound

Also important inventions of the last century in the field of medicine include ultrasound, without which it is very difficult to imagine treatment. In the modern world, it is difficult to find a person who has not undergone an ultrasound scan. The invention dates back to 1955. In vitro fertilization is considered the most incredible discovery of the last century. British scientists managed to fertilize an egg in laboratory conditions, and then place it in a woman’s uterus. As a result, the world famous “test tube girl” Louise Brown was born.

Great geographical discoveries of the 20th century

In the last century, Antarctica was explored in detail. Thanks to this, scientists received the most accurate data on the climatic conditions and fauna of Antarctica. Russian academician Konstantin Markov created the world's first atlas of Antarctica. We will continue the great discoveries of the early 20th century in the field of geography with an expedition that went to the Pacific Ocean. Soviet researchers measured the deepest oceanic trench, which was named Mariana.

Marine atlas

Later, a marine atlas was created, which made it possible to study the direction of currents, winds, determine depth and temperature distribution. One of the most high-profile discoveries of the last century was the discovery of Lake Vostok under a huge layer of ice in Antarctica.

As we already know, the last century was very rich in various kinds of discoveries. We can say that there has been a real breakthrough in almost all areas. The potential capabilities of scientists from all over the world have reached their maximum, thanks to which the world is currently developing by leaps and bounds. Many discoveries have become turning points in the history of all mankind, especially when it comes to research in the field of medicine.

Almost everyone who is interested in the history of the development of science, technology and technology has at least once in their life thought about what path the development of humanity could take without knowledge of mathematics or, for example, if we did not have such a necessary object as a wheel, which has become almost the basis of human development. However, often only key discoveries are considered and given attention, while discoveries less known and widespread are sometimes simply not mentioned, which, however, does not make them insignificant, because each new knowledge gives humanity the opportunity to climb a step higher in its development.

The 20th century and its scientific discoveries turned into a real Rubicon, after crossing which progress accelerated its pace several times, identifying itself with a sports car that is impossible to keep up with. In order to stay on the crest of the scientific and technological wave now, considerable skills are needed. Of course, you can read scientific journals, various kinds of articles and works of scientists who are struggling to solve this or that problem, but even in this case it will not be possible to keep up with progress, and therefore it remains to catch up and observe.

As you know, in order to look into the future, you need to know the past. Therefore, today we will talk specifically about the 20th century, the century of discoveries, which changed the way of life and the world around us. It is worth noting right away that this will not be a list of the best discoveries of the century or any other top, it will be a brief overview of some of those discoveries that changed, and perhaps are changing, the world.

In order to talk about discoveries, the concept itself should be characterized. Let's take the following definition as a basis:

Discovery is a new achievement made in the process of scientific knowledge of nature and society; establishment of previously unknown, objectively existing patterns, properties and phenomena of the material world.

