Many French words were borrowed in the Petrine and especially in the post-Petrine era. Thematically borrowed French vocabulary is diverse. This military vocabulary: vanguard, embrasure, arsenal, rearguard, ace, attack, battalion, dugout, gap, midshipman, deserter, landing, cavalry, cannonade, square, carriage, Maneuvers, march, marshal, miner, musket, musketeer, partisan, patrol, pistol, sapper, trench, trophy and etc.; vocabulary related to art: actor, role, ballet, bas-relief, benoir, variety show, vaudeville, genre, impressionism, entertainer, costume designer, motif, still life, nocturne, panel, plein air, pointe shoes, pedestal, play, music stand, novel, romance, piano, prompter, troubadour, repertoire, foyer, sketch and etc.; titles food, species food,catering establishments: aperitif, loaf, meringue, broth, dessert, jelly, cognac, cutlet, lemonade, marmalade, omelet, ice cream, puree, stew, salad, sausages, sauce, popsicle;cafe Restaurant; names associated with clothes:veil, wardrobe, jabot, jacket, vest, overalls, corsage, corset, suit, coat, pleated, clogs, tulle, overcoat; titles household items: can, glass, sconce, blinds, chandelier, travel bag, stool, floor lamp, dressing table, bottle, wardrobe etc.; vocabulary socio-political,social character, words reflecting social assessment: attache, beau monde, bureaucrat, bureaucracy, debate, demarche, communiqué, dude, regime, sabotage, fop etc. There are many cripples in the Russian language from French words, meanings, and set expressions: derivational: Cinderella(from French cendrillon), exquisite(from French recherché), concentrate(from French concentrer); semantic: brilliant(from French brilliant), get drunk -"enjoy" (from French s"enivrer), alive -"genuine" (from French vif), taste– not about food (from French le goût), thin -"sophisticated" (from French fin), position –"situation" (from French la position), touching –"exciting" (from the French touchant); phraseological: put your hand on your heart(from French mettre la main sur son coeur), after us there might be a flood(from fp. apres nous le déluge), swallow tongue(from French avaler sa langue), look with all eyes(With fr. regarder de tous ses yeux), etc. Signs of French borrowings: final percussion -é (uh 2 ), -ú , -ó in unchangeable words: cliche, coupe, tour, fillet, highway. blinds, pari, chassis;argot, bureau, burgundy, lotto, panel, scoreboard; final percussion -er :actor, engraver, director, driver; final -as much /-yazh :turn, garage, massage, mirage, sabotage, circulation, fuselage final -ans: advance, nuance, preference, romance, session, combinations -wa- , -ue- in the middle of a word: role, benoir, bourgeoisie, veil, gouache, sidelines, pointe shoes, reservoir, repertoire, toilet;duel, minuet, pirouette, silhouette, fouette etc.

See also:

« Russian language And culture speeches" edited by Professor V.I. Maksimov. Recommended by the Ministry. PREFACE. Chapter I. Speech in interpersonal and social relationships.

Russian language And culture speeches. Speech and mutual understanding. On the process of mutual understanding in speech communication, certain features of use have a significant impact language V speeches.

Russian language And culture speeches. Culture speech communication. Under culture speech communication is understood as such selection and organization linguistic means, which contribute to the most effective achievement of goals in this area speech...

Russian language And culture speeches. Three main types of interaction between dialogue participants in Russian language So, dialogical unity is ensured by the connection of various kinds of replicas (formulas speech etiquette, question - answer, addition, narration...

Russian language And culture speeches. Structure speech communications. Being an act of communication, speech always addressed to someone.

Russian language And culture speeches. Establishing (maintaining) business contacts. Communicative attitude, determining the social and role status of communication participants, establishing social speech contact.

Russian language And culture speeches. Speech, its features.K speeches also include products of speaking in the form speech a work (text) recorded in memory or writing.

A significant place in the textbook is occupied by material related to culture speech communication and with the preparation of official documentation. The tutorial is aimed at presentation modern views concerning Russian language And culture speeches at the beginning of the 21st century...

Borrowed words ( French:les emprunts) are widespread in vocabulary any language. This unconscious process is one of the ways to enrich the vocabulary, along with word formation and the semantic evolution of words.

Borrowings in the French language began to appear only after French began to resemble Latin less and less, acquiring the basic features of the Romance language. Therefore, you should not consider Celtic words as borrowings (for example: barque- Russian: boat, chemin– Russian: road, path, grève– Russian: strike) and Germanic origin (for example: fauteui l – Russian: chair, gare- Russian: station, jardin– Russian: garden), which came into the vocabulary during the era of the formation of the independent French language. It would be more accurate to call only those words borrowed that come from languages ​​that are fundamentally different from French.

