Literary discipline, the subject of which is artistic speech, called stylistics.
The speech of literary works, like a sponge, intensively absorbs the most different shapes speech activity, both oral and written. For many centuries, writers and poets have been actively influenced by oratory and the principles of rhetoric. Rhetoric has provided rich food for literature. Over the course of a number of centuries, artistic speech education (especially in the field of high genres, such as epic, tragedy, ode) was guided by the experience of public, oratorical speech, subject to the recommendations and rules of rhetoric. And it is no coincidence that the “pre-romantic” eras (from antiquity to classicism inclusive) are characterized as a stage of rhetorical culture. During the time of romanticism (and later), rhetoric in its significance for literature began to cause doubt and distrust. European culture during the 17th-19th centuries. evolved from an attitude of observing rules and norms - from rhetorical complexity (classicism) to stylistic simplicity. And informal conversational speech, not dictated by the principles of rhetoric, more and more insistently moved to the forefront of verbal art.
Colloquial speech is associated with communication (conversations) between people, primarily in their privacy. It is free from regulation and tends to change its forms depending on the situation. Conversation (conversation) as the most important form of human culture strengthened and declared itself already in antiquity. Conversation as the most important type of communication between people and the colloquial speech that carries it out are widely reflected in Russian classical literature. Let us remember “Woe from Wit”, “Eugene Onegin”, poems by N.A. Nekrasov, novels and stories by N.S. Leskov, plays by A.N. Ostrovsky and AP. Chekhov. It is significant that in the XIX-XX centuries. Literature in general is perceived by writers and scientists as a unique form of interview (conversation) between the author and the reader. The verbal fabric of literary works, as can be seen, is deeply connected with oral speech and is actively stimulated by it. Artistic speech often also transforms written forms extra-fiction speech (numerous novels and stories of an epistolary nature, prose in the form of diaries and memoirs). In the history of world culture, writing is primary in relation to oral speech, it is based on a game of consciousness seeking a “sign expression.” This game is called archewriting.
“Absorbing” various forms of non-fiction speech, literature easily and willingly allows deviations from language norm and carries out innovations in the field of speech activity.
Composition of artistic speech
Artistic speech means are heterogeneous and multifaceted. They make up a system.
These are, firstly, lexical and phraseological means, i.e. selection of words and phrases that have different origins and emotional “sounds”: both commonly used and non-commonly used, including new formations; both native and foreign languages; as meeting the norm literary language, and deviating from it, sometimes quite radically, such as vulgarisms and “obscene” language. Adjacent to lexico-phraseological units are morphological (actually grammatical) phenomena of language. These are, for example, diminutive suffixes rooted in Russian folklore.
This is, secondly, speech semantics in the narrow sense of the word: figurative meanings of words, allegories, tropes, and above all metaphors and metonymies, in which A.A. Potebnya saw the main, even the only source of poetry and imagery. In this aspect, artistic literature transforms and further creates those verbal associations with which the speech activity of the people and society is rich.
In many cases (especially characteristic of poetry of the 20th century), the boundary between direct and figurative meanings is erased, and words, one might say, begin to wander freely around objects without directly denoting them. In most of St.'s poems. Mallarmé, A. A. Blok, M.I. Tsvetaeva, O.E. Mandelstam, B.L. Pasternak’s work is dominated not by ordered reflections or descriptions, but by outwardly confused self-expression—speech “excitedly,” extremely saturated with unexpected associations. These poets liberated verbal art from the norms of logically organized speech. The experience began to be embodied in words freely and uninhibitedly.
Further (thirdly, fourthly, fifthly...) artistic speech includes layers addressed to the reader’s inner ear. These are the beginnings of intonation-syntactic, phonetic, rhythmic, to which we will turn.
