Abstract: work on the topic “Grammatical transformations in translation. Grammatical transformation in translation

Lecture 3. ORAL AND WRITTEN TRANSLATION.

1. Translation is fundamentally connected with speech-mental activity, which depends very little on the conditions of execution and purpose of the translation: whether it is carried out in writing or orally, for official use or for further publication, whether it is a literary translation or a scientific-technical translation, etc. Unity subject of research and makes translation theory a science. But at the same time, in the light of particular theories of translation, the practical implementation of each individual translation is determined by one or another specificity. To systematize accumulated knowledge and develop the necessary standards, there is a need to differentiate and classify various types of translation activities and their results - translations.

There are only two forms of translation activity, which are determined by the form of the result of this activity: oral and written translations. The result of oral translation is a difficult-to-fix speech work that is used without any editorial processing. In modern conditions, such a translation can still be recorded using sound recording technology. The customer and consumer of such a translation needs a recording for subsequent analysis of errors and successfully or unsuccessfully resolved translation problems. In some special cases, a phonogram can serve as a rough translation, from which a fixed translation can then be obtained. A special case of oral translation is the oral translation of a written text for special purposes or circumstances of the translation customer. There are two main types of interpreting: consecutive and simultaneous interpreting.

Consecutive translation is a translation performed in pauses between units of speech in the source language. Usually such units are phrases. Traditionally, speakers deliberately pause to assist the interpreter. The logic of the speech-thought process helps to find the optimal length of a phrase for both the speaker and the translator. But for objective or subjective reasons, situations arise when the volume of the utterance by the speaker exceeds the “operative” memory of the translator. Over time, each translator develops a convenient form of operational recording (sometimes with elements of shorthand), which during the translation process helps to restore the spoken speech. There are often the opposite cases when the speaker, out of sympathy, begins to make very frequent pauses, violating the logic of presentation, thereby complicating the work of the translator.

The types of interpreting are one-way translation, which is performed in only one direction from one language to another (interpretation of speech performed from the podium), and two-way translation, which is performed from one language to another and back (during a conversation or bilateral negotiations). Recently, one-way translation has predominated among the forms of consecutive oral translation, since each negotiating party has its own translator and the translation is performed into their native language. This increases the comfort of negotiations and brings the form of negotiations closer to the natural form of dialogue without forced pauses for negotiations. One-way translation in this case becomes more like simultaneous translation. Sometimes this translation is called whispering.

Simultaneous translation- This is an oral translation carried out almost simultaneously with the delivery of a speech. The unit of simultaneous translation is most often a syntagma or a short phrase. There are rare cases when the translator may be familiar with the text of the speech for simultaneous interpretation. Therefore, simultaneous interpretation requires a lot of experience, which allows one to predict the speech-mental activity of the speaker. The speed of simultaneous translation is very high. The translator is required to constantly self-monitor and quickly react to correct possible errors due to incorrect prediction of the speaker’s speech.

Written translation is called a translation, usually of a written original, which is also presented in written form. There are two main types of written translation: literary and special translation. The basis for this classification is the separation of literary translation from all other translations according to the genre and stylistic parameters of the original. In literary translation, translation transformations require a deep understanding of not only the linguistic, but also the cultural parameters of the source text and the target text. In conditions of ambiguity of expressive means, when transmitting unique national and cultural concepts, traditions and ways of describing and interpreting material objects, space, time and action, the existence of individual untranslatable elements in the original text is quite objective. In such a situation, the translator needs a constructive creative approach to transforming the text and creating a translation equivalent for both translated and non-translatable elements, which implies a creative approach to translation activities. Understanding the original text requires deep penetration into the culture of the original language. Unique distinctive feature artistic texts is their artistic-aesthetic (poetic) function. Therefore, the requirements for literary translation are special - it must also have an artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader. It is known that completely different means in different languages can have an emotional and aesthetic impact; this, in turn, introduces inaccuracy or asymmetry in the translation relative to the original. The semantic unity and equivalence of the emotional and aesthetic impact on its readers establish the relationship between the original and its translation. The functional purpose of all other written translations is mainly to transmit and retrieve information. As a rule, in such translations it is not languages that come into contact, but sublanguages of subject areas, the concept of sublanguage (equivalent to the concept of language for special purposes, accepted in the West).

Such translations are in the nature of special translations. Their problems are solved by particular theories of translation.

2. Since a translation cannot be an absolute analogue of the original, the main task of the translator is to create a text that is as close as possible to the original in its semantics, structure and potential impact on the user of this translation text. The main problem is that there are not always linguistic parallels between the original and translation languages - semantic and structural analogies: identical models of sentences or phrases, complete coincidence of semantic meanings of words, etc. In these cases, the translator first of all strives to realize interlingual correspondences, but if this is not possible, then the translator’s task becomes to find such means of conveying the meaning of the original that will perform the same function of influencing the recipient of the translation as the original performed on the native speaker and the translator. Interlingual transformations in order to achieve equivalence between the original and translation texts (i.e. preserving the functional impact of the message) are called translation transformations, among which we will consider grammatical and lexical transformations.

Under grammatical transformations understand the type of translation transformations that involve replacing grammatical forms and structures of units of the source language during the translation process ( AND I) formally non-equivalent forms and structures of the target language ( PY) while maintaining semantic correspondence between them.

The main types of grammatical transformations include:

· syntactic assimilation (literal translation);

· sentence division;

· combining proposals;

· grammatical substitutions ( word forms a, part of speech or member of a sentence).

1. Syntactic assimilation (literal translation) - a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure PY.

As a rule, the use of syntactic assimilation is accompanied by some changes in structural components. When translating from English into Russian, for example, articles, linking verbs, and other auxiliary elements may be omitted, as well as changes in morphological forms and some lexical units:

One of the greatest events in the period following World War and the Russian Revolution, and closely connected with them both was the growth of the world Communist movement.- One of the most important events of the period that followed the First World War and the socialist revolution in Russia, an event closely related to the war and revolution, was the growth of the communist movement throughout the world.

When translating this sentence, articles were omitted, some prepositions were omitted or added, the morphological forms of words were changed, and some words were used that do not have a direct correspondence in the English text. The translator repeated the word event, added a word socialist, replaced the phrase with both of them with a more harmonious one with war And revolution. All these changes do not affect the basic structure of the sentence, which is conveyed using a similar Russian structure, maintaining the same set of sentence members and the sequence of their arrangement in the text.

2. Sentence division is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of a sentence in the original is transformed into two or more structures PY.

The transformation of division leads either to the transformation of a simple sentence AND I into a complex sentence PY, either to transform a simple or complex sentence AND I in two or more independent sentences in PY:

The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers.- The Labor Government's annual reviews were not discussed among workers at any stage. They were discussed only with entrepreneurs.

Both engine crews leaped to safety from a collision between a parcels tram and a freight train near Morris Cowley, Oxfordshire.- A mail and freight train collided near Maurice Cowley station in Oxfordshire. Members of both train crews escaped unharmed after jumping off the train while it was moving.

In the first example, separating the last part of the English statement into a separate sentence in the translation allows us to clearly express the opposition present in the original. In the second example, the transformation of division made it possible to convey the meaning of an English combination difficult to translate leaped to safety and provide a sequence of descriptions of events that is more natural for the Russian language (first there was a collision, and then the members of the brigade managed to escape).

3. Combining sentences is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two simple sentences into one complex one. This transformation is the reverse of the previous one:

That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago.- It was a long time ago - it seemed like fifty years had passed.

The only thing that worried me was our front door. It creak like a bastard. - One thing bothered me - our front door creaks like crazy.

4. Grammatical substitutions are a method of translation in which a grammatical unit in the original is transformed into a unit PY with a different grammatical meaning.

A grammatical unit may be replaced AND I at any level: word form, part of speech, part of a sentence, sentence of a certain type.

It is clear that during translation there is always a replacement of forms AND I on forms PYA. Grammatical substitution as a special method of translation implies not just the use of forms in translation AND I, and refusal to use forms AND I, similar to the original ones, replacing such forms with others that differ from them in the expressed content (grammatical meaning).