Thus, borrowing is an element of a foreign language transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the very process of transferring elements of one language to another. Moreover, not only whole words are borrowed, but also their meanings, as well as morphological and syntactic elements. So, French verb realizer(Russian: implement) acquired the additional meaning of “understand, realize”, characteristic of English verb to realize. Noun cré nature(Russian: creature) borrowed the meaning of “protégé, favorite” Italian word protege. And suffixes - esque And – issime moved to French through some nouns borrowed from Italian. Also, thanks to borrowings from Latin, the suffix became entrenched in French word formation – isme.

One type of borrowing is tracing paper, or tracing paper. This is a transfer of not only the meaning, but also the internal form of a word or phrase in a foreign language. Yes, noun surhomme(Russian: superman) comes from German Û bermensch. Expression bas- bleu(Russian: blue stocking) goes back to English blue- stocking, A gratte- ciel(Russian: skyscraper) to American English sky- scraper.

The study of borrowings indicates the connection of a language with the history of the people speaking it. Modern French has a large number of words borrowed from foreign languages V different eras. Borrowing is caused by historical conditions, the nature of the relationship between the French people and other nations. As a rule, a rich source of borrowings is the language of a people who have unshakable authority on the world stage and influence the economic and cultural development of the planet. However, this alone is not enough. In general, borrowings are more often made from languages ​​of the same family, and especially branches.

The origin of borrowings is sometimes very difficult to trace. Depending on whether a word came directly from one language, or whether this language initially adopted it from another language, direct and indirect borrowings are distinguished. In French, indirect borrowings are often represented by exotic concepts that are not characteristic of French culture. Yes, noun pirogue(Russian: piroga) came from the Caribbean language, which borrowed it from Spanish ( piragua). And the Haitian word barbecue(Russian: barbecue) became part of French from English, which adopted it from Spanish ( barbacoa).

There are also words that, having been borrowed from French by other languages, have returned to French usage, but have changed quite a bit. Yes, noun bacon(bacon) borrowed from English, goes back to Old French bacon(Russian: “salted pork”). In modern French the word has been adopted English pronunciation. Verb corner(Russian: blow a horn), also borrowed from English, comes from Old French cornier(Russian: rog).

Let's take a closer look at some sources of borrowings in the French language. Separate place among them belongs to the Romance languages, especially Italian. Its influence can be clearly seen in the 16th century.

Many military terms were borrowed during the war with Italy (1494-1497), for example: attaquer< attaccare ( Russian: attack, advance), bastion< bastione ( Russian: bastion, fortress) , parapet< parapetto( Russian: parapet), soldat< soldato ( Russian: soldier, warrior).

There are also numerous borrowings of words from the everyday sphere: apartment< appartamento (Russian: apartment), strapontin< strapuntino (Russian: folding seat), carrosse< carrozza(Russian carriage), parasol< parasole (Russian: sun umbrella), botte< botta(Russian: blow).

The influence of Italian art was also reflected in the French vocabulary: musical terms were borrowed: sé ré nade < serenata(Russian: serenade) , ariette < arietta(Russian: arietta) ; architectural terms: faç ade < faciata(Russian: façade, front side building) , balcony < balcony(Russian: balcony) , belvé dè re < belvé dè re(Russian: belvedere) ; and terms visual arts: pastel < pastello(Russian: pastel) , aquarelle < ac- quarella(Russian: watercolor) .

During the 18th-19th centuries, the French language passed significant amount English words. This is explained by the increased interest in the parliamentary regime that established in England after the revolution of 1649, as well as the influence of English philosophy and literature.

Thus, English enriched the French language with political terms: comité < committee(Russian: committee) , ordre du jour < order ofthe day(Russian: agenda) . Newer borrowings are: boycotter < to boycott(Russian: boycott) , interview(Russian: interview) , meeting(Russian: meeting, rally) .

In the 19th century, as a result of industrial growth in England and the development of trade relations between the two countries, the following words of English origin became part of French: rail(Russian: rail) , tender(Russian: tender) , cargo(Russian: cargo ship) , pipe- line(Russian: pipeline). The increased interest in everything connected with England has turned into real Anglomania. This was the reason for the appearance large number borrowings related to the sphere Everyday life: bifteck < beefsteak(Russian: steak, beefsteak) , rosbif < roastbeef(Russian: roast beef) , pos­ ter (une lettre) < to post(Russian: send) , cottage(Russian: cottage) , squa­ re(Russian: square) , pull- over(Russian: sweater) , shopping(Russian: purchases, shopping) .

German also made a significant contribution to the French language. Its influence increased in the 17th century, and was especially felt during the Thirty Years' War in Europe (1618-1648).

From German language military terms were borrowed: saber < Sabel(Russian: saber), reî tre < Reiter(Russian: cavalryman) , blockhouse < Blockhouse(Russian: log house) ; musical and dance terms: harmonica < Harmonica(Russian: harmonica) , accordé on < Akkordion(Russian: accordion) , valse < Walzer(Russian: waltz) . Words related to various areas Everyday life: rosse < Ross(Russian: zlyuka), blafard < Bleichvar(Russian: pale, dull) , chena­ pan < Schnaphahn(Russian: scoundrel) , loustic < lustig(Russian: cheerful) .