Auditory perception of speech
Verbal and artistic works are addressed to the auditory imagination of readers. Artistically significant (especially in poetic speech) is the phonetic side of works, on which at the beginning of our century German “auditory philology” was focused, and after it - representatives of the Russian formal school. The sound of artistic speech is interpreted by scientists in different ways. In some cases, it is argued that the speech sounds (phonemes) themselves are carriers of a certain emotional meaning (for example, L. Sabaneev believed that “A” is a joyful and open sound, and “U” expresses anxiety and horror, etc.). In other cases, on the contrary, it is said that the sounds of speech themselves are emotionally and semantically neutral, and the artistic and semantic effect is created by combining this sound composition with the subject-logical meaning of the utterance. B.L. Pasternak argued: “The music of the word is not an acoustic phenomenon at all and does not consist in the euphony of vowels and consonants, taken separately, but in the relationship between the meaning of speech and its sound.” Contact in artistic expression sound and meaning (name and object), denoted by the terms onomatopoeia and sound meaning, were examined in detail by V.V. Veidle. The scientist argued that sound meaning is born from the organic combination of the sounds of words with intonation, rhythm, as well as the direct meaning of the statement - its “banal meaning.”
In the light of such an interpretation of artistic phonetics (as it is often called - euphony, or sound writing), the concept of paronymy, widely used in modern philology, turns out to be vital. Paronyms are words that have different meanings (same root or different roots), but are close or even identical in sound (betray - sell, campaign - company). In poetry (especially of our century: Khlebnikov, Tsvetaeva, Mayakovsky) they act (along with allegories and comparisons) as a productive and economical way emotional and semantic saturation of speech.
Phonetic repetitions are present in the verbal art of all countries and eras. A.N. Veselovsky convincingly showed that folk poetry has long been closely attentive to the consonances of words, that sound parallelism is widely represented in songs, often in the form of rhyme.
Along with the acoustic-phonetic aspect, another, closely related to it, intonation-voice aspect of artistic speech is also important. “A bad artist of prose or verse is one who does not hear the intonation of the voice that composes his phrase,” noted A. Bely. The same can be said about the reader of works of fiction. Intonation is a set of expressively significant changes in the sound of the human voice. The physical (acoustic) “carriers” of intonation are the timbre and tempo of the sound of speech, the strength and pitch of the sound. A written text (if it is subjectively colored and expressive) bears a trace of intonation, which is noticeable primarily in the syntax of the statement. The writer's favorite type of phrase, alternating sentences various kinds, deviations from the syntactic “stereotype” of emotionally neutral speech (inversions, repetitions, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals) - all this creates the effect of the presence of a living voice in the literary and artistic text. The meaning of intonation in poetic works and its types (chanted, declamatory, spoken verse) is discussed in the work of B.M. Eikhenbaum "Melody of Russian lyric verse". The intonation and vocal expressiveness of speech gives it a special quality - the flavor of unintentionality and improvisation: there is a feeling of the momentary emergence of a statement, the illusion of its creation as if in our presence. At the same time, the intonation-voice principles of artistic speech (as well as phonetic ones) give it an aesthetic character in the original and strict sense: the reader perceives the work not only with the power of imagination (fantasy), but also with inner hearing.
Specifics of artistic speech
The speech of literary works is much more than other types of statements, and, most importantly, by necessity it gravitates towards expressiveness and strict organization. In its best examples, it is maximally saturated with meaning, and therefore does not tolerate any redesign or reconstruction. In this regard, artistic speech requires the perceiver to pay close attention not only to the subject of the message, but also to its own forms, to its integral fabric, to its shades and nuances. “In poetry,” wrote P.O. Jacobson, “any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech.”
In many literary works(especially poetic ones) the verbal fabric differs sharply from other types of statements (the poems of Mandelstam and early Pasternak, extremely rich in allegories); in others, on the contrary, it is outwardly indistinguishable from “everyday”, colloquial speech (a number of literary and prose texts of the 19th-20th centuries). But in works of verbal art there is invariably present (even if implicitly) expressiveness and orderliness of speech; here its aesthetic function comes to the fore.