Top 25 great scientific discoveries of the 20th century

Planck's quantum theory. He derived a formula that determines the shape of the spectral radiation curve and the universal constant. He discovered the smallest particles - quanta and photons, with the help of which Einstein explained the nature of light. In the 1920s, quantum theory developed into quantum mechanics.
Discovery of X-rays - electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of wavelengths. The discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen greatly influenced human life and today it is impossible to imagine modern medicine without them.
Einstein's theory of relativity. In 1915, Einstein introduced the concept of relativity and derived an important formula connecting energy and mass. The theory of relativity explained the essence of gravity - it arises as a result of the curvature of four-dimensional space, and not as a result of the interaction of bodies in space.
Discovery of penicillin. The mold Penicillium notatum, when it gets into the culture of bacteria, causes their complete death - this was proven by Alexander Flemming. In the 40s, a production one was developed, which later began to be produced on an industrial scale.
De Broglie waves. In 1924, it was discovered that wave-particle duality is inherent in all particles, not just photons. Broglie presented their wave properties in mathematical form. The theory made it possible to develop the concept of quantum mechanics and explained the diffraction of electrons and neutrons.
Discovery of the structure of the new DNA helix. In 1953, a new model of the structure of the molecule was obtained by combining the X-ray diffraction data of Rosalyn Franklin and Maurice Wilkins and the theoretical developments of Chargaff. She was bred by Francis Crick and James Watson.
Rutherford's planetary model of the atom. He hypothesized the structure of the atom and extracted energy from atomic nuclei. The model explains the basic laws of charged particles.
Ziegler-Nath catalysts. In 1953, they carried out the polarization of ethylene and propylene.
Discovery of transistors. A device consisting of 2 p-n junctions, which are directed towards each other. Thanks to its invention by Julius Lilienfeld, the technology began to shrink in size. The first operational bipolar transistor was introduced in 1947 by John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain.
Creation of radiotelegraph. Alexander Popov's invention using Morse code and radio signals first saved a ship at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. But Gulielmo Marcone was the first to patent a similar invention.
Discovery of neutrons. These uncharged particles with a mass slightly greater than that of protons allowed them to penetrate the nucleus without obstacles and destabilize it. It was later proven that under the influence of these particles, nuclei fission, but even more neutrons are produced. This is how the artificial one was discovered.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) technique. Edwards and Steptoe figured out how to extract an intact egg from a woman, created optimal conditions for its life and growth in a test tube, figured out how to fertilize it and at what time to return it back to the mother’s body.
The first manned flight into space. In 1961, it was Yuri Gagarin who was the first to realize this, which became the real embodiment of the dream of the stars. Humanity has learned that the space between planets is surmountable, and bacteria, animals, and even humans can safely exist in space.
Discovery of fullerene. In 1985, scientists discovered a new type of carbon - fullerene. Now because of their unique properties it is used in many devices. Based on this technique, carbon nanotubes were created - twisted and cross-linked layers of graphite. They show a wide variety of properties: from metallic to semiconducting.
Cloning. In 1996, scientists managed to obtain the first clone of a sheep, named Dolly. The egg was gutted, the nucleus of an adult sheep was inserted into it and implanted into the uterus. Dolly was the first animal to survive; the rest of the embryos of various animals died.
Discovery of black holes. In 1915, Karl Schwarzschild hypothesized the existence of black holes, the gravity of which is so great that even objects moving at the speed of light cannot leave it.
Theory. This is a generally accepted cosmological model that describes the earlier development of the Universe, which was in a singular state, characterized by infinite temperature and density of matter. The model was started by Einstein in 1916.
Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation. This is cosmic microwave background radiation, preserved from the beginning of the formation of the Universe and uniformly filling it. In 1965, its existence was experimentally confirmed, and it serves as one of the main confirmations of the Big Bang theory.
Approaching the creation of artificial intelligence. It is a technology for creating intelligent machines, first defined in 1956 by John McCarthy. According to him, researchers can use methods of understanding humans to solve specific problems that may not be biologically observed in humans.
Invention of holography. This special photographic method was proposed in 1947 by Dennis Gabor, in which three-dimensional images of objects close to real ones are recorded and restored using a laser.
Discovery of insulin. In 1922, Frederick Banting obtained pancreatic hormone, and diabetes mellitus ceased to be a fatal disease.
Blood groups. This discovery in 1900-1901 divided blood into 4 groups: O, A, B and AB. It became possible to give a correct blood transfusion to a person without ending tragically.
Mathematical information theory. Claude Shannon's theory made it possible to determine the capacity of a communication channel.
Invention of Nylon. Chemist Wallace Carothers discovered a method for producing this in 1935. polymer material. He discovered some of its varieties with high viscosity even at high temperatures.
Discovery of stem cells. They are the progenitors of all existing cells in the human body and have the ability to self-renew. Their capabilities are great and are just beginning to be explored by science.

There is no doubt that all these discoveries are only a small part of what the 20th century showed to society and it cannot be said that only these discoveries were significant, and all the others became just background, this is not at all the case.

It was the last century that showed us new boundaries of the Universe, saw the light of day, quasars (super-powerful sources of radiation in our Galaxy) were discovered, the first ones were discovered and created carbon nanotubes, possessing unique superconductivity and strength.

All these discoveries, one way or another, are just the tip of the iceberg, which includes more than a hundred significant discoveries over the past century. Naturally, all of them became a catalyst for changes in the world in which we now live, and the fact remains undoubted that the changes do not end there.