From the languages ​​of the countries of the East, the French language borrowed terms that appeared thanks to the achievements of these peoples. From Arabic Medical terms were adopted: alco­ ol < al- kohl(Russian: alcohol) , sirop < charâ b(Russian: syrup) ; mathematical: algè bre < ald- jabr(Russian: algebra) , zé ro < sifr(Russian: zero) ; astronomical: zé nothing < samt(Russian: zenit) , azimut < as- samt(Russian: azimuth) ; as well as chemical ones: alchimie < al- kî miyâ (Russian: alchemy) , alcali < al- qâ ly(Russian: alkali) . Words reflecting life and traditions were also borrowed Arab countries, namely: é mir< amî r(Russian: emir) , caï d< qâ id(Russian: leader), harem < haram(Russian: harem) , calife < khalifa(Russian: caliph, caliph) .

The appearance of the first borrowings from the Russian language occurred in the 18th century. These words entered French through Russian literature and denoted phenomena reflecting Russian realities: moujik <- мужик , rouble < рубль , samovar < самовар, té lé ga < телега , touloupe < тулуп , toundra < тундра, vodka < водка. A large number of words came into the French language after the October Revolution (1917): sovkhoze < совхоз , komsomol < комсомол , bolchevik < большевик, spoutnik < спутник. At the same time, French suffixes were added to Russian words: kolkho­ zien <колхозник , stakhanaviste < стахановец.

However, one of the most common ways of borrowing from Russian is tracing: autocritique < самокритика , plan quinquennal < пятилетка , journal mural, maison de repos < дом престарелых , jardin d" enfants < детский сад , sans- parti, minimum technique < технический минимум.

Bibliography:

1. Lopatnikova N.N., Lexicology of the modern French language (in French). – 5th ed., rev. and additional – M.: Higher School, 2006. – 335 p.

2. Tarkhova V.A. Reader on the lexicology of the French language (in French). – M.: Education, 1972. – 240 p.

3. Chekalina E.M., Ushakova T.M. Lexicology of the French language. Tutorial. – St. Petersburg Publishing House. un-ta. 1998. – 236 p.

4. Yartseva V. N. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. – 685 p.

Taken vocabulary in the Russian language

Words of non-original origin are called taken. Borrowings arise both as a result of specific territorial contacts and as a result of the exchange of cultural information, when, together with new objects and concepts, native speakers receive words denoting them. Borrowings are used not only to name new realities, but also to rename old ones.

The following borrowings in the Russian language are highlighted:

from Slavic languages, namely, from the Old Church Slavonic language (see carefully: What are the signs of Old Church Slavonicisms?);

from non-Slavic languages ​​(Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, Turkic, Germanic, French, English and other borrowings).

Note. This answer is devoted to borrowings from non-Slavic languages. There is detailed information about borrowings from Slavic languages ​​in the answer “What is the composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language?”

It is possible to distinguish the taken words from eternal Russian words by a number of characteristics.

A. Phonetic features:

1. Presence of the initial letter “a”: lampshade, April, red, army, pharmacy. Russian words with the original “a”, in which case we do not count words formed on the basis of borrowings, are found occasionally. Basically, these are interjections, onomatopoeias and words formed on their basis: yeah, ah, ah, ah, gasp, ah, echo etc.

2. The presence of the letter “e” in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton. In eternal Russian words, the letter “e” is found in words of interjection and pronominal character - hey, eh, this one, because, also in words formed in the Russian language on the basis of borrowings ( some, Ensky, Socialist Revolutionary).

3. The presence of the letter “f” in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February. The exceptions are interjections, onomatopoeia - ugh, ugh, fi, also a word owl.

4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. The presence of combinations of consonants “kd”, “kz”, “gb”, “kg” in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations “ge”, “ke”, “he” in the root: legend, sneakers, trachea. In Russian words, such combinations usually occur at the junction of the base and ending: on the road, to my daughter-in-law, in the sand.

7. Availability of combination "bu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath. In ancient Russian words, double consonants are found only at the junction of morphemes.

9. Pronunciation of a hard consonant sound before the vowel [e] (letter “e”): model[de], test [te].

10. The original “e” mainly distinguishes Greek and Latinisms: era, epoch, ethics, exam, reprisal, effect, floor.

B. Morphological characteristics:

1. Indeclinability of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.

2. Morphological lack of expression of number and gender of nouns: coat, taxi.

B. Word-formation features:

1. Foreign language prefixes: inter shaft, de duction, in individualism, re gress, archi mandrit, counter admiral, anti Christ.