Poetry and prose
Artistic speech manifests itself in two forms: poetic (poetry) and non-poetic (prose).
Initially, the poetic form decisively prevailed both in ritual and sacred texts, as well as in artistic texts. The ability of poetic speech to live in our memory (much greater) than that of prose is one of its most important and undeniably valuable properties, which determined its historical primacy as part of artistic culture.
In the era of antiquity, verbal art made its way from mythological and divinely inspired poetry (whether epic or tragedy) to prose, which, however, was not yet strictly artistic, but oratorical and businesslike (Demosthenes), philosophical (Plato and Aristotle), historical (Plutarch , Tacitus). Fictional prose existed more as part of folklore (parables, fables, fairy tales) and did not move to the forefront of verbal art. She won rights very slowly. Only in modern times did poetry and prose in the art of words begin to coexist “on equal terms”, with the latter sometimes coming to the fore (this is, in particular, Russian literature of the 19th century, starting from the 30s).
Nowadays, not only the external (formal, actual speech) differences between poetry and prose have been studied (the sequential rhythm of poetic speech; the need for a rhythmic pause between the verses that make up the basic unit of rhythm - and the absence, at least the optionality and episodic nature of all this in artistic -prose text), but also functional differences.
The forms of poetic speech are very diverse. They have been carefully studied. The verse forms (primarily meters and sizes) are unique in their emotional sound and semantic content. M.L. Gasparov, one of the most authoritative modern poeticists, argues that poetic meters are not semantically identical, that a certain “semantic halo” is inherent in a number of metric forms: “The rarer the size, the more expressively it recalls the precedents of its use: the semantic richness of the Russian hexameter or imitations the epic verse is great, iambic tetrameter (the most common in Russian poetry - V.Kh.) is insignificant. In the wide range between these two extremes there are practically all sizes and their varieties.” Let us add to this that, to some extent, the “tonality” and emotional atmosphere of the three-syllable meters (greater stability and rigor of the flow of speech) and disyllabic meters (due to the abundance of pyrrhichs - greater dynamism of rhythm and spontaneous variability of the character of speech) are different; poems with a large number of stops (the solemnity of the sound, as for example in Pushkin’s “Monument”) and a small one (the color of playful lightness: “Play, Adele, / Do not know sadness”). Further, the coloring of iambic and trochee is different (the foot of the latter, where the rhythmically strong place is its beginning, is akin to a musical beat; it is no coincidence that the melodious dance part is always trochaic), syllabic-tonic poems (a given “evenness” of speech tempo) and actually tonic, accent (necessary, pre-ordained alternation of speech slowdowns and pauses - and a kind of “tongue twister”). And so on...
Techniques for changing the basic meaning of a word are called tropes. Paths have the ability to awaken an emotional attitude to a topic, inspire certain feelings, and have a sensory-evaluative meaning. There are two main cases in tropes: metaphor and metonymy.
The verse form “squeezes” the maximum expressive potential out of words, with particular force it draws attention to the verbal fabric as such and the sound of the statement, giving it, as it were, the utmost emotional and semantic richness.
But artistic prose also has its own unique and undeniably valuable properties, which poetic literature possesses to a much lesser extent. When turning to prose, the author reveals ample opportunities linguistic diversity, the combination in the same text of different manners of thinking and speaking: in prose artistry (most fully manifested in the novel) the “dialogical orientation of the word among other people’s words” is important, while poetry, as a rule, is not inclined to heteroglossia and mostly monologue.
Poetry, therefore, is characterized by an emphasis on verbal expression; the creative, speech-making principle is clearly expressed here. In prose, however, the verbal fabric can turn out to be neutral: prose writers often gravitate towards a stating, denoting word, unemotional and “non-style”. In prose, the visual and cognitive capabilities of speech are most fully and widely used, while in poetry its expressive and aesthetic principles are emphasized. This functional difference between poetry and prose is already fixed by the original meanings of these words - their etymology (the ancient Greek word “poetry” is derived from the verb “to do”, “to speak”; “prose” is from the Latin adjective “straight”, “simple” ").
Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any language means, giving speech imagery and expressiveness.
Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.
Semantic figures of speech are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text that have special semantic significance.
These include:
comparison is a stylistic figure based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically formalized comparison: The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover (A. S. Pushkin); Under it is a stream of lighter azure (M. Yu. Lermontov);
ascending gradation - a figure of speech consisting of two or more units placed in increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I really ask you, I beg you;
descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of increasing: A lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even the mouse (M. Twain);
zeugma is a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first was wearing a coat, the second was going to university, the third was in a bad mood;
pun - a figure representing a play on words, a deliberate combination in one context of two meanings of the same word or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P.A. Vyazemsky);
antithesis is a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is parallelism of constructions. Example: It's easy to make friends, hard to separate; The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;
oxymoron - a figure of speech consisting of attributing to a concept a sign that is incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old men; hurry up slowly.
Syntactic figures of speech are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. IN syntactic figures In speech, the main role is played by the syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content.
By quantitative composition syntactic constructions There are different figures of decrease and figures of addition.
Decrease figures include:
ellipsis is a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness and dynamism: The foxes decided to bake a rabbit, and the rabbit jumped out of the oven onto the stove, then onto the bench and out the window from the bench ( Kozlovsky);
aposiopesis - a deliberately incomplete statement: He will return and then┘;
prosyopesis - omission of the initial part of a statement, for example, the use of a patronymic instead of a given name and patronymic;
apokonu - a combination of two sentences characteristic of colloquial speech into one statement containing a common member: There is a man sitting there waiting for you.
Addition figures include:
repetition - a figure consisting of repeating a word or sentence for the purpose of emphasizing, strengthening a thought;
anadiplosis (pickup) - a figure of speech constructed in such a way that a word or group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, big as a sip, - a sip of water during the summer heat (Rozhdestvensky);
prolepsa - the simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it: Coffee, it’s hot.
Based on the location of the components of a syntactic structure, a figure of speech such as inversion is distinguished.
Inversion is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of a sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; Your fences have a cast iron pattern (A.S. Pushkin).
Expanding the function of a syntactic construction lies at the heart of the rhetorical question.
A rhetorical question is a sentence interrogative in structure, but declarative in purpose of the statement. Rhetorical questions are widespread in both oratory and colloquial speech: Don’t I know him, this lie with which he is soaked? (L.N. Tolstoy)
The following speech figures are based on the interaction (similarity or dissimilarity) of the structures of syntactic constructions occurring together in the text:
parallelism - the identical structure of two or more segments of text: In what year - calculate, in what land - guess┘ (N. A. Nekrasov);
chiasmus - “crossing”, variable position of repeating components of two adjacent text segments: The Mouse is afraid of the Bear - The Bear is afraid of the Mouse; Poetry of grammar and grammar of poetry - the title of the article by R. Jacobson;
anaphora - repetition of the initial parts of a sentence or other segments of speech: He fell down... And he was in power! He fell down┘within a minute and for us too┘ (N.A. Nekrasov);
epiphora - repetition of the final parts of segments of speech: We will be gone! And at least that would mean something to the world. The trail will disappear! And at least something for the world (Omar Khayyam).
Tropes are transfers of names, the use of words, their combinations and sentences to name another object in a given speech situation. The main types of trails are:
metaphor - the use of a word in figurative meaning, based on comparison of objects: Vanya is a real loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M. A. Bulgakov);
metonymy - transfer of the meaning of a word by contiguity, contiguity: an ironed young man; daring eyes;
irony is the deliberate use of words, phrases, sentences and larger sections of text in a sense that is completely opposite to the literal one. The ironic coloring of the text is understood by the reader or listener due to the possession of background knowledge (knowledge of the situation, cultural and other realities), as well as with the help of intonational or other ways of emphasizing the opposite meaning of the statement by the author: O, smart one, are you delirious, head? (I. A. Krylov).