A) word form. Thus, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, related nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except for cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian ( money- money; ink- ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular ( struggles- struggle; outskirts- outskirts, etc.). But in certain conditions Changing the form of a number during the translation process can be used as a means of creating a match according to the situation:

We are searching for talent everywhere.- We are looking for talent everywhere.

They left the room with their heads held high.- They left the room with their heads held high.

A very common type of grammatical replacement in the translation process is b) part of speech replacement. For English-Russian translations, the most typical replacements for a noun with a verb and an adjective with a noun:

He is a poor swimmer.- He swims poorly.

She is no good as a letter-writer.- She doesn't know how to write letters.

I am a very rapid packer.- I get ready very quickly.

English adjectives, replaced by Russian nouns, are most often formed from geographical names:

Australian prosperity was followed by a slump.- Australia's economic prosperity was followed by a crisis.

V) Replacing sentence members leads to a restructuring of its syntactic structure. In English-Russian translations, the use of substitutions of parts of speech is largely due to the fact that in English more often than in Russian, the subject performs functions other than designating the subject of an action, for example, action object(subject is replaced by object):

Visitors are requested to leave their coats in the cloak-room. - Visitors are asked to leave their outerwear in the cloakroom.

time notation(the subject is replaced by a tense adverbial):

The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity.- Last week there was an intensification of diplomatic activity.

space designations(the subject is replaced by the adverbial adverbial):

The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration.- Today a mass demonstration took place in the small town of Clay Cross.

reason designation(the subject is replaced by the circumstance of the reason):

The crash killed 20 people. - As a result of the disaster, 20 people died.

G) Replacing offer type leads to a syntactic rearrangement similar to transformations when using a division or union transformation.

During the translation process, a complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one

(It was so dark that I could not see her. - I couldn’t see her in such darkness.);

The main clause can be replaced by a subordinate clause and vice versa

(While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in. - I was eating scrambled eggs when these two nuns came in with suitcases.);

A complex sentence can be replaced by a complex sentence and vice versa

(I didn't sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o'clock when I woke up. I felt pretty hungry as soon as I had a cigarette.- I didn’t sleep long, it was about ten o’clock when I woke up. I smoked a cigarette and immediately felt how hungry I was.);

A complex sentence with a conjunction connection can be replaced by a sentence with a non-conjunction method of connection and vice versa

(It was as hot as hell and the windows were all steamy. - The heat was hellish, all the windows fogged up . Had the decision been taken in time, this would never have happened.- If the decision had been made in a timely manner, this would never have happened.)

Questions for self-control.

1. Name the types of interpreting and their features.

2. Give examples of grammatical transformations.

To the most common grammatical transformations belong to: syntactic assimilation (literal translation), division of sentences, combination of sentences, grammatical substitutions (forms of a word, part of speech or part of a sentence).

Syntactic assimilation (literal translation) – This is a translation method in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the TL. This type of “zero” transformation is used in cases where parallel syntactic structures exist in the FL and TL. Syntactic assimilation can lead to complete correspondence of quantity linguistic units and the order of their arrangement in the original and translation: Ialwaysrememberhiswords – I always remember his words. As a rule, however, the use of syntactic assimilation is accompanied by some changes in structural components. When translating from English into Russian, for example, articles, linking verbs, and other auxiliary elements may be omitted, as well as changes in morphological forms and some lexical units.

The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers.

Both engine crews leaped to safety from a collision between a parcels train and a freight train near Morris Cowley, Oxfordshire.

In the first example, separating the last part of the English statement into a separate sentence in the translation allows us to clearly express the opposition present in the original. In the second example, the transformation of division made it possible to convey the meaning of the difficult-to-translate English combination leaped to safety and to provide a more natural sequence for describing events in the Russian language (first there was a collision, and then the members of the brigade managed to escape).

Combining offers – This is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two simple sentences into one complex one. This transformation is the reverse of the previous one:

That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago.

The only thing that worried me was our front door. It creaks like a bastard.

Often there is a simultaneous use of combination and division - one sentence is divided into two parts, and one of its parts is combined with another sentence.

Grammatical substitutions – This is a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is transformed into a TL unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of a foreign language at any level can be replaced: a word form, a part of speech, a member of a sentence, a sentence of a certain type. It is clear that during translation there is always a replacement of FL forms with TL forms. Grammatical replacement as a special method of translation implies not just the use of TL forms in translation, but the refusal to use TL forms similar to the original ones, the replacement of such forms with others that differ from them in their expressed content (grammatical meaning). Thus, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, related nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except for cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian (money- money,ink– ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular (struggles- struggle,outskirts- outskirts, etc.). But under certain conditions, replacing the form of a number during the translation process can be used as a means of creating occasional correspondence:

We are searching for talent everywhere.

They left the room with them heads held high

A very common type of grammatical replacement in the translation process is part of speech replacement.For English-Russian translations, the most typical replacements for a noun with a verb and an adjective with a noun. In English, names of figures (usually with the suffix – er) are widely used not only to designate persons of a certain profession (cf. Russian names “writer, artist, singer, dancer, etc.”), but also to characterize the actions of “non-professionals”. The meanings of such nouns are regularly conveyed in translation using Russian verbs:

He is a poor swimmer

She is no good as a letter-writer.

I am a very rapid packer.

As can be seen from these examples, replacing a noun with a verb is often accompanied by replacing the adjective with this noun with a Russian adverb. Verbal nouns of another type are often replaced by a verb:

It is our hope, that an agreement will be reached by Friday.

English adjectives, replaced by Russian nouns, are most often formed from geographical names:

Australian prosperity was followed by a slump.

Wed. also the British Government - the government of Great Britain, the Russian decision - the decision of Russia, etc. Often a similar replacement is used in relation to English adjectives in a comparative degree with the meaning of increasing or decreasing volume, size or degree:

The stoppage which is in the support of higher pay and shorter working hours, began on Monday.

Replacing the members of a sentence leads to a restructuring of its syntactic structure. This kind of restructuring also occurs in a number of cases when replacing a part of speech. For example, in the examples above, replacing a noun with a verb was accompanied by replacing the definition with a circumstance. A more significant restructuring of the syntactic structure is associated with replacing the main members of the sentence, especially the subject. In English-Russian translations, the use of such substitutions is largely due to the fact that in English more often than in Russian, the subject performs functions other than designation of the subject of the action, for example, the object of the action (the subject is replaced by an object):

Visitors are requested to leave their coats in the cloak-room.

Designations time (subject replaced circumstance time, usually With like this verbs How– see, witness, signal, bring about): The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity.

designations space (subject replaced circumstance places) : The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration.

designation of the reason (the subject is replaced by the adverbial reason): The crash killed 20 people.

Replacing the type of sentence leads to a syntactic restructuring similar to transformations when using a division or union transformation. During the translation process, a complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one (It was so dark that I could not see her.; the main clause can be replaced with a subordinate clause and vice versa (While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in.); a complex sentence can be replaced compound and vice versa (I didn't sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o'clock when I woke up. I felt pretty hungry as soon as I had a cigarette.); a complex sentence with a conjunction can be replaced by a sentence with a non-union method of communication and vice versa (It was as hot as hell and the windows were all steamy. Had the decision been taken in time, this would never have happened.).

Towards complex lexico-grammatical transformations relate antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and compensation .

In antonymic translation, a lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a unit of the TL with the opposite meaning, as well as the affirmative form in the original is replaced by a negative form in the translation, or vice versa: Nothingchanged in my home town.

The need for this transformation is primarily related to the structural and semantic differences between the two languages. So, for example, the expression “not impossible” is correct and natural for the English language, while its literal translation (“not impossible”) is a violation of the stylistic norm of the Russian language, since in Russian the negative particle “not” coincides form with a negative prefix.

In English-Russian translations, this transformation is used especially often when in the original the negative form is used with a word that has a negative prefix: She is notunworthy of your attention.

This also includes the use of a negative form with negative conjunctions until And unless: The United States did not enter the war until April 1917.

As part of an antonymic translation, not only an antonym in the strict sense can be used, but also other words and phrases that express the opposite idea: The railroads excluded negroes from their membership.

It should be borne in mind that negation can be expressed by other means, for example, using the conjunction without: He never came home without bringing something for the kids.