The 20th century can be safely called, if not the “golden”, then certainly the “silver” age of discoveries, however, looking back and comparing new achievements with the past, it seems that in the future we will have quite a few more interesting great discoveries, in fact, the successor of the last century, the current 21st century only confirms these views.

Weapon

In the pre-monopoly period of capitalism, weapons still consisted of smooth-bore (from the mid-19th century rifled) guns, relatively few artillery with limited rate of fire and firing range, and bladed weapons. The era of imperialism in the military-technical field produced a real revolution associated with the motorization and mechanization of multimillion-dollar armies, the use of machinery, and increased power and striking force of weapons.
In the last quarter of the 19th century. the armies of developed countries have replaced small arms. Back in 1860, Spencer rifles with a seven-round magazine and Henry rifles with a 15-round magazine were designed and first used during the American Civil War. But these rifles, due to the low power of the cartridge, were essentially weapons for hunting rather than military purposes. However, the development trend of this type of weapon was determined correctly, and in the 80s and 90s. France (designer Lebel), Germany (Mauser), Austria-Hungary (Mannlicher), Russia (Mosin), and the armies of other countries received repeating rifles. Distinctive feature These rifles consisted of simplicity and reliability of designs, a reduction in caliber while increasing the destructive power of the bullet, an increase in the firing range to 2.5-3 km and a rate of fire of up to 15 rounds per minute, or three times.
End of the 19th century marked by the appearance of automatic weapons. In 1883, the American inventor Hiram Maxim created an easel machine gun, named after the designer. This type of weapon was first used in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. In other wars that followed, Maxim's machine guns fully revealed their combat capabilities. Its modifications were adopted by the armies of many countries, including England, Germany, and Russia. On the fronts of the First World War, light machine guns, which dramatically increased the firepower of the infantry, were widely used: the French Hotchkiss and Chauchet systems, the English Lewis systems.

Development of artillery in the early 20th century

Compared to the period of the Franco-Prussian War, the technical characteristics of artillery have improved significantly. Its range has doubled (from 3.8 to 7-8.5 km) and rate of fire (from 3-5 to 5-11 rounds per minute). The armies of European countries used light field guns with a caliber of 75 to 77 mm and heavy ones with a caliber of 100–150 mm. 100-200 mm howitzers were intended to destroy closed targets with overhead fire. Siege artillery was used for operations against fortresses and field fortifications. Germany had the most powerful siege weapons. In 1918, the Colossal cannon, designed by the Krupp company, was installed in a combat position. It had a caliber of 203 mm, a barrel length of 33.5 m, a range of 120 km, and a projectile weight of 123 kg. From March 23, this cannon fired 303 shells into Paris over a period of 44 days, of which 183 fell within the city.
The First World War posed a number of new tasks for the artillery. With the expansion of capabilities and the intensification of aviation, the development of anti-aircraft guns, which began even before the war, accelerated: either adapted light field guns or specially designed anti-aircraft guns. The appearance of tanks on the battlefield prompted countermeasures: means of combating them included small-caliber 20-37 mm artillery, anti-tank rifles, and heavy machine guns. Artillery and machine-gun armored trains operated to provide fire support to troops in the railway zone.