2. Foreign language suffixes: dean at, stud ent, technician intelligence, editor torus, literary ur ah, proletarians at, popul change, social ist, controversy edit etc.

3. The presence of certain class roots aqua-, marine-, geo-, graphic- etc.: aquarium, marine painter, surveyor.

In addition to “international” signs, there are also signs that help to find which specific language the word was taken from.

1. TO Greek borrowings ( Greekisms) include, for example:

words from the field of religion: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, metropolitan, choir, lamp, icon, archpriest, sexton;

scientific definitions: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar;

everyday definitions: tub, bathhouse, lantern, bed, notebook,certificate, sail, ribbon;

names of plants and animals: cypress, cedar, beetroot, crocodile;

proper names: Georgy, Elena, Sophia;

definitions from art and science: trochee, anapest, comedy, mantle, verse, thought, logic, physics, analogy.

Features of borrowings from this group:

sound f (philosophy, lantern);

original uh (ethics, epigraph);

combinations ps, ks (vocabulary, x);

roots auto-, -logos, photo-, aero-, anthropo-, philo- and etc.;

consoles a-, anti-, pan- and etc.

2. Borrowings from Latin language(Latinisms):

words related to learning: school, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, student, audience, doctor, class;

political and philosophical definitions: evolution,dictatorship, constitution, company, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition;

scientific concepts: tangent, sine, herbarium, radius, proportion,meridian, maximum, minimum;

words related to art: literature, arena, octave, circus;

names of months: January, July, August;

names of administrative character: republic, chancellery, deputy;

proper names: Julia, Marina, Victor, Roman.

3. In the middle Turkic borrowings ( Turkisms) most words from the Mongolian language, which is explained by historical criteria (long-term Tatar-Mongol yoke):

words from military, commercial and everyday speech: caravan, holster, mound, quiver, astrakhan fur, flail, treasury, money, altyn, market, rug, raisins, watermelon, basin, iron, hearth, epancha, pants, sash, sheepskin coat, arshin, grocery, noodles, stocking, boot, chest, robe, fog, disorder, feather grass, jerboa, pearls, idol, palace, beads;

Almost all names of breeds and colors of horses: argamak(a breed of tall Turkmen horses), roan, dun, bay, karak, brown, brown.

A sign of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony ( synharmonism) - the natural use in one word of vowels of only the 1st row: back [a], [y] or frontal [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, boot, lasso, chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

4. Scandinavian The number of borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian) in the Russian language is comparatively small. Words of trade vocabulary, maritime definitions, everyday words, also penetrated:

proper names Igor, Oleg, Rurik;

individual words of the class herring, chest, pood, hook, anchor, sneak, pleat, whip, mast;

names of natural phenomena: blizzard;

geographical names: Volga.

5. TO Germanic borrowings ( Germanisms) relate:

military definitions: attack, uniform, officer, corporal, camp, headquarters;

names of household items, clothing: decanter, mattress, hat, tie, boots;

trade definitions: accountant, price list;

names of plants, animals: spinach, onions, potatoes,poodle;

vocabulary from the field of art: easel, dance,bandmaster;

names of tools: jigsaw, jack,workbench, chisel, jointer.

Features of Germanisms:

combinations th, pc, xt, sp, ft: mail, fine, watch, sprats, landscape;

original ts: workshop, zinc;

compound words without a connecting vowel: sandwich, leitmotif, grandmaster.

6. Dutch are some nautical definitions taken in the era of Peter I: buer, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet,cruiser and etc.

7. From British language ( Anglicisms) included, for example:

some maritime definitions: midshipman, bot, brig, schooner, ship;

words related to the development of public life, technology, sports, etc.: boycott, favorite, rally; tunnel, trolleybus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish line; steak, cake, pudding;

English words spread separately (often in the American version) in the 90s of the 20th century. in connection with economic, social and political transformations in Russian society. Borrowings from the end of the 20th century. affected various spheres of life:

technical ( computer, screen, file, byte),
sports ( bobsleigh, overtime, fighter),
monetary and commercial ( barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing),
arts ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller),

Phonetic features of Anglicisms:

combinations tch, j: match, jazz;

combinations va, ve, ve: Whatman paper, whiskey, corduroy;

final -ing, -men, -er: briefing, businessman, timer.

8. TO French borrowings ( Gallicisms) relate:

terminology of socio-political character: bourgeois, regime, parliament;

words from the field of art: conductor, poster,actor, play, director,ballet;

military vocabulary: artillery, battalion, garrison, cannonade, gun;

names of food products, clothing, jewelry, furnishings: jelly, blouse, bracelet, sconce, boudoir, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights, broth, marmalade, cutlet, toilet.