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More on topic 25. Figures of speech and tropes:
- 48. Paths and stylistic figures as a method of ensuring the expressiveness and effectiveness of speech.
- 24. Functional styles of modern Russian literary language. The language of fiction. Fine and expressive means of language (tropes and stylistic figures).
Expressive means of grammar
Syntactic figures
Syntactic figures are structures with rhetorical load that highlight and emphasize an element of the text. Therefore, they combine the function of motivation (“Pay attention!”) and the function of expressing confidence (“I emphasize what I am sure of, what I consider especially important”). Syntactic figures affect both the sentence level and the text level.
Expression in figures arises due to the fact that the quantity or quality of the content or form of the syntactic structure is transformed, Therefore, we will use the following classification of these structures:
Conversion of quantity of form and/or content:
Increase in quantity: anaphora, epiphora, symploca, junction, chiasmus, doubling, consonance, polyunion, polyposition; verbal repetitions different types: accumulation of synonyms, gradation, parallelism (repetition of syntactic structure); emphatic pause (increasing the duration of the pause); antithesis (strengthened opposition).
Reduction in quantity: ellipsis, non-union, silence.
Transformation of quality of form and/or content:
Changing the neutral shape of the structure: inversion (rearrangement of elements); parcellation, segmentation, question-and-answer construction of a monologue (division of the original form).
Replacing the original form with a new one: a rhetorical question.
Semantic enrichment of the original form: rhetorical exclamation.
Anaphora, epiphora, simploca .
Anaphora – the same beginning, and epiphora – the same ending of adjacent text fragments: parts of a sentence, sentences, paragraphs, chapters. Simploca – the same beginning and ending of adjacent fragments, i.e. a combination of anaphora and epiphora. Here are two stanzas from V. Bryusov’s poem “Otrady”:
The second joy is radiant in the lights!
Verses of poetry are the meaning of existence.
Tyutchev's songs and thoughts of Verhaeren,
The last joy is the joy of presentiments,
To know that beyond death there is a world of existence.
Dreams of perfection! In dreams and in art
I bow to you and greet you.
Stanzas begin with one word and end with the same lines.
Joint – repetition at the beginning of one fragment of text of those words that end the previous fragment. This is, for example, the repetition of a word in V. Bryusov’s poem “Assargadon”:
As soon as I took power, Sidon rebelled against us.
I overthrew Sidon and threw stones into the sea.
And in M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita” this figure connects some chapters:
“He fell asleep, and the last thing he heard in reality was the pre-dawn chirping of birds in the forest. But they soon fell silent, and he began to dream that the sun was already setting over Bald Mountain and that this mountain was cordoned off with a double cordon...
The sun was already setting over Bald Mountain, and this mountain was cordoned off with a double cordon.”
Chiasmus - this is a mirror, i.e. with the reverse, at least partially, order of occurrence, reflection of the words of the previous syntactic construction in the words of the subsequent construction: “When raising technology to the level of fantasy, do not lower fantasy to the level of technology” (V. Khochinsky. Behind the word - in pocket).
Doubling – contact repetition of a word or group of words in a sentence (complication of a member of a sentence by repetition): “He walks, walks alone with a goat’s parchment and writes continuously” (M. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita).
Consonance – forcing the forms of one word or words with the same root into a segment of text: “Shedding tears! How sweetly to pour out I’m burning – like a torrential downpour!” (M. Tsvetaeva. There are lucky ones and lucky ones).
Multi-union, multi-sentence .
Multi-Union – repetition of conjunctions with homogeneous members of a sentence, homogeneous subordinate clauses, in complex sentences, in groups of sentences /except for those cases when repetition of a conjunction is the norm: so-and-so, neither-nor/.