Aviation in the early 20th century

Airplanes were first used as a means of armed struggle in 1910, when in France 4 airships and 12 airplanes were involved in military maneuvers. Military aviation received its first combat experience in 1911-1912. during the war between Italy and Turkey: 9 Italian aircraft were engaged in reconnaissance and bombing. In the Balkan War of 1912-1913. A Russian volunteer aviation detachment operated as part of the Bulgarian army, and in total the countries of the Balkan Union had about 40 aircraft. They were engaged in aerial photography, adjusting artillery fire, and bombing enemy troops. The First World War accelerated the development of aviation: the design of aircraft, their tactical and technical performance improved, the speed increased to 130-220 km per hour, the ceiling - up to 4-7 km, flight time - up to 2-7 hours. Depending on combat use aviation began to be divided into fighter, reconnaissance, attack, light and heavy bomber. For purposes of maritime reconnaissance, bombing naval bases, enemy surface ships and submarines, and seaplanes were used to protect their fleet and coast. The desire to find ways to improve the interaction of aviation with naval ships led to the creation of aircraft carriers. In England, by the end of the First World War, the cruiser Furious was converted into an aircraft carrier with two takeoff and landing decks. In July 1918, 7 Camel fighters took off from it and flew
successful raid on a German Zeppelin base. Thus began the era of carrier-based aviation.
Armament intensified and began to differentiate according to aircraft types. To hit targets along the aircraft's course, fighters received machine guns that fired through a propeller using special devices. This method of installing a machine gun was first used in 1915 on the French Morand-Saulnier aircraft. Other types of fighters were also equipped with similar machine guns. Reconnaissance and bomber aircraft were armed with defensive mobile machine guns. The bomb load has increased. The maximum was on the Russian “Ilya Muromets” - 490 kg. The effectiveness of bombers was increased by devices for suspending bombs inside the aircraft, mechanical and electrical bomb releasers, and bomber sights.
German airships also fought on the fronts. They had a large carrying capacity and flight range, penetrated deep behind enemy lines, carried out bombing attacks on Paris and London, and other targets on land and at sea. But the airships were easily hit by artillery fire and machine guns from air defense and fighter planes, and could not withstand the competition of aircraft. This led to the fact that even Germany built only 109 airships throughout the war.

Tanks at the beginning of the 20th century

The first projects of military equipment, which later received the name tank (from the English tank - tank, reservoir, tank), were developed in 1911-1915. almost simultaneously in England, Austria-Hungary and Russia. A new type of weapon took action on September 15, 1916 at the Battle of the Somme River. These were British Mk-1 tanks, armed with two cannons and four machine guns, in another version - only six machine guns. Far from perfect, these tanks were characterized by their bulky dimensions and clumsiness. The hull length was 9.8 m, width - 4.1 m, height - 2.5 m. The thickness of the armor was 6-10 mm and did not protect the crew even from armor-piercing bullets. The cruising range did not exceed 30 km, and the off-road speed was 2 km per hour. The visibility was poor, the temperature inside the vehicle rose to 70 °C, so the crew of 7 people could not stay in the tank for long.
Tank technology quickly improved, and improved models of Mk-1 tanks took part in the final stage of hostilities on the Western Front of World War I. In March 1918, the British army began to be equipped with Mk-A medium machine-gun tanks, which reached a speed of 14 km per hour, which gave rise to the name “Whipet”, i.e. greyhound. At the same time, the great success of French tank builders was creating a lung The Renault FT-17 tank, which turned out to be the most popular tank of the First World War, was used in the armies of 20 states, the first Soviet tank was designed on its basis, and in France it formed the basis of the tank fleet until the mid-30s. This 7-ton tank, cheap to manufacture, easy to operate and reliable in operation, with two crew members, had 16 mm armor, was armed with a cannon or machine gun, had good maneuverability and a cruising range of 35 km.
Armored vehicles played a smaller role than tanks. They were first designed in England in 1900-1902, and were tested in combat at the final stage of the Boer War. In Germany in 1902-1905. a cannon armored car appeared, which became the prototype of subsequent models. However, the positional nature of the First World War did not contribute to the massive proliferation of armored vehicles. At the same time, they were effective in providing fire support to cavalry.