Phonetic features of Gallicisms:

stress on the last syllable: marmalade, pavilion;

final -o, -i, -e in unchangeable words: puree, manto;

combination wow: veil, exploitation;

combinations byu, ryu, vu, nu, fu:dressing table, music stand, engraving;

combinations he, an, en, am: control, intermission;

final -er, -azh, -ans, -ant: landscape, director, renaissance, debutant.

9. From Italian borrowings are highlighted:

musical terminology: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, series, slapstick, sonata, carnival, cavatina;

some everyday words: vermicelli, pasta(came through French), gondola;

vocabulary of monetary relations: credit, debit, currency.

10. A small number of words came from Spanish language (vocabulary related to art): serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato and etc.

11. Few borrowings are from Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm and other languages.

Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and in dictionaries of foreign words.

Additionally:

Appendix "Loanwords in the Russian language" on the website wiktionary.org (lists for each language)

Sources:

Section “Phonetic and morphological features of taken words” in the manual by Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. "Modern Russian language"

Section “Characteristics of taken words” in the manual “Philology and Linguistics. Basics of the science of language" on the website lingvotech.com

Section “Borrowed vocabulary” in the manual by Litnevskaya E.I. “Russian language: a concise theoretical course for schoolchildren”

Additionally on the site:

What is the composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language?

What are the ways to replenish Russian vocabulary?

What is the origin of Russian vocabulary?

What words of Russian vocabulary are common Slavic?

What words of Russian vocabulary refer to Indo-Europeanisms?

What vocabulary of the Russian language is taken?

What vocabulary of the Russian language is eternally Russian?

What layers of Russian vocabulary are eternally Russian?

What words of Russian vocabulary are actually Russian?

What words of Russian vocabulary are of Old Russian origin?

What words in Russian vocabulary are of East Slavic origin?

English words of native origin are mostly composed of ancient elements - Indo-European, Germanic and West Germanic. The basic composition of Old English words is preserved, although many have fallen out of use. When we talk about the role of native elements in the English lexicon, linguists usually refer to a small part of Anglo-Saxon words, which make up 25-30% of the total vocabulary.

Almost all words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to very important semantic groups. They include auxiliary and modal verbs ( shall, will, should, would, must, can, may, etc.), pronouns ( I, you, he, my, your, his, who, whose, etc.), prepositions (in, out, on, under, etc.), numerals ( one, two, three, four, etc.), unions ( and, but, till, as, etc.). Notable parts of speech of Anglo-Saxon origin refer to parts of the body ( head, hand, arm, back, etc.), family members and immediate relatives ( father, mother, brother, son, wife), natural and planetary phenomena ( snow, rain, wind, frost, sun, moon, star, etc.), animals ( horse, cow, sheep, cat), qualities and properties ( old, young, cold, hot, heavy, light, dark, white, long), ordinary actions ( do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat, etc.), etc.

Most of the original words have undergone significant changes in semantic structure, and as a result they are now highly polysemic, for example, the word finger not only means part of the hand, as in Old English, but also 1) part of a glove for one finger, 2) a finger as part of a mechanism, 3) a clock hand, 4) an index, 5) a unit of measurement. The words man, head, hand, go, etc. are highly polysemic. Most native words are stylistically neutral.

Due to their semantic characteristics and high stability, most native words have lexical and grammatical valency (combinability). Many are part of phraseological units: heel of Achilles– Achilles heel (weak point), heel over head/ head over heels - upside down, cool one’ s heels- wait, show a clean pair of heels - show heels, turn on one’ s heels- turn around sharply, etc.

Word-formation ability of native words in English

The high stability and semantic features of Anglo-Saxon words explain their word-forming ability. Most of the original words have large clusters of derivatives and compounds in the modern language, e.g. wood was the source for the formation of words: wooden, woody, wooded, woodcraft, woodcutter, woodwork. The formation of new words is made easier by the fact that most Anglo-Saxon words are root words.

New words were formed from Anglo-Saxon roots by affixation, compounding and conversion. Such affixes of original origin as - er, - ness, - ish, - ed, un-, mis- have been widely used throughout the history of the English language to create new words, although many have changed their meaning or become polysemic. For example, agent suffix – er, which in Old English was added mainly to the noun stem, is now added to the verb stem, in addition, it forms the names of tools, people with a certain position or performing some action at the moment.

Some native words were used as components of compounds so often that over time they acquired the status of derivational affixes (-dom, -hood, -ly, over-, out-, under-), others became semi-affixal morphemes.

The semantic characteristics, stability and wide compatibility of native words explain their wide distribution and frequency of use in speech. However, there are words that have fallen out of use (archaisms and historicisms, poetisms). Some words are monosemic, some have limited word-forming ability.

2. During the New Time period, there was an active process of borrowing vocabulary from the leading languages ​​of that time - from French, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese.