Multiple prepositions – repetition of prepositions with homogeneous members of the sentence, except in cases where this is required by the norm (“not only to the city, but also to the village”, “not to the city, but to the village”): “And the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger are spared winner years" (A. Pushkin. Song about the prophetic Oleg /; “Dear friend! From crime, From new heart wounds, From betrayal, from oblivion Will save my talisman!" (A. Pushkin. Talisman).
Accumulation of synonyms, gradation . The essence of the first figure is the use of identical or similar text elements with enumerative intonation to emphasize a feature. Such elements can be synonyms in the role homogeneous members, homogeneous subordinate clauses that are close in meaning, parts of a complex sentence that are close in meaning, independent sentences and groups of sentences. If the same constructions convey an increase or decrease in the degree of manifestation of a characteristic, the figure is called gradation:
“Behind the sledge, on bows, dogs are trotting, seeming like a dark spot; in the semi-darkness I clearly imagine the one in front - old Prey, wise, experienced, always thinking, and now, probably, in the leaden darkness, thinking about something in his own way, according to -dog - vaguely, darkened" (B. Zaitsev. Haze.) - the description of the dog is made using the figure of accumulation of synonyms, incomplete, but persistently emphasizing two signs: "the dog is smart", "the thoughts are unclear like a dog";
“It became so scary and terrible alone under this sky... that both of them at a gallop in a quarter of an hour caught up with their comrades, although the comrades were toothy, hungry and irritated” (B. Zaitsev. Wolves) - The gradation “scary and terrible” emphasizes the state of the animals in the dark and cold winter night.
Parallelism – duplication of the order of units in adjacent sections of text, often duplication of the order of words in adjacent sentences. Since this figure is a very popular means of expression, we will illustrate it somewhat more fully than previous cases.
Oh, how many wonderful discoveries we have
They are preparing the spirit of enlightenment,
And experience, the son of difficult mistakes,
And genius, friend of paradoxes,
And chance, God the inventor.
(A. Pushkin).
The last three lines of the poem are constructed in parallel - subject - application. Parallelism is combined with polyunion, and in applications we can see a peculiar gradation: a son, a friend is a god, and this god is an accident, the assistance of which is, of course, necessary for both experience and genius.
The first and last stanzas of V. Bryusov’s poem “I”:
My spirit did not faint in the darkness of contradictions,
The mind did not become weak in the fatal clutches.
I love all dreams, all speeches are dear to me,
And I dedicate this verse to all the gods.
And strangely I fell in love with the darkness of contradictions
And he greedily began to look for fatal plexuses.
All dreams are sweet to me, all speeches are dear to me,
And I dedicate this verse to all the gods...
The stanzas duplicate the order of introducing subjects of speech: contradictions, connections, dreams, speeches, verse. Structural similarity emphasizes the semantic difference: in the first stanza general meaning“I survived the struggle of life”, in the second - “I fell in love with this struggle.” So, to a certain extent, we can even talk about the contrast of the stanzas. The parallelism is supplemented by epiphora (the stanzas end the same) and anaphora within stanza 2: me-me, and two sentences are built in parallel (addition to me– predicate sweet,roads- definition All– subject dreams,speech).
As an example of a text entirely built on structural parallelism, let us recall Teffi’s miniature “Legend and Life.”
Emphatic pause – a long pause, often even within a normally pause-free segment of text, which conveys the emotional coloring of the situation, the unexpected end of a phrase, etc. Here are three excerpts from “Eugene Onegin”: “For a long time, heartfelt longing had been pressing on her young chest; The soul was waiting for... someone”; "I'm not sick; I... you know, nanny... is in love"; “Two friends walked here, And at the grave in the moonlight, They embraced and cried. But now... the sad monument is Forgotten.”
Antithesis- intensified opposition, contrast, emphasized by various stylistic means: “A fool sees the benefit, a smart one sees its consequences” (V. Khochinsky. Behind the word - in your pocket).