Armadillos and cruisers in the late 19th - early 20th centuries

In the second half of the 19th century. sailing ships with steam engine gave way to battleships: completely metal, purely steam, with main caliber artillery in rotating turrets. The first warship of a new type was the battleship Monitor, built by the northerners during the American Civil War. It had a displacement of 1200 tons and was covered with 100 mm waist and 25 mm deck armor. Two 280 mm guns were housed in a rotating turret with 200 mm armor. In a battle with the southerners' ship Merrimack, which had 10 guns, the Monitor survived and thereby proved the promise of its design.
Monitor-type battleships, and they were built not only in the USA, but also in other countries, primarily in England, revolutionized shipbuilding and meant the emergence of a fundamentally new class of the most powerful warships. But the monitors, due to their low sides, were not completely seaworthy ships, which limited their combat use.
A solution was found in the construction of high-sided ships, whose armor was limited to the so-called citadel, which protected the artillery and mechanisms located in the central part, but left the bow and stern ends without armor protection. The level of technology and industrial capabilities made it possible to create citadel battleships with gun calibers up to 452 mm (Duillo, Italy, 1876), and side armor up to 600 mm (Inflexible, England, 1881). But it was no longer possible to further increase the quantitative parameters of the means of ship defense and attack, and scientific and design thought took a different, more effective path. The problem of increasing the strength of armor was solved by improving its quality characteristics, and the power of artillery fire - by increasing the penetrating and destructive ability of projectiles with the same or even smaller calibers.
Since the beginning of the 80s. for plating ships they began to use steel-iron compound armor, which outside surface was hard, and the inside was viscous. Its durability compared to iron armor has increased by 20-25%. In the first half of the 90s. They used nickel cemented steel, which increased the resistance of armor by 30% against steel-iron. By the beginning of the 20th century. mastered one-sided hardened chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel with a hard front layer and a soft, viscous back side, which gave it another 16% durability. In its properties, this armor was superior to all previously used. Improving the protective properties of armor made it possible in each new series of battleships to reduce the thickness of the side armor and thereby increase total area protected by the armor of the ship's hull, bringing it, for example, for the Russian Borodino to 48% and for the Japanese Mikaza to 69%.
In 1867, naval artillery began to be re-equipped with breech-loading rifled guns that fired elongated projectiles. The former gun monitor installations gave way to rotary mechanical gun mounts. An increase in the caliber of guns led to a reduction in their number. By the end of the 19th century. The type of squadron battleship with four, usually 305-mm, guns in two turrets protected by powerful armor, as well as guns of smaller calibers, was established. The efficiency of artillery fire has increased due to a number of technical improvements, including the introduction of an electro-automatic centralized fire control system, and the adoption of new armor-piercing shells with tips made of ductile steel.
Since the 60s XIX century The development of another class of ships—cruisers—begins. Having a smaller displacement compared to battleships, weak armor, medium and small caliber artillery, but greater speed, they were intended for operations as part of a squadron, reconnaissance, disrupting enemy communications and protecting their own. Depending on their functions, ships of this type differed in different ways. technical characteristics and were divided into small and medium armored cruisers and more powerfully armed and better protected armored cruisers.

Torpedo weapons and destroyers

Of great importance for strengthening the striking power of the fleet was the invention of a self-propelled mine - a torpedo. The high efficiency of torpedo weapons gave birth to a new class of ships - destroyers. At first they were small, with a displacement of 20-30 tons, with one or two torpedoes, but by the time of the Russo-Japanese War the type of seaworthy 350-ton destroyers with two double-tube or three single-tube torpedo tubes on the upper deck, one 75-mm and five 47 mm cannons,
speed up to 29 knots. The torpedo itself turned into a formidable weapon. Its combat charge reached 150 kg, its maximum range increased to 7 km and its speed increased to 45 knots. The need to solve a number of combat missions as part of a squadron prompted the further development of the class of destroyers and the creation of squadron destroyers, or destroyers - ships with increased armament, speed and cruising range. Torpedo boats are also firmly entrenched in the naval forces. They actively showed themselves and have not lost their importance to this day.