The use of antonymic translation is often combined with the use of other transformations (lexical or grammatical):

Their house had no screen doors. The people are not slow in learning the truth.

Also, the reason for the need for antonymic translation is that the use of an antonym often turns out to be the most adequate when conveying the contextual meaning of lexical units, for example:

A murderer is only safe when he is in prison.

And finally, antonymic translation is often used to comply with the regulatory requirements of the target language. Consider the following examples: I only wish I could. I wish I had the time. It should be emphasized that the translation of the English construction “I wish I did” with the help of “it’s a pity that I didn’t ...” is the most adequate translation option in principle, and often the only possible one.

Explication or descriptive translation is a lexical-grammatical transformation in which a lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a phrase that explains its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in PL. Using explication, you can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original: conservationist - a supporter of environmental protection, whistle-stop speech - a candidate’s speech during an election campaign trip. The disadvantage of descriptive translation is its cumbersome and verbose nature. Therefore, this method of translation is most successfully used in cases where a relatively brief explanation can be used.

Compensation- a method of translation in which elements of meaning lost during the translation of a language unit in the original are transmitted in the translation text by some other means, and not necessarily in the same place in the text as in the original. Thus, the lost meaning is replenished (“compensated”), and, in general, the content of the original is reproduced more fully. In this case, the grammatical means of the original are often replaced by lexical ones and vice versa. The heroine of W. Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair describes the ignorance of her master, Sir Pitt Crowley, as follows:

“Serve him right,” said Sir Pitt; “him and his family has been cheating me on that farm these hundred and fifty years” ...Sir Pitt might have said, ‘he and his family’ to be sure; but rich baronets do not need to be careful about grammar as poor governesses must be.

Incorrect use of the third person pronoun in the original plays an important communicative role and should be reflected in the translation. But an attempt to reproduce such an irregularity in the Russian language is clearly impossible. At the same time, the lost element of meaning can be successfully compensated if Sir Pitt’s non-literary speech is reproduced using other (lexical) means of the Russian language.

It should be noted that some features of English vernacular cannot be conveyed into Russian by any means other than compensation, for example, the addition or omission of vowels or consonants (a-singing, a-going, hit instead of it, 'appen, etc.), the absence agreement between subject and predicate (I was, you was, etc.) or any violation of grammatical rules. Sometimes such compensation is achieved in a relatively simple way. In B. Shaw's play “Pygmalion” Eliza says: I’m nothing to you – not so much as them slippers. Higgins corrects her: those slippers. The difference between them and those is difficult to reproduce in translation. But this loss can be easily compensated by playing with the irregular form of the genitive case “shoe”.

In other cases, to solve a problem you will have to use PL units that do not have correspondence in the original:

You could tell he was very ashamed of his parents and everyone, because they said “he don’t” and “she don’t” and stuff like that.

In all cases, some means is sought in the translation language to convey the lost element of the original content.

2016. T. 26, issue. 6

BULLETIN OF UDMURT UNIVERSITY

HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY SERIES

UDC 802.0-07 S.Yu. Solomatina

GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS WHEN TRANSLATING TEXTS FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN (BASED ON ENGLISH ESSAYS)

The article discusses current issues related to grammatical transformations, which, in turn, are the most common type of interlingual transformations in translation. Translation from one language to another is impossible without grammatical modifications. The article examines the grammatical categories of gender and number. Grammatical translation problems are determined by the need to adequately convey syntactic structures, since the essay genre very often has a special syntactic organization, expressed in the selection of a certain type of sentence. Comparative analysis of translations English essays Ewell Gibbons, Langston Hughes, Richard Howe, Joe Goodwin Parker, May Sarton and Alan Peyton makes it possible to find out how typical translation difficulties associated with grammatical transformations in such a literary genre as the essay are overcome.

Key words: grammatical transformations, grammatical category of number, grammatical category of gender, translation activity, essay, adequacy of translation.

When translating texts from English into Russian, you have to solve not only lexical problems, but also problems of a grammatical nature. The grammatical phenomena of a particular language, associated with the laws of its structure and conditioned by them, in their totality are different from the grammatical phenomena of another language, although in certain respects they may have similarities with them. This discrepancy, which makes itself felt especially clearly in translation, determines the uniqueness of each language.

Of course, reproducing the grammatical form of the original cannot serve as the purpose of translation. The goal is to convey the author’s thoughts, the expression of which in the original may correspond to other formal means. And only in the case when individual features of the grammatical form of the original play a certain stylistic role - for example, its brevity, parallelism in the construction of phrases or sentences, more frequent use of one or another part of speech - the translator’s task becomes not direct reproduction of these features, but recreating their functions by using similar means of expression contained in his native language.

The formation of grammatical competence necessary for the implementation of future professional communicative activities of a specialist can be attributed to the most pressing tasks of teaching, therefore the teacher should strive to implement communicative learning, the purpose of which is to enable the student to freely navigate a foreign language environment and respond adequately to various situations.

There are three main types of grammatical discrepancies between the source language and the target language:

The first case is when an element is encountered in the original language that has no formal grammatical correspondence in the target language (for example, the presence of an article and the difference between the definite and indefinite articles, analytical forms of the past tense in a number of Romance and Germanic languages - in the absence of these phenomena in the Russian language ).

The second case is when the target language (TL) contains elements that do not have a formal correspondence in the source language (hereinafter - TL), and yet are inevitably used in texts of any genre (for example, the form of the verb type, a widely developed inflectional system, the presence of participles active form of the past tense and passive form of the present tense in the Russian language - in the absence of these grammatical means in certain Romance and Germanic languages).

The third case is when the TL contains grammatical elements that formally correspond to the elements of the FL, but differ from them in the functions they perform (for example, categories of gender, number, modality).

Cases of changes in the grammatical categories of a word in translation, small rearrangements or additions within small phrases are constant when transmitting any text; they are typical for the most “accurate” translation. In other words, the most formal precision in transmission

HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY SERIES

2016. T. 26, issue. 6

In the course of working on translations of texts, difficulties associated with conveying the category of number repeatedly arise. The category of number exists in both English and Russian languages. “This category expresses quantitative relationships that exist in reality, reflected in the minds of speakers of a given language and having morphological expression in the corresponding forms of the language.”

Despite the fact that nouns have singular and plural forms, both in Russian and in English, there is no complete semantic and functional coincidence between them. There are many cases when the singular form in Russian during translation corresponds to the plural form in English.

For example, in Euell Gibbons's essay “How to Cook a Carp” (1962), a striking example of the need to change the number is the following sentence:

One spring day, a cow-hand who had been riding that way reported that Clear Ditch was becoming crowded with huge carp .

The original text uses the singular noun carp. However, given the different combinability of words in the two languages, it is more natural to use the plural of the noun carp, since preserving the singular in the translation will violate the norms of the Russian language:

One spring day, driving past this ditch, a shepherd discovered that it was infested with huge carp.

Another example comes from Langston Hughes's essay "Purification" (Salvation, 1940):

And the whole building rocked with prayer and song.

And the whole building shook with prayers and songs.

The use of the plural in translation is more appropriate both in context and in tradition of use.

Here's another similar example from Richard Howe's essay “How to Write a Rotten Poem with Almost No Effort” (1978):

You"ve had a rotten day or an astounding thought or a car accident or a squalid love affair and you want to record it for all time.

You had a bad day, or amazing thoughts, or a car accident, or a wicked love affair, and you want to immortalize it.

In this sentence, when translating, it is better to use the plural of the Russian equivalent for the English word thought.

Difficulties associated with the translation of texts may also arise when transferring the category of gender.

It should be recalled that the category of gender in Russian, compared to English, is expressed very clearly. In the Russian language, gender indicators are found in nouns (inflectional endings), in words that agree with them (adjectives, participles, past tense forms of verbs, etc.), and in pronouns. In English, clear gender distinctions are only found in personal, possessive and reflexive pronouns of the third person singular.

This is explained by the general structure of the Russian (synthetic) and English (analytical) languages. According to A.I. Smirnitsky, the category of genus can be represented by phenomena of different orders. So, for example, in Russian, for adjectives, gender is a grammatical category, while for nouns in the same language, gender is a lexical-grammatical category. In the English language, the only sign by which one could conditionally speak about the “gender” of a noun is its correlation with third person singular pronouns.