Ellipsis – syntactic incompleteness of the sentence, compare at least the second sentence in the previous case “smart – its consequences” with the full version “smart sees its consequences”.
Asyndeton - connecting simple sentences into complex ones due to intonation, without the help of a conjunction. Here again we can turn to the aphorism about the fool and the smart, where sentences are connected without the help of an adversative conjunction A. Non-union enumerations are especially frequent: “Cover, kiss, Dove, caress, Once again, quickly, Hot kiss” (A. Koltsov. The Last Kiss).
Default - a break in the utterance, calling on the addressee to complete the thought in his own words (in contrast to ellipsis, where the word is suggested by the context). From “Eugene Onegin”: “Movements, voice, light frame, Everything is in Olga... but take any novel and you will find Her portrait.” Let's give an example when the default is included in the reception of a hairpin (the text is given with abbreviations):
Homesickness! For a long time
A hassle exposed!
I don't care at all -
Where all alone
To be on what stones to go home
Wander with a market purse
To the house, and not knowing that it’s mine,
Like a hospital or a barracks.
Every house is foreign to me, every temple is empty to me,
And everything is equal, and everything is one.
But if there is a bush along the way
Especially the mountain ash stands up...
(M. Tsvetaeva).
We have given the beginning and the last stanza of the poem. As befits a hairpin, the silence forces you to rethink everything that was previously said in the text. It is no coincidence that in the first stanza the author highlighted the word Where: a person probably really doesn’t care in which place he is lonely. But when we get to the end and a rowan bush appears, we want to continue the poet’s thought: perhaps there is no loneliness in the homeland, there the rowan bush is like a native one, the earth itself becomes home.
Inversion - indirect word order, often used to obtain an expressive effect:
“There a timid hut from the ravine will look: it will look, and in the evening it will coolly mist in its dewy veil... In the middle of the village there is a large, large meadow; so green: there is a place to walk around, and dance, and burst into tears with a girl’s song; and there is a place for an accordion - It’s not like some city party: you can’t spit on sunflowers, you can’t trample them under your feet.”
This is an excerpt from A. Bely's novel "Silver Dove". The novel is about Russian sectarians, its vocabulary and syntax create the impression of folk tale speech. Let's try to restore the direct order of words: "There a timid hut will look out of the ravine, look, and by evening it will coolly mist in its dewy veil." The melodiousness of speech has been irretrievably lost, the lexical composition has turned out to be divorced from a special rhythm and looks rather strange against the background of the standard syntax, as in some information note (cf., for example, about a bike ride: “Tomorrow a new group will leave Tagil. They will leave, and to in the evening it will quickly be replenished in its composition").
Parcellation, segmentation, question-answer monologue construction associated with the division of the original structure. At the level of colloquial speech, let’s try to imagine the most simple design"Mom went to the store." Parcellation:"Mom left. To the store." Segmentation: “Mom – she went to the store.” Question-answer structure(let’s imagine that the grandmother is talking to the child): “Where did mom go? To the store!” Thus, in the case of parcellation, we attach part of the original construction to the utterance after it has ended, and we formalize this part with complete intonation. When segmentation we bring forward the topic of the statement, and then communicate the rest of the information, and the topic in this second part is represented by the so-called substitute, in our example the pronoun she. In question-and-answer construction, we ask a question and thereby draw attention to the core of information, which we then enter as an answer. Our examples are reduced versions of these figures. In literary and journalistic texts they are used to imitate spoken language. There are also elevated, rhetorical options. For example, let’s rebuild the following construction: “History brings to us traces of successful and unsuccessful attempts to model the human mind.” Parcellation: “History brings to us traces of attempts to model the human mind. Successful and unsuccessful.” Segmentation: “the human mind... History brings to us traces of successful and unsuccessful attempts to model it.” Question-and-answer design: “Have there been any attempts to model the human mind? Yes, history brings to us traces of successes and failures.”