The New English language, that is, the same English that is spoken today, initially remained approximately within the same limits to which the spread of Middle English was limited. But already in the 16th century, the systematic colonization of Ireland began, which led to the introduction of the English language into this country. At the very beginning of the 17th century, English settlements appeared in North America, and during the 18th-19th centuries, the English language spread to most of this continent. In the 18th-19th centuries, the English language penetrated, along with English colonization, into other countries within its sphere of distribution. In Great Britain itself, its territory also continued to expand during the New English period - at the expense of Celtic languages, and the number of English speakers there increased approximately 10-fold during this period.

So, the formation of a national English language is basically complete. This happened in the so-called Early New English period - approximately until the middle of the 17th century. During this time, the national English language, in general, acquired its modern character. The vocabulary was enriched by a huge number of words borrowed not only from classical languages, such as Latin or Greek, which reflected, as if in a mirror, the development of scientific thought during the Renaissance, not only from the Latinized French of old times, but also from numerous modern languages ​​- European and exotic.

Borrowings from French.

During the New English period, the relationship between England and France did not stop and contributed to the appearance of a number of French words in the English language. The largest number of new French borrowings entered the English language in the second half of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century. At this time, England was experiencing tremendous upheavals - the bourgeois revolution, the overthrow of the Stuart royal dynasty, and then its restoration. The English aristocrats, who were in exile in France with their king Charles II, adopted much of the French culture of that time, and therefore, after the Restoration in England, which occurred in 1661, a lot of French began to be introduced into British life. Naturally, France has left many very significant traces in the English vocabulary. First of all, these are the realities of salon culture, for example, ball - ball, ballet - ballet, beau - dandy, billet-doux - love note, bizarre - pretentious, cajole - flatter, caprice - whim, caress - caress, chargin - chagrin, coquette - coquette. Along with this, there are also words of a more general nature, for example, grotesque - grotesque, gazette - newspaper, miniature - miniature, naive - naive, raillery - ridicule, reprimand - reprimand, ridicule - ridicule. A large group of borrowings of this time are military terms, for example, pilot - pilot, sally - sortie, brigantine - brigantine, rendez-vous (don’t be surprised, at first this word was a military term meaning the gathering of troops at a designated place), partisan - supporter, partisan, cache - secret warehouse of weapons, provisions, corsar - pirate, volley - volley, machine - machine, mechanism.

Later, in the 17th century, the active introduction of military as well as commercial terms into the vocabulary of the English language continued. An example would be words such as dragoon - dragoon, stockade - fortification, fort, parole - password, double-entendre - ambiguity, cortege - motorcade, demarche - demarche, rapport - report. And here is the business terminology of that time: contretemps - an unforeseen complication, par excellence - predominantly, metier - occupation, profession, craft, muslin - muslin (fabric) and champagne - champagne.

The 18th century also enriched the English language with French words - terms of war, diplomacy and revolution (the Great French Revolution happened at this time), for example, emigre - political emigrant, guillotine - guillotine, regime - regime, corps - corps, branch of the military, manoevre - maneuver, sortie - sortie, espionage - espionage, tricolor - tricolor flag, depot - storage, fusillade - execution, salon - reception, bureau - bureau, canteen - dining room, critique - criticism, nuance - nuance, cul-de-sac - dead end, belles-lettres - journalism, brochure - brochure, etiquette - etiquette, police - police and many more words.

The 19th century is perhaps the most significant in the New England period of development of the English language, since it brought a truly huge number of borrowings that can be divided into several semantic groups:

Military terms: barrage - barrier, communique - official message, chassis - chassis;

Furnishings: portiere - curtain, chiffonier - wardrobe, reticule - mesh, parquet - parquet, bric-a-brac - trinkets;

Art and literature: resume - summary, litterateur - literature, cliche - cliche, rococo - rococo style, Renaissance - Renaissance, matinee - matinee performance or concert, motif - motive, macabre - gloomy, terrible, premiere - premiere;

Clothing and accessories: rosette - rosette, fichu - lace scarf, lornette - lorgnette, crepe - crepe (fabric), negligee - house dress, beret - beret, suede - suede, cretonne - cretonne (fabric);

Food and food industry: restaurant - restaurant, menu - menu, chef - chef, saute - sauté, souffle, mousse - mousse, fondant - fondant;

Social terms: chauffeur - driver, roue - rake, libertine, habitue - regular, elite - elite, high society, debutante - debutant, fiancee - bride, chic - chic, risque - risk;

Diplomatic terms: attache - attache, clientele - clientele, prestige - prestige, impasse - hopeless situation.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, all borrowings were predominantly bookish in nature. However, in the period immediately following the end of World War II, the English language also borrowed colloquial French words as a result of live communication between the army and the French people. Examples of borrowings from this period include the following words: garage - garage, revue - review, revue, fuselage - fuselage, camouflage - camouflage, camouflage, hangar - hangar, limousine - limousine.