So, for example, when translating the essay “What is poverty?” (What Is Poverty? 1971) Jow Goodwin Parker, until the end of the third paragraph it is not clear on whose behalf the story is being told. Therefore, it is difficult to understand several sentences, since they need to correctly put adjectives and verbs in the appropriate person:

Here I am, dirty, smelly, and with no "proper" underwear on and with the stench of my rotting teeth near you.

76 S.Yu. Solomatina

2016. T. 26, issue. SERIES 6 HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY

I could bury it, but where is the shovel? . Another sentence: I have always been tired.

And only in the next sentence, it becomes clear that the narration is being told from the perspective of a woman:

They told me at the hospital when the last baby came that I... . At the hospital, when I gave birth to my last child, they told me that I had...

From the same essay one can give another example regarding the issue of transferring the category

Every night I wash every stitch my school age child has on and just hope her clothes will be dry by morning.

Thanks to the third person singular objective case personal pronoun her, we can translate school age child as “schoolgirl daughter.” Accordingly, the full translation of this sentence is as follows:

Every evening I wash all my schoolgirl daughter’s clothes, and I only hope that her things will be dry by the morning.

A similar problem arises in essays by other authors. Take, for example, May Sarton's essay “The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life” (1946). At the beginning of her essay, the author talks about moments of loneliness that her friend experienced: The other day an acquaintance of mine, ... .

It would have been impossible to determine the gender of this man if May Sarton had not further used the third person singular pronoun he and the reflexive pronoun himself in describing him: ... a gregarious and charming man, told me he had found himself unexpectedly alone in New York for an hour or two between appointments .

This allows us to translate an acquaintance of mine as “an acquaintance of mine”: Recently, a friend of mine, a charming and sociable man, told me that he unexpectedly found himself completely alone in New York for an hour or two between business meetings.

We can demonstrate with another example the need to change the gender category during the translation process. Let us turn to the text of the essay “The Joys of Solitude” by May Sarton:

We are busy wondering what does my companion see or think of this, and what do I think of it? .

Despite the fact that in the original text the author uses the personal pronoun I and the possessive pronoun of the dependent form my, the category of gender is not defined. You can verify this by paying attention to the first part of the sentence - We are busy wondering. Therefore, we should make a generalization and use the pronoun we instead of I and our instead of mine in translation:

We wonder what our friend sees or thinks about something, and what do we think about it?

Let us consider another difficulty associated with the problem of transferring the category of gender, using the example of Alan Paton’s essay “Eight Signposts to Salvation” (1975). The translator of this essay has a need to change the category of gender:

And the man is me, my wife, our children; he is the White man; above all he is the Afrikaner . In this sentence, the third person singular pronoun he only clarifies that we are talking about the person mentioned at the beginning of the sentence (And the man is me), therefore, as native speakers of the Russian language, we cannot add the third person singular pronoun into the translation - without distorting the meaning of the message. Therefore, we replace the pronoun - he with the pronoun - this:

And this person is me, my wife, our children; this is a white man; mostly South African.

So, an analysis of the factual material shows that in the process of translation it is inevitably necessary to make significant syntactic changes in the structure of the text. This is due to the need to more adequately convey the information contained in the text in accordance with the norms of the target language.

HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY SERIES

2016. T. 26, issue. 6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Barkhudarov L. S. Language and translation (issues of general and particular theory of translation). M.: International relations, 1975. 240 p.

2. Ponomarenko E.P. Psychology of educational interaction in a technical university (on the example of foreign language teaching) // Practical psychology: intensive methods and technologies in training and personality development: collection. scientific Art. 2013. pp. 106-118.

3. Smirnitsky A.I. Morphology of the English language. M., 1959. 440 p.

4. Solomatina S.Yu. Formation of skills to achieve connotative equivalence in the process of training future translators (based on English essays) // Bulletin of the Izhevsk State Technical University named after M.T. Kalashnikov. No. 3 (67). Izhevsk: Publishing house IzhSTU, 2015. pp. 123-125.

5. Fedorov A.V. Fundamentals of the general theory of translation (linguistic problems): For institutes and faculties. foreign language: textbook. allowance. 4th ed., revised. and additional M.: Higher. school, 1983. 303 p.

6. Readings: an Anthology. 3. ed. New York, 1991. 523 pp.

Received by the editor 11/18/16

S.Yu. Solomatina

GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION OF THE LITERARY TEXTS FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN (EXEMPLIFIED BY AUTHENTIC ENGLISH ESSAYS)

The article deals with the topical questions of grammatical transformations. It is not difficult to observe that the classification of nouns is not and cannot be similar in the two languages, which may be the reason why the grammatical categories under consideration are different in English and Russian and may cause diverse misunderstandings. Grammatical transformations are the most common type of interlanguage transformations in translation. The paper outlines the problems of the grammatical category of number and the grammatical category of gender. Comparative analysis of the translation of the English essays of Euell Gibbons, Langston Hughes, Richard Howe, Jow Goodwin Parker, May Sarton and Alan Paton gives the opportunity to figure out how to overcome the typical difficulties associated with grammatical transformations.

Keywords: grammatical transformations, grammatical category of number, grammatical category of gender, translation activity, essay, translation adequacy.

Solomatina Svetlana Yurievna, Solomatina S.Yu.,

Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Izhevsk State Technical University” Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University

University named after M.T. Kalashnikov" Studencheskaya st., 7, Izhevsk, Russia, 426069

426069, Russia, Izhevsk, st. Studencheskaya, 7 E-mail: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Russian Peoples' Friendship University

University of the Foreign languages

Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages

Direction: "Linguistics"

Discipline: “Theory and practice of translation”

Abstract on the topic: “The main cases of grammatical transformations during translation.”

Work performed by: Daniela Arakelyan (403LD)

Scientific supervisor: prof. Zaeva Leonida Kuzminichna

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...3

Translation transformations and their classifications…………………………..4

Grammatical transformations……………………………………………………………...8

Syntactic assimilation…………………………………………………..10

Sentence division………………………………………………………...11

Combining sentences…………………………………………………….13

Purely grammatical substitutions……………………………………………………………15

Antonymous translation……………………………………………………...17

Explication or descriptive translation……………………………………..…19

Compensation…………………………………………………………………………………..20

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….22

References……………………………………………………………23

Introduction.

As is known, the translation process is not a simple replacement of units of one language with units of another language. On the contrary, it is a complex process involving a number of difficulties that the translator must overcome. One of the techniques that helps the translator is transformation. Translation transformations (replacements) occur due to incomplete commonality or differences between the English and Russian languages.

It should not be forgotten that both the difference and the similarity between grammatical forms, their functions and meanings can be complete or incomplete. Complete similarity, as a rule, is relatively rare, as is complete, uncompensated difference.

Interest in the problem of translation transformations on the part of linguists and their comprehensive study are already traditional in the theory and practice of translation. Such well-known linguists as A. D. Schweitzer, Ya. I. Retzker, L. S. Barkhudarov, V. N. Komissarov, A. V. Fedorov, E. V. Breus and many others devoted their numerous studies to the study of translation transformations articles and monographs. However, the problem of interlingual transformations in general and grammatical ones in particular continues to remain relevant. Transformations, whether at the semantic or formal level, are an integral part of translation activity. Any professionally performed translation includes certain types of transformations.

Translation transformations and their classifications.

The main goal of translation is to achieve adequacy. Adequate, or as it is also called, equivalent translation is a translation that is carried out at a level necessary and sufficient to convey an unchanged plan of content while observing the corresponding plan of expression, i.e. norms of the translating language.

According to the definition of A.V. Fedorov, adequacy is “an exhaustive transmission of the semantic content of the original and complete functional and stylistic correspondence to it.”

The main task of the translator in achieving adequacy is to skillfully carry out various translation transformations so that the translation text conveys as accurately as possible all the information contained in the original text, while observing the relevant norms of the translating language.

“Transformation is the basis of most translation techniques. It consists of changing the formal (lexical or grammatical transformations) or semantic (semantic transformations) components of the source text while maintaining the information intended for transmission.” ME AND. Retzker defines transformations as “techniques logical thinking, with the help of which we reveal the meaning of a foreign word in context and find a Russian correspondence for it that does not coincide with the dictionary"

Currently, there are many classifications of translation transformations (hereinafter referred to as TT) proposed by various authors. Let's look at some of them.