A rhetorical question - a statement in the form of a question: “Virgin, my joy, No! There are no sweeter ones in the world! Who would dare under the moon Argue in happiness with me?” (A. Pushkin. From Portuguese). = "No one will dare argue."
Rhetorical exclamation - an emotional exclamation that does not require a reaction from the addressee in the form of a verbal response or action:
A terrible land of wonders!... there are hot streams
They boil in the red-hot rocks,
Blessed streams!
(A. Pushkin. I saw the barren limits of Asia)
Imitation of oral conversational speech
Imitation of oral conversational speech, in particular dialogue, in a written text is carried out using a number of syntactic means, which have already been discussed. These are incomplete sentences, parcellation, segmentation in their reduced versions, as well as limiting the length and complexity of syntactic structures.
Let us illustrate this with two examples.
Imitation of an oral monologue:
“And this little one is going with his mother to Novorossiysk. They are going, of course, to Novorossiysk, and, as luck would have it, an illness happens to him on the way. And because of the illness, he blathers every minute, gets sick and demands attention to himself. And, "Of course, he doesn't give his mother any rest or time. She won't let go of him for two days. And she can't sleep. And she can't drink tea."
(M. Zoshchenko. Incident).
Simulated oral dialogue :
“How much do you have in total?” I couldn’t resist asking.
Three,” Altynnik was shy. – Apart from, of course, Vadik.
Does Vadik live with you?
No, in Leningrad. He’s graduating from the railway institute,” he said, not without pride.
Who do you work for?
Who do I work for? “He hesitated, I didn’t want to tell him. And then he boomed, as if in defiance: “I work as a watchman.” On the move. The train is coming - I open the barrier, the train has left - I close it. Take another glass of beer, if you don’t mind.”
(V. Voinovich. Through mutual correspondence).
Syntactic means of speech ingenuity (figures of speech)
Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any linguistic means that give imagery and expressiveness to speech. Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.
Semantic figures speeches - are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text that have special semantic significance.
These include:
- · comparison- a stylistic figure based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically formalized comparison. Example: The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin); Below him is a stream of lighter azure (M. Yu. Lermontov);
- · ascending gradation- a figure of speech consisting of two or more units placed in increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I really ask you, I beg you;
- · descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of increase. Example: A lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even the mouse (M. Twain);
- · zeugma- a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first was wearing a coat, the second was going to university, the third was in a bad mood;
- · pun- a figure representing a play on words, a deliberate combination in one context of two meanings of the same word, or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect. Example: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P. A. Vyazemsky);
- · antithesis- a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is parallelism of constructions. Example: It's easy to make friends, hard to separate; The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;
- · oxymoron- a figure of speech consisting of attributing to a concept a sign that is incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old men; hurry up slowly.
Syntactic figures speeches - are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech, the main role is played by the syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content. According to the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, figures of subtraction and figures of addition are distinguished.
TO figures decrease relate:
- · ellipsis - a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness and dynamism: The foxes decided to bake a rabbit, and the rabbit jumped out of the oven onto the stove, then onto the bench and out the window from the bench (Ya.A. Kozlovsky);
- · aposiopesis- deliberately incomplete statement: He will return and then...;
- · prosyopesis- omission of the initial part of the statement. For example, using a patronymic instead of a given name and patronymic;
- · rest in peace- a combination of two sentences characteristic of colloquial speech into one statement containing a common member: There is a man sitting there waiting for you.
TO figures additions relate:
- · repeat- a figure consisting of the repetition of a word or sentence with the purpose of emphasizing, strengthening a thought;
- · anadiplosis(pickup) - a figure of speech constructed in such a way that a word or group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, big as a sip, - a sip of water during the summer heat (V.A. Rozhdestvensky);
- · prolepsa- simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it. Example: Coffee, it's hot.
Based on the location of the components of a syntactic