Borrowings from the French language continue to replenish the vocabulary today. The influence of French words on the vocabulary of the English language has been especially lively and interesting recently, at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st. French borrowings appear in many areas of life: in politics and social life, in sports and recreation. They saturate the English language with colors, making it special and alive. Here are a few of the latest borrowings from French: cinemateque - cinematheque, discoteque - disco, anti-roman - anti-novel, petit dejeuner - light breakfast.

French borrowings of the New England period are distinguished by some characteristic features.

Borrowed words retain the original French stress on the last syllable (for example, gri'mace);

Vowels retain their French pronunciation (for example, in naive, fatigue, police);

Some letter combinations have retained the original French reading, for example: -eau in chateau, beau is read as ; ch- in chargine, chemise is read as ; -et in ballet, bouquet is read as ; -s in corps, pas, apropos is not readable; -que in grotesque is read as [k]; -age in corsage, mirage is read as (in earlier borrowings - as).

These orthographic specific features indicate that the words in question have not yet had time to assimilate into the English language.

The vocabulary of our language includes not only native Russian words. There are also borrowed ones among them. What are the origins of this phenomenon?

Reasons for borrowing

The life of any people is certainly connected with other countries and states. This usually occurs through economic, cultural and trade relations. The vocabularies of peoples also experience mutual influence during contact. And this is not surprising, because language is the main means of communication. As a result of this influence, foreign words necessarily appear in the dictionary of a particular people.

Borrowing history

Since the eighth century, various foreign words began to enter the Russian language. This phenomenon became one of the ways to develop his vocabulary. There is nothing surprising about this. The fact is that the vocabulary of any people at all times has been sensitive to the changing needs of society. Borrowed words in the Russian language appeared in the process of developing relations between countries. They came to us due to the fact that the corresponding concepts were absent in the vocabulary of our people.

The nature and volume of borrowing can indicate the historical paths of scientific, cultural and economic ties, as well as geographical discoveries. The result of all these processes was the penetration into Russian phraseology and the vocabulary of other languages.

Main stages

In history, one can observe certain periods that differ from each other in their preferential borrowing. So, in the most ancient period, many words came to us from Latin and Germanic languages. The next stage is associated with the colonization of North-Eastern and Northern Rus' by the Slavs. During this period, numerous borrowed words in the Russian language appeared from the Finno-Ugric vocabulary. At the next historical stage, Christianity began to emerge.

This was a period when borrowings appeared in the Russian language from Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Some changes affected the vocabulary in the 16th-18th centuries. This period is characterized by borrowings from the Polish language. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bulk of foreign words entered our dictionary thanks to connections with the French and German peoples. The next period concerned English words. They began to enrich our vocabulary in large quantities in the 20-21st centuries.

Linguistic signs of borrowings

What can we say about the foreign origin of the word? The main features of borrowing are:

1. The sound "a" at the beginning of a word. This construction contradicts our phonetic laws. Those starting with the letter "a" are borrowed words in the Russian language. Examples of words of this type are numerous. These are “abbot” and “aria”, “lampshade” and “anathema”, “arba” and “paragraph”, “angel” and “questionnaire”.
2. The sound "e" at the beginning of a word. This is how Latinisms and Greekisms usually begin. For example, “era” and “epoch”, “exam” and “ethics”, “effect” and “floor”.
3. The "f" sound in a word. The fact is that the Eastern Slavs did not have such a sound in their language. It appeared only to denote letters in borrowed words. These are “fact” and “forum”, “sofa” and “scam”, “broadcast” and “form”, “profile” and “film”.
4. Using a combination of two or more vowels in words. According to the laws of our phonetics, such a construction was simply unacceptable. This is why it is so easy to find borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words: "punctuation" and "radio", "theater" and "out", "poet" and "veil", "cocoa" and "halo".
5. A harmonious combination of identical vowel sounds. This feature is characteristic of the Turkic language. These are words such as “pencil” and “shoe”, “sarafan” and “caravan”, “drum” and “ataman”.

A morphological feature of foreign words in some cases is their immutability. These are nouns that sound the same in any case and do not have a specific singular or plural form. Examples of such words are the following: “taxi” and “coat”, “coffee” and “maxi”, “beige” and “mini”.

History of borrowing French words

A significant part of the foreign words that are included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are Gallicisms. The term comes from the Latin "Gallic". It means expressions and words that were borrowed from the French people and constructed according to the phonetic laws of their language.

Gallicism became especially pronounced in the 18th century. It was during this period that French words confidently entered Russian speech. They were literally imbued with the spirit of this European country. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from French are “visiter” and “charm”, “compliment” and “favorite”, “curtsey” and “cavalier”, “guverner” and “cocotte”.

Gallicisms have penetrated into all spheres of human activity and life. This especially affected wardrobe items. This is evidenced by such words borrowed from the French language as “costume jewelry” and “accessory”, “jabot” and “veil”, “peignoir” and “manteau”. A lot of Gallicisms have appeared in the culinary field. The Russian dictionary has been replenished with such words as “mayonnaise” and “meringue”, “mashed potatoes” and “delicacy”.