OK. Latyshev gives a classification of PTs according to the nature of deviation from interlingual correspondences, in which all PTs are divided into:

1) Morphological - replacement of one categorical form with another or several;

2) Syntactic – changing the syntactic function of words and phrases;

3) Stylistic – changing the stylistic coloring of a piece of text;

4) Semantic - a change not only in the form of expression of the content, but also in the content itself, namely, those features with the help of which the situation is described;

5) Mixed - lexical-semantic and syntactic-morphological.

In the classification of L.S. Barkhudarov, PTs are distinguished by formal characteristics: rearrangements, additions, substitutions, omissions. At the same time, L.S. Barkhudarov emphasizes that such a division is largely approximate and conditional.

Permutations are changes in the arrangement (order) of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. By substitutions we mean both changes in the translation of words, parts of speech, parts of sentences, types of syntactic connections, and lexical substitutions (specification, generalization, antonymic translation, compensation). Additions imply the use of additional words in the translation that have no correspondence in the original. By omission we mean the omission of certain words during translation. J.I. Retzker writes that “although it is not always possible to classify every example of translation due to the intertwining of categories, in general 7 types of lexical transformations can be distinguished:

· differentiation of values;

· specification of meanings;

generalization of meanings;

· semantic development;

· antonymic translation;

· holistic transformation;

· compensation for losses during the translation process.

L.S. Barkhudarov, L.K. Latyshev, T.R. Levitskaya, A.M. Fiterman, V.N. Komissarov, Ya.I. Retzker subdivide PT into lexical, grammatical, and stylistic. Transformations can be combined with each other, taking on the character of complex complex transformations. For example, Z.D. Lvovskaya believes that there is no blind wall between different types of transformations; the same transformations can sometimes be a controversial case; they can be classified as different types.

The difference in the grammatical structure of the English and Russian languages, from the point of view of translation, is expressed in two categories of translation problems: translation problems in conditions of similarity of the grammatical properties of language units and translation problems in conditions of differences in the grammatical properties of language units in the source and target languages. In addition, specific complications are associated with the transformation of individual grammatical units (morphological transformations based on word forms) and composite grammatical units (syntactic transformations based on phrases, sentences and superphrasal units).

The commonality between the grammatical properties of the Russian and English languages is determined by their common belonging to the Indo-European family and is manifested in the presence of common grammatical meanings, categories and functions, for example: categories of number in nouns, categories of degrees of comparison in adjectives, categories of tense in a verb, functional significance of word order and etc.

At the same time, the difference in the principles of grammatical structure, expressed in the belonging of these languages to different grammatical groups, is reflected in significant differences between grammatical properties, for example, in the existence of dissimilar grammatical categories: articles in English, gerunds in Russian; full-valued agreement in Russian, fixed word order in English; etc.

It should not be forgotten that both the difference and the similarity between grammatical forms, their functions and meanings can be complete or incomplete. Accordingly, a complete translation or various options for incomplete translation are possible. Complete similarity, as a rule, is relatively rare, as is complete, uncompensated difference. Therefore, the main thing that a translator has to deal with is, firstly, the degree of need for compensation and, secondly, the nature of compensation when translating grammatical forms.

Grammatical transformations involve transforming the structure of a sentence during the translation process in accordance with the norms of the target language. Transformation can be complete or partial, depending on whether the structure of the sentence changes completely or partially. Usually, when the main members of a sentence are replaced, a complete transformation occurs, but if only minor ones are replaced, a partial transformation occurs. In addition to replacing parts of a sentence, parts of speech can also be replaced. Most often this happens simultaneously.

All factors that may influence the use of grammatical transformations should be taken into account, namely:

· syntactic function of the sentence;

· its lexical content;

· its semantic structure;

· context (environment) of the proposal;

· its expressive and stylistic function.

The logical structure of a sentence may require the translator not only to change, but also to preserve the foreign language structure, when this is related to the accuracy of the transmission of logical stress. The contextual environment of a sentence may also require its grammatical transformation in translation. This is most often observed when translating English periods or a series of sentences beginning with the same personal pronoun. If we consider individual types of grammatical transformations, then, perhaps, the most common technique should be considered the replacement of English nouns with Russian verbs. This phenomenon is associated with the richness and flexibility of the verbal system of the Russian language. Replacing a noun with a verb may be required for various reasons: both due to the lack of a corresponding noun in the Russian language, and due to the need to change the construction of the sentence in accordance with the norms of the Russian language.

Grammatical transformations.

The difference in the grammatical structure of English and Russian languages, from the point of view

problems of translation in conditions of similarity of grammatical properties of language units and problems of translation in conditions of differences in grammatical properties of language units in the source and target languages. In addition, specific complications are associated with the transformation of individual grammatical units (morphological transformations based on word forms) and composite grammatical units (syntactic transformations based on phrases, sentences and superphrasal units).

The grammatical properties of linguistic units consist of a number of linguistic phenomena: word form, phrases, sentences, order of elements, grammatical meanings of forms, contextual functions of forms and meanings. Whenever we consider the information power of a particular linguistic unit to be translated, we take into account not only the lexical-semantic meaning of words and their combinations, but also their grammatical properties, which can very significantly influence the degree of orderliness of the translated message.

It should not be forgotten that both the differences and similarities between

grammatical forms, their functions and meanings can be complete or incomplete. Accordingly, a complete translation or various options for incomplete translation are possible. Complete similarity, as a rule, is relatively rare, as is complete, uncompensated difference. Therefore, the main thing that a translator has to deal with is, firstly, the degree of need for compensation and, secondly, the nature of compensation when translating grammatical forms.

Grammatical transformations involve transforming the structure of a sentence during the translation process in accordance with the norms of the target language.

Transformation can be complete or partial, depending on whether the structure of the sentence changes completely or partially. Usually, when the main members of a sentence are replaced, a complete transformation occurs, but if only minor ones are replaced, a partial transformation occurs. In addition to replacing parts of a sentence, parts of speech can also be replaced. Most often this happens simultaneously.

All factors that may influence the application should be taken into account

grammatical transformations, namely:

1) syntactic function of the sentence;

2) its lexical content;

3) its semantic structure;

4) context (environment) of the sentence;

5) its expressive and stylistic function.

The contextual environment of a sentence may also require it

grammatical transformation in translation. This is most often observed when translating English periods or a series of sentences beginning with the same personal pronoun.

If we consider individual types of grammatical transformations, then perhaps the most common technique should be considered the replacement of English nouns with Russian verbs. This phenomenon is associated with the richness and flexibility of the verbal system of the Russian language.

Replacing a noun with a verb may be required for various reasons: both due to the lack of a corresponding noun in the Russian language, and due to the need to change the construction of the sentence in accordance with the norms of the Russian language.

Syntactic assimilation.

Syntactic assimilation or literal translation is a translation in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into an absolutely similar structure of the target language.

He is a teacher – He is a teacher

He lives in Moscow – He lives in Moscow

"Fine," I said. "How"s Mr. Spencer?

Great, I say. - How is Mr. Spencer?

"Hello, sir," I said. "I got your note"…

Hello, sir! - I say. - I received your note.

“We studied the Egyptians from November 4th to December 2nd.

We studied Egypt from the fourth of November to the second of December,” he said

However, according to A.V. Fedorov “all kinds of attempts to translate

verbatim this or that text or segment of text leads, if not to complete

incomprehensibility of this text, then in any case to the heaviness and

ambiguity. This is what can be called “translation style” (or, as is sometimes said, “translation language”).”

Sentence division.

The differences associated with language selectivity are also embodied in the degree of discreteness when describing a subject situation. A situation that is described by one feature in one language requires two or more features for its expression in another language. In the pair of languages I am describing, Russian and English, English has more economical ways of expressing thoughts than is the case in the Russian language.

At the same time, there are many cases when the Russian language is

more discrete than English, which leads to an expansion of scope

translated text. Sentence division is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of a foreign language is transformed into two or more predicative structures of the target language. The need for division may arise for a number of reasons.