The Russo-Japanese War and the re-equipment of the navy

The naval battles of the Russo-Japanese War provided an opportunity to test the tactical and technical concepts inherent in ships of various classes. The maritime powers urgently made adjustments to the designs of the ships being built, trying to eliminate miscalculations and shortcomings,
revealed during the war and especially the Battle of Tsushima. England was the first to achieve success. In October 1905, the battleship Dreadnought (this is how the former squadron battleships were reclassified) was laid down and completed sea trials exactly a year later. This name became a household name, denoting a new subclass of battleships that were superior to pre-dreadnought battleships in all respects.
The main caliber artillery of the battleship Dreadnought was located in five two-gun turrets; four turrets could simultaneously participate in a broadside salvo. Each compartment of the hull was separated by watertight bulkheads without doors; communication between the compartments was carried out through the upper deck using shafts: this ensured greater unsinkability; the ship had a fully armored side. For the first time, four steam turbines were installed.
With the advent of the Dreadnought, all previously built squadron battleships immediately became obsolete, and the world began intensive construction of a new type of battleship. By the end of the First World War, the development of ships of this class led to the creation of battleships even more powerful than the Dreadnought. They had 8-12 guns of 305-406 mm caliber, 102-152 mm anti-mine artillery, armor reinforced to 356 mm, and speed increased to 25-28 knots.
Serious changes have also occurred in the development of cruisers. The Tsushima experience showed that armored cruisers could be drawn into battle with battleships. But to successfully counter them, guns of the same caliber, albeit in fewer numbers, almost identical armor, but significantly greater speed were needed. These new requirements have been implemented in the classroom battlecruisers. They first appeared in England in 1907, and the last representative of this class of ships, the English battlecruiser Hood, was built in 1918. It had eight 381 mm guns, 305 mm armor in the thickest part, and a speed of about 32 knots. . Subsequently, the evolution of battlecruisers ceased, and they merged with battleships into one common class.

Submarines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Attempts to build underwater vessels for military purposes were made both in the 18th and throughout the 19th century. In 1864, an iron boat belonging to the Confederacy of slaveholding states, which sank into the water and left only a flat deck on the surface, sank a wooden Northern ship with a pole mine. In the same year, a large (450 tons) iron submarine with a pneumatic engine was built in France. compressed air and a torpedo tube. It had no practical combat value.
Subsequently, they tried to install a steam engine, an electric motor, and a gasoline engine on submarines, and to combine them in different combinations to ensure surface and underwater propulsion. In Russia, the construction of submarines began in 1902. The first British submarines entered service in 1904, but the design was unsuccessful and six of them sank. Germany began building submarines only in 1906.
A turning point in the history of submarine shipbuilding was 1908, when the Lamprey was created in Russia - the first submarine with diesel engine for surface travel. More high power and the efficiency of diesel engines made it possible to move on to the construction of boats with greater seaworthiness and autonomy, strong torpedo armament and deck artillery in case of surface combat. During the First World War, their types were finally determined in connection with the tasks being solved: small, medium and large (cruising) submarines were respectively intended for operations in coastal waters, the open sea, and long-distance ocean communications. Their displacement ranged from 200 to 2500 tons, the cruising range of the largest ones reached 4-5 thousand km. Submarines and minelayers were widely used.
Submarines demonstrated high efficiency during combat operations. One of them, German, sank three British armored cruisers on September 22, 1914. Another, on May 7, 1915, torpedoed the English transatlantic liner Lusitania, sailing from the USA to England. During the First World War, losses in warships from submarine torpedoes and mines laid by them in all theaters of war and in all fleets amounted to 105 ships, including 12 battleships and 23 cruisers. They became the main means of combat operations on sea communications. In 1914-1918. Germany alone, with the help of submarine forces, sank enemy commercial ships and ships of neutral countries with a total displacement of over 18.7 million tons.
The search for countermeasures led to the emergence of anti-submarine defense systems. Since 1915, decoy ships began to be used: ordinary steamships armed with carefully camouflaged guns. In the fight against submarines, destroyers and patrol vessels were used, first adapted, and then specially created submarine hunters - small ships with a displacement of 60-80 tons, which had one or two guns, depth charges and acoustic instruments for detecting a moving target in 15-15 minutes. 20 miles.

Bottom line.
In the XIX - early XX centuries. The role of science in the transformation of technology and production technology has sharply increased. Many industries were entirely formed on the basis of scientific discoveries and outstanding inventions. In turn, the progress of technical means, expressed in the development of mass production technology, the development of electrical engineering, the electrification of production and transport, the introduction of new types of communications, the invention of the internal combustion engine, automobile and aircraft construction, the fundamental renewal of many other industries and the development of new types of weapons, was the basis for the formation of industrial civilization. During the last third of the 18th - mid-19th centuries. it went through the stages of formation and rapid spread. Industrial society then entered a phase of stable development that lasted until the First World War. In other words, industrial civilization covers the era of the heyday of capitalism. With the end of the First World War, the decline of industrial civilization began. In the last quarter of the 20th century. marked the beginning of a transition period in the process of its transformation into a post-industrial civilization.