Many Gallicisms are associated with the sphere of art. These are “accordion” and “overture”, “debut” and “poster”, “applause” and “palette”, “vaudeville” and “ensemble”.

The infusion of Gallicisms into the Russian language did not stop in the 19th and 20th centuries. Foreign words in this era were usually associated with economics, social life and politics. The following examples can be given: “diplomat” and “bureaucracy”, “democrat” and “capitalism”, “shareholder” and “press”, “budget” and “bourgeoisie”. Words such as “run” and “authoritarian” are also borrowed from French. Gallicisms include “exaggerate” and “importer”.

French loanwords in the Russian language are an example of how a foreign culture becomes an example to follow. A particularly strong influence of Gallicisms on Russian vocabulary was observed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the next two centuries, borrowed words began to be considered more prestigious and beautiful. For example, "boutique". In France this is a small shop. In Russia, this word took on a completely different meaning. Boutiques began to be called expensive stores offering customers fashionable clothes.

Phraseologisms borrowed from French

Gallicisms include not only words. Many phraseological units and catchphrases have passed from French into Russian. At one time they were uttered by political or historical figures - kings and politicians, generals, etc.

One of these expressions belongs to Louis VIII. He said: "Precision is the courtesy of kings." The era of religious wars in France gave us such a phrase as “a state within a state.” It concerned rich youth from the bourgeois-noble classes, wasting their lives. And the “old guard” was the name given to selected units of Napoleonic troops. They included the best soldiers and officers. Everyone knows the expression “Balzac age.” It belongs to the group of literary borrowings.

It is interesting that such a common expression among us as “out of place” is also a Gallicism. Literally it means “to be in an unenviable position.”

The history of the appearance of German words in Russian

The process of penetration of Germanic vocabulary began in the 13th century. It intensified significantly three centuries later. However, borrowed words in Russian from German began to appear most often in the 17th and 18th centuries. Their penetration occurred not only through written means, but also through oral means. The list of German loanwords in Russian is quite impressive. It concerns the following sections of vocabulary:

Military - “assault” and “parade ground”, “carriage”, “corporal” and “bayonet”, “grenade” and “soldier”;

Production - “chisel” and “workbench”, “washer” and “shaft”, “matrix” and “slate”, “template” and “format”;

Merchant - “accountant” and “freight”, “bill” and “cashier”;

Medical - “paramedic” and “bandage”, “plaster” and “cotton wool”, “syringe” and “resort”;

Socio-political - “dictation” and “falsification”, “aggressor” and “priority”, “slogan” and “discrimination”;

Chess art - "grandmaster" and "endgame";

Household - “sandwich” and “pretzel”, “dumplings” and “pate”, “apron” and “rutabaga”, “hairdresser” and “corkscrew”;

Arts - “landscape” and “easel”, “tour” and “dance”, “flute” and “choreographer”.

The main grammatical and phonetic features of borrowed German words are combinations of sounds “ey”, “ay”, as well as the initial “shp”, “sht” (“spy”, “stamp”). In addition, they are given out by an addition that does not have connecting vowels (“mouthpiece”, “sideburns”).

The history of the appearance of Anglicisms

Borrowings from Foggy Albion entered our language much later than French and German words. This process began in the 16th century. This period was characterized by successful trade between countries. Borrowed words in Russian from English appeared along with new concepts and goods, as well as scientific works.

The next active period of penetration of Anglicisms into our language began in the times of Peter the Great. During this period, borrowings that came to us from the British Isles concerned trade, everyday relations, as well as scientific activities.

In imperial Russia, the prestige of the English language was kept at a high level thanks to the significant role of Great Britain on the world stage. The following stages of borrowing date back to the 20s of the twentieth century. This was the period of formation of the independent Russian state.

Examples of Anglicisms

Borrowed words in the Russian language, which came to us from Britain, began to especially replenish our vocabulary after 1925. These are “stand” and “combine”, “tanker” and “container”, “TV” and “trolleybus”, etc.

Strengthening interaction with Western European countries at the end of the 20th century. led to the appearance of numerous borrowed words in Russian from English during this period. Examples are found in all areas of activity. There is nothing surprising in this, because English is the language of the global Internet, the largest radio and television companies, as well as many magazines and newspapers.

Borrowed words in Russian from English, examples from the following areas:

Socio-political - “businessman”, “management”, “dealer”;

Computer technology - "laptop", "hacker", "monitor".

Currently, there is a large list of wardrobe items, the names of which came to us from abroad. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from English are “grinders” and “body”, “cardigan” and “top”. You can also find “foreigners” in the cultural sphere - “promotion”, “remix”, “show business”, etc.

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