In the Russian language, more precisely in the socio-publicistic style of Russian

language, there is a tendency to combine within one sentence as many subject situations as possible. This leads to the formation of sentences that include several homogeneous subjects, predicates or objects, as well as subordinate clauses, attributive, adverbial and participial phrases. It cannot be said that there are no such sentences in the English language, but the frequency of their use and, more importantly, the overloading of the structure with homogeneous and attributive elements is certainly less than in the Russian language. As a result, during translation, the same subject situations are expressed not in the form of homogeneous members of the sentence or all kinds of attributive phrases, but in separate independent sentences.

But I just couldn't hang around there any longer, the way we were on

opposite sides of pole, and the way he kept missing the bed whenever he

chucked something at it, and his sad old bathrobe with his chest showing,

and that grippy smell of Vicks Nose Drops all over the place.

But I couldn’t hang around with him all my life, and we were pulling in different directions.

And he was always throwing something on the bed and missing, and this pathetic robe of his, his whole chest was visible, and then there was the smell of flu drops throughout the whole house.

For instance, they had this headmaster, Mr. Haas, that was the phoniest

bastard I ever met in my life.

For example, their director, Mr. Haas. I have never met such a vile pretender in my life.

I felt like praying or something, when I was in bed, but I couldn't do it.

I lay down and thought: should I pray, or what? But nothing came of it.

This technique can be determined by both grammatical considerations (for example, in the case of differences in the admissibility of a set of syntactic phrases) and pragmatic ones (for example, if a sentence undergoes a number of transformations leading to a communicatively redundant or stylistically inadequate number of subordinate or other syntactic phrases).

Combining offers.

Combining sentences is a method of translation that is the opposite of division, when

in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two or more simple sentences. Association is used, as a rule, in conditions of differences in syntactic or stylistic traditions:

She ran bought her ticket and got back on the carrousel. Just in time.

Then she walked all the way round it till got her own horse back. Then she

got on it. She waved to me and I waved back.

She ran, bought a ticket and returned to the carousel at the last second. And again she ran around all around until she found her old horse. She sat on it, waved to me, and I waved to her too.

I could see where he was sitting. Hi was sitting in a big leather chair,

all wrapped up in that blanket I just told you about.

I saw him - he was sitting in a large leather chair, wrapped in the same

the blanket I was talking about.

You didn't have to do all that. I"d have come over to say good-by anyway.

You wrote in vain, I would still have come to say goodbye.

age.

That's something that drives me crazy. When people say something twice

that way, after you admit it the first time.

It makes me angry when people repeat what you immediately agreed with.

I told him I was a real moron, and all that stuff. I told him how I

would "ve done exactly the same thing if I"d been in his place, and how most

people didn't appreciate how tough it is being a teacher.

He said that I was mentally retarded, generally a cretin, that I myself was in his place

would have done the same thing and that many people do not understand how difficult it is to be a teacher.

It's funny. You don't have to think too hard when you talk to a teacher.

It turns out funny, but when you talk to the teacher. There is no need to think at all.

Purely grammatical substitutions.

Purely grammatical replacement is used when a unit of a foreign language is transformed into a unit of the target language with a different grammatical meaning, but having the same logical meaning. For example, replacing a verb with a noun, a plural with a singular, etc.

This technique is quite often used when translating English.

gerund: in Russian text, instead of a gerund, either the most

a verbal noun close to it in morphological status, either an infinitive, or a specifically Russian form of a gerund.

I"m a poor swimmer - I swim poorly

It"s our hope that… - We hope that…

The speaker fell silent wearily

The tired speaker was silent

He remained stubbornly silent

He kept obstinate silence

It was such a piercing scream that it made your blood freeze in your veins.

It was the scream that goes through you and makes your blood run cold.

For example, the special semantic role of the English article can be

compensated when translated into Russian due to pronouns:

They were powerful enough not to need a tsar, especially the tsar.

They were powerful enough not to need any king,

especially in such a king.

Thus, grammatical replacement consists of translation of several

the original form itself, how many of its grammatical or semantic functions are in the text. And this technique is used in cases where it is necessary to translate a language unit, the categorical meanings of which are completely absent in the target language.

He said that the boy that had created the disturbance in chapel wasn't fit to go to Pency.

He said that the student who was so disruptive during the service

not worthy to be within the walls of the school.

Have a seat there, boy.

Sit over there, my boy.

I can"t seem to get very interested in them although your lectures are

very interesting.

For some reason they don’t interest me very much, although you read about them well.

Antonymic translation.

Antonymous translation is based on a logical rule, according to

in which the denial of any concept can be equated to the affirmation of the semantically opposed opposite concept. In fact, dictionary equivalents such as incorrect/erroneous, low/low, narrow/close are based on intralingual antonymic translation.

Most often, antonymic translation is implemented as the replacement of a linguistic expression (word, phrase) with its antonym, while simultaneously replacing an affirmative construction with a negative one and vice versa. The combination of lexical-semantic and syntactic operations gives this type of PT a complex character.

He hardly ever listened to you then you said something.

He never listened to what he was told.

He stopped reading and put my paper down.

He fell silent and put my notebook down.

I almost died.

The book I was reading was this book I took out of the library by mistake.

I was reading the book that the library gave me by mistake.

Just don't dig!

Antonymous translation is the replacement of a negative or interrogative form of a sentence with an affirmative one or vice versa. The conditions for applying such a transformation are usually associated with the lexical-semantic composition of the predicate. When translating into Russian from English, most often the negative form of a sentence changes to affirmative, less often to negative:

No kidding. I appreciate it. I really do.

Honestly, I really appreciate it, I really do!

I guess he thought it was all right to do because it was only me that was in the room.

He probably thought it was possible, because there was no one here except me.

When translating from Russian into English, it often occurs

Converting an affirmative form to a negative form:

He was offended and was silent all the way home.

Taking offense at me, he didn't say a word all the way back home.

Nothing changed in my town .- Everything remains the same in my city.

The USA didn't enter to war until... - The USA entered the war only...

Dictionary matches can also become antonymic. A whole series of Russian correspondences to the verb keep off are antonymous: do not approach, do not let close, do not touch, do not approach. The range of antonymic correspondences to the verb keep out in combination with various additions is even more diverse.

The use of antonymic translation may also be dictated by extralinguistic considerations. In English, long-livers or people who have lived for a long time, contrary to the ominous predictions of doctors, are often spoken of with due respect to the deceased: he (she, they) did not die till...(until...) he lived until... It is quite obvious that the direct translation into the Russian language (so-and-so did not die until ... a year) would be perceived as a mockery of the deceased. (Of course, this speech formula can also be used in an ironic sense, which can only be determined from the context of the statement).

Explication or descriptive translation.

In descriptive translation, a lexical unit of a foreign language

is replaced by a phrase that explains its meaning (i.e., giving an explanation or description of this word).

Description in translation is used in relation to relatively little

mastered concepts expressed by one or another phrase, or in order to emphasize the national and cultural originality of the method of expression.

For example, the custom of the Candle Auction, well known not only in England but also in France, can be translated almost literally as a “candle” auction, but in order to convey the originality of this custom associated with the sale or rental of real estate, some variant of the description should be used up to a comment, for example, “this type of auction consists in the fact that the process of setting a price for an object continues while the candle is burning, usually very short.”

Very often, description is used to translate stable combinations.

Whistle stop speech – Speech by a candidate during a campaign trip.

The disadvantages of this method of translation include:

verbosity.

Compensation.

The essence of compensation in the translation process is quite fully disclosed in

book by A.V. Fedorov. “In the practice of translation, there are a number of cases when one or another element of the original is not reproduced at all or is replaced by a formally distant one, one or another word, phrase, etc. is omitted, but the impossibility of conveying a separate element, a separate feature of the original also does not contradict the principle of translatability, since the latter refers to the entire work as a whole. Of course, the whole does not exist as some kind of abstract concept - it consists of concrete elements, which, however, are significant not each individually and not in their mechanical totality, but in the system formed by their combination and constituting unity with the content of the work. Hence the possibility of replacements and compensations in the system of the whole, which opens up various ways for this; Thus, the loss of a separate element that does not play an organizing role may not be felt against the background of the vast whole; it seems to dissolve in this whole or is replaced by other elements, sometimes not specified by the original.