Climb industrial production, transport, communications, the growth of industrialization of the state - all this contributed to the successful development of natural sciences in Russia. During this period, a number of discoveries were made in natural science (the system of natural sciences) and technology.

From history, economics, sociology, i.e. The humanities required new approaches and understanding, explanations of the past and present.

During this period of time such names appeared in science as:

1). Zhukovsky Nikolai Egorovich (d. 1921) is the father of Russian aviation and aerodynamics. Based on his works, a wind tunnel was created at Moscow University and the Aerodynamic Institute was founded.

2). Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich (1m.1935) - Russian and Soviet self-taught scientist, researcher and school teacher. He was one of the pioneers of astronautics. Justified the conclusions of the jet propulsion equation. Came to the conclusion about the use of multi-stage rockets, the so-called. multistage rockets.

3). Vernadsky Vladimir Ivanovich (d. 1945) – academician, natural scientist. The creator of many scientific schools. One of the representatives of Russian cosmism; creator of the science of biogeochemistry. His interests included geology and crystallography, mineralogy and geochemistry, organizational activities in science and social activities, radiogeology and biology, biogeochemistry and philosophy. He was nicknamed the Lomonosov of the 20th century. He predicted the splitting of the Atom and the danger this splitting brings.

4). In 1904, academician Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (d. 1936) was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of physiology of digestion and higher nervous activity.

5). In 1908, biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (d. 1916) was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of physiology and medicine, for the discovery of phagocytosis and cellular digestion.

Research centers were opened and not only in the central regions of Russia: geographical, astronomical, anthropological, mineralogical, electromechanical, aeronautics, etc. Scientific congresses and conferences were held. Russian scientists regularly traveled abroad.

6) Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich (d.

1911) was the “patriarch” of all Russian historians, he is the author of the famous 5-volume “Course of Russian History”.

The works of that time by S.F. became famous. Platonova, N.A. Rozhkova, V.I. Semevsky, Yu.V. Gautier. New topics were developed on the history of the peasantry, Russian domestic and foreign policy, and social thought, the Decembrist movement; the problems of feudalism in Rus' were raised.

“Religious philosophers” became famous: Berdyaev Nikolai Aleksandrovich (representative of existentialism), Bulgakov Sergei Nikolaevich (deputy of the 2nd G.D., theologian, representative of Russian religious philosophy), Florensky Pavel Aleksandrovich (theologian, scientist, poet, religious philosopher).

Major works in the field of philology (a set of sciences in literary criticism and speech) were created by: Alexei Alexandrovich Shakhmatov, who conducted research on Russian chronicles and ancient Russian literature, laid the foundations of Russian literary language, editor of the academic dictionary “Dictionary of the Russian Language”, Baudouin de Courtenay Ivan Aleksandrovich, professor, linguist influenced the development of general linguistics (linguist), advocated the equality of Russian and Polish languages, was arrested by the tsarist authorities, advocated the cultural independence of Poland. Under his editorship in 1903-1914, supplemented editions of Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl’s dictionary were published.

Many publications appeared that promoted the achievements of Russian science among a wide circle of the population, for example, magazines: “Around the World”, “Scientific Review”, “Nature and People”, as well as popular books by N.A. Rubakina “Russia in numbers”, Ya.I. Perelman “Entertaining Physics”, A.A. Ignatiev "In the kingdom of ingenuity." The number of periodicals and magazines grew rapidly: 1900 - 125 titles, 1913 - 1130 titles.

The number of universities and gymnasiums grew, incl. and non-state, so-called “people's universities” and, as a consequence, the number of students increased and the general level of education of the population increased. Printing houses and libraries developed (up to 76 thousand). Was fast growth cultural, educational and educational societies throughout the empire (over 20 years they increased 8 times).

You can also find the information you are interested in in the scientific search engine Otvety.Online. Use the search form:

Development of military equipment. Important inventions of the 20th century