The starting point for determining the role of an individual element in the original, the need for its accurate transmission, as well as the possibility or pattern of its omission or replacement is the relationship between content and form in their unity.”

Thus, compensation in translation should be considered replacement

the indescribable element of the original with an element of a different order in accordance with the general ideological and artistic character of the original and where this seems convenient under the conditions of the Russian language. Compensation can be semantic or stylistic in nature. In the first case, the missing component that is not conveyed in translation is filled in to complete the meaning.

Semantic compensation is often used to fill gaps caused by so-called “non-equivalent” vocabulary. These are, first of all, designations of realities that are characteristic of the country of a foreign language and alien to another language and another reality. If these details are not of fundamental importance, then there will be no loss for the reader if they are omitted in the translation.

That kind of stuff. The old bull.

In a word, he did it right.

It's a terrible thing.

If we consider cases of semantic compensation, it should be noted that it can be local (local) and total (general).

Local compensation may have special purpose: to serve a purpose,

achieved in Russian by other means than in English. For example, when conveying alliteration or contaminated speech. In such cases, the end justifies the means, since the content of the information may be less important than the effect produced by the statement. When the author deliberately cites an absurd set of words to emphasize the parody of the text, the translation may not have any dictionary matches to the original at all, and then we can talk about complete compensation.

Thus, compensation is used to convey elements of meaning lost in translation, either in another way or later in the text.

I'm lucky, though.

Still, it works out well for me.

It's boring to do that every two minutes.

Here's another thing: I wanted to bend over every minute.

Often grammatical means foreign language are replaced

lexical elements of the target language (for example, to convey incorrect speech, etc.).

I also say "Boy!" quite a lot. Partly because I have a loud vocabulary

and partly because I act quite young for my age sometimes.

It’s also a habit to say “Eh!” or “Wow!”, partly because

I'm at a loss for words, and partly because I sometimes behave completely inappropriately.

age.

Conclusion.

The most important task of the translator is to achieve semantic equivalence of the source and target texts. To achieve it, various translation transformations are required, and at the level of component equivalence, transformations affecting the grammatical structure of the utterance. The reason causing grammatical transformations lies in the fact that each language has its own, unique structure, and the translator must take this into account. It is the differences in the structures of the source and target languages that force the translator to use different transformations.

But, in addition to objective reasons for using grammatical transformations, there are also subjective ones. Subjective reasons include: lack of time in the conditions of interpretation, the translator’s own style, whether the translator is a native speaker of the source language or the target language, etc.

Grammatical transformations are the most common type of interlingual transformations. When translating, a translator almost always encounters inconsistencies between the grammatical structures of the source and target languages. And this happens more often than the lack of a lexical equivalent. In order to quickly select the correct translation option, an interpreter needs to know all types of grammatical transformations.

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18) Schweitzer A.D. Translation theory. Status, problems, aspects - M.: Nauka, 1988. - 364 p.

In translation practice, grammatical transformations are usually combined with lexical ones. In many cases, changes in sentence construction are caused by lexical rather than grammatical reasons. Since the communicative load of a sentence most often requires careful choice of words, the solution to the translation problem depends on the successful choice of the form of the word and its grammatical category. From a practical point of view (not to mention a theoretical one), it is advisable to consider grammatical transformations separately, abstracting from the lexical content of constructions.

Grammatical transformations are the transformation of sentence structure during the translation process in accordance with the norms of the TL. Transformation can be complete or partial, depending on whether the structure of the sentence changes completely or partially. Usually, when the main members of a sentence are replaced, a complete transformation occurs, but if only minor ones are replaced, a partial transformation occurs.

It is important to consider all factors that may influence the use of grammatical transformations, namely:

1) syntactic function of the sentence;

2) its lexical content;

3) its semantic structure;

4) context (environment) of the sentence;

5) its expressive and stylistic function.

Translator's analytical work on syntactic structure a sentence consists of two stages: its analysis in comparison with the logical (nuclear) structure and taking into account the usage that forms the preferred surface construction for expressing the same thought in the target language: I have a dog - I have a dog. Those. the formal syntactic (surface) structure of sentences does not coincide with the logical (core). In a Russian sentence, the object of the predication of possession (dog) is the formal subject, the predication of possession is expressed by the verb of existence (there is), and the logical subject of the predication, the owner of the object, is represented by the formal adverbial adverbial (my).

Semantic structure sentences require transformation when the subject is English. a sentence is an abstract concept: Long habithas made it more comfortable for me to speak through the creatures of my invention - Due to long-term habit, it is more convenient for me to speak through the people I have invented.

Contextual environment a sentence may also require its grammatical transformation in translation. For example, when translating English. sentences starting with the same personal pronoun - the stylistic norm of SL allows this, but such monotony is unacceptable in RL.

Basic types of grammatical transformations include:

Syntactic assimilation (literal translation);

Sentence division;

Combining offers;

Grammatical substitutions:

a) changing the form of words,

b) replacing parts of speech

c) replacing members of a sentence.

Syntactic assimilation (literal translation) - a translation method in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the TL. This type of “zero” transformation is used in cases where parallel syntactic structures exist in the FL and TL. Syntactic assimilation can lead to complete correspondence of the number of linguistic units and the order of their arrangement in the original and translation: I always remember his words. - I always remember his words.

As a rule, however, the use of syntactic assimilation is accompanied by some changes in structural components. When translating from English into Russian, for example, articles, linking verbs, and other auxiliary elements may be omitted, as well as changes in morphological forms and some lexical units.

All these changes do not affect the basic structure of the sentence, which is conveyed using a similar Russian structure, maintaining the same set of sentence members and the sequence of their arrangement in the text. Syntactic assimilation is widely used in English-Russian translations. The change in sentence structure during translation is explained, as a rule, by the impossibility of ensuring translation equivalence through literal translation.

Sentence division is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of a sentence in the original is transformed into two or more predicative structures of the TL. The transformation of division leads either to the transformation of a simple FL sentence into a complex TL sentence, or to the transformation of a simple or complex FL sentence into two or more independent sentences in TL: The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers. - The Labor Government's annual reviews were not discussed among workers at any stage. They were discussed only with entrepreneurs.

In the example, separating the last part of the English statement into a separate sentence in the translation allows us to clearly express the opposition present in the original.

English newspaper news reports are characterized by the desire to fit as much information as possible into the framework of one sentence by complicating its structure. The style of the Russian press is more characterized by the desire for relative brevity of sentences containing information materials.

Combining offers is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two simple sentences into one complex one. This transformation is the reverse of the previous one: That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago. - It was a long time ago - it seemed like fifty years had passed.

Often, the use of a union transformation is associated with the redistribution of predicative syntagmas between neighboring sentences, i.e. there is a simultaneous use of combination and division - one sentence is divided into two parts, and one of its parts is combined with another sentence.

Grammatical substitutions is a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is transformed into a TL unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of a foreign language at any level can be replaced: word form, part of speech, part of a sentence, sentence of a certain type.

It is clear that during translation there is always a replacement of FL forms with TL forms. Grammatical replacement as a special method of translation implies not just the use of FL forms in translation, but the refusal to use FL forms similar to the original ones, the replacement of such forms with others that differ from them in the expressed content (grammatical meaning). Thus, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, related nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except for cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian ( money - money; ink - ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular (struggles - struggle; outskirts - outskirts, etc.). But under certain conditions, replacing the form of a number during the translation process can be used as a means of creating occasional correspondence: We are searching for talent everywhere. - We are looking for talent everywhere.

They left the room with their heads held high. - They left the room with their heads held high.

A very common type of grammatical replacement in the translation process is replacement of part of speech. The translator resorts to it when there is no part of speech or construction with the corresponding meaning in the TL, when this is required by the compatibility norms of the TL, etc. A noun is often translated by a verb, an adjective by a noun, an adverb, etc.

When replacing parts of speech, words in the translation text are often used in different syntactic functions than their correspondence in the original text, which necessarily requires a restructuring of the entire sentence structure. In this case, the type of predicate is often replaced: a compound nominal is replaced by a verb and vice versa. The “passive-active” transformation is also accompanied by the replacement of parts of speech.

Structural transformations of this kind often require the introduction of additional words or the omission of some elements. The introduction of additional words is often due to the fact that Russian and English sentences have different structures. Most often, words that are semantically redundant, i.e., are omitted. expressing meaning that can be extracted from the text without their help.

All of the listed substitutions and transformations are complex: permutations are combined with substitutions, grammatical transformations with lexical ones, etc.

The accusation was disproved editorially. This accusation was refuted in editorial.

In translation the adverb editorially is conveyed as a noun with an adjective, since in Russian there is no equivalent to the English adverb.

Ben's illness was public knowledge. About Ben's illness everyone knew.

Combination public knowledge has no analogue in Russian. Therefore noun knowledge replaced by a verb; adjective public due to its broad semantics, can be replaced by a pronoun All. The syntax of the sentence undergoes changes: subject illness becomes an addition, the compound nominal predicate in translation is replaced by a simple verb.

It should be said that in an English sentence the order of its components is often opposite to the order of the components of a Russian sentence. This is explained by the fact that in an English sentence the order of its members is determined by the rules of syntax - the subject precedes the predicate, circumstances are often located at the end of the sentence. In the Russian language, the order of words is determined not by the syntactic function of words, but by the logical structure of thought - the semantic center of the message or rheme (the “new” that is communicated in the sentence) appears at the end of the sentence, and the secondary members of the sentence, including adverbs of place, time, etc., are located at the beginning of the sentence.

Translating the following sentence requires a whole range of substitutions. This is dictated by the fact that in Russian there is no noun equivalent to English:

Not a three-time loser at marriage. He was unsuccessfully married three times.

Adjective three-timethree times a day replaced by an adverb three times, noun marriage- adjective married;loserperson, loser, defeated replaced by adverb unsuccessful.

It is difficult, almost impossible, to list and illustrate all possible substitutions and permutations and arrange them into any system. We can only note some grammatical phenomena in the English language, in the transmission of which the likelihood of structural transformations, in particular, the replacement of parts of speech, is the highest. Such grammatical phenomena include words formed using suffixes -eg(-og) And -able.

They are interesting and difficult because the suffix -er forms a noun with the meaning of doer from almost any verb, and the suffix -able forms adjectives from the stem of both a verb and a noun.

Suffix -er. Analyzing the translation of nouns formed with the help of the suffix -ег(-ог), we, naturally, do not intend to touch upon those words that have constant correspondences in the lexical system of the Russian language, such traveler traveler, painter artist, etc. We will talk about words that are translated by replacing them with other parts of speech or descriptive translation. As already noted, the suffix -er is extremely productive. Moreover, due to the established linguistic tradition, in the most ordinary situations, where Russians use a verb, the English in most cases will use a noun with the suffix -eg. For example:

Mother's eyes were dry. I knew she was not a crier“The mother’s eyes were dry. I knew that she was not in the habit of crying.

He is a heavy eater. He eats a lot.

Moreover, in V. K. Muller’s dictionary the equivalent of the noun eater is eater, and the noun crier - kpukun, herald

Countless examples could be given.

He is a poor swimmer. - He swims poorly.

She is no good as a letter-writer. - She doesn't know how to write letters.

I am a very rapid packer. - I get ready very quickly.

The meanings of such nouns are regularly conveyed in translation using Russian verbs:

Since these nouns are often formations of an occasional nature, that is, they are created in the process of speech, they are not recorded in dictionaries and sometimes attract attention with their unusualness and unexpectedness.

(Occasional - not corresponding to generally accepted usage, characterized by individual taste, determined by the specific context of use. An occasional word or phrase is used by the speaker or writer “once” - for a given case.)

The suffix -er is so productive that with its help nouns are formed that, strictly speaking, do not have the meaning of an agent, since they are formed not from verbs, but from other parts of speech. For example:

first-nighter regular visitor to theater premieres

full-time worker, employed full-time

The suffix is -able. The suffix -able is interesting for us not in those adjectives that are borrowed from French and which have constant correspondences in Russian (reliable - reliable, laudable - commendable and etc.). Such adjectives are not difficult to translate. Problems begin when you have to look for adequate Russian adjectives, which sometimes have nothing to do with the meaning of the English verb from which the corresponding adjective is derived. For example:

disposable syringe disposable syringe

collapsible boat collapsible boat

teachablepupil smart student

payablemine profitable mine

Sometimes you have to resort to the help of subordinate qualifying clauses, i.e. descriptive translation:

actionable offense

dutiable goods

avoidable tragedy

One can hardly expect that such an occasional neoplasm as do-gooder, will be included in the dictionary. But here's an adjective put-downable (un-putdownable), also formed according to the occasional principle, has ceased to be a neologism:

a put-downable book is a boring, uninteresting book

an un-putdownable book

As can be seen from the examples, replacing a noun with a verb is often accompanied by replacing the adjective with this noun with a Russian adverb. Verbal nouns of another type are often replaced by a verb. : It is our hope, that an agreement will be reached by Friday. - We hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday.

English adjectives, replaced by Russian nouns, are most often formed from geographical names: Australian prosperity was followed by a slump. - Australia's economic prosperity was followed by a crisis.

Wed. also the British Government - the government of Great Britain; the American decision - the decision of the USA; the Russian Embassy - Russian Embassy, etc. Often a similar replacement is also used in relation to English adjectives in a comparative degree with the meaning of increase or decrease in volume, size or degree: The stoppage which is in support of higher pay and shorter working hours, began on Monday. - A strike in support of demands for higher wages and shorter working hours began on Monday.

Replacing sentence members leads to a restructuring of its syntactic structure. This kind of restructuring also occurs in a number of cases when replacing a part of speech. For example, in the examples above, the replacement of a noun with a verb was accompanied by the replacement of a definition with an adverbial circumstance. A more significant restructuring of the syntactic structure is associated with the replacement of the main members of the sentence, especially the subject. In English-Russian translations, the use of such substitutions is largely due to the fact that in English more often than in Russian, the subject performs functions other than designating the subject of the action, for example, the object of the action (the subject is replaced by an object): Visitors are requested to leave their coats in the cloak-room. - Visitors are asked to leave their outerwear in the cloakroom.

time designations (the subject is replaced by a time adverbial): The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity. - Last week there was an intensification of diplomatic activity.

designations of space (the subject is replaced by the adverbial adverbial place): The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration. - Today a mass demonstration took place in the small town of Clay Cross.

designation of the reason (the subject is replaced by the circumstance of the reason): The crash killed 20 people. - As a result of the disaster, 20 people died.

Replacing offer type leads to a syntactic rearrangement similar to transformations when using a division or union transformation. During the translation process a) a complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one (It was so dark that I could not see her. - I couldn’t see her in such darkness.);

The main clause can be replaced by a subordinate clause and vice versa (While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in. - I was eating scrambled eggs when these two nuns came in with suitcases.);

A complex sentence can be replaced by a complex sentence and vice versa (I didn't sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o'clock when I woke up. I felt pretty hungry as soon as I had a cigarette. - I didn't sleep long, it was about ten o'clock when I woke up. I smoked a cigarette and immediately felt how hungry I was.);

A complex sentence with a conjunction connection can be replaced by a sentence with a non-conjunction method of connection and vice versa (It was as hot as hell and the windows were all steamy. Had the decision been taken in time, this would never have happened. - If the decision had been made in a timely manner, this would never have happened .).

Translation from one language to another is an endless process of transformations - lexical, grammatical and stylistic, which inevitably entail structural transformations. In most cases, when translated, a Russian sentence does not coincide with the English one in structure. It has a different word order, a different order of parts of the sentence, etc. The reason for this is the difference in the structure of languages.

All of the listed types of transformations are rarely found in pure form, isolated. As a rule, transformations are complex.

Considering that translation allows for some options, all structural changes that sentences undergo during translation are not dictated by the personal taste of the translator, but by necessity, and this necessity, in turn, is determined by the grammatical structure of the TL, its rules of compatibility and word usage.

In translation practice, errors due to misunderstanding of sentence structure are rare. I'm talking about qualified translators who are fluent in foreign language. Problems arise when an additional function, semantic or expressive-stylistic, is superimposed on the syntactic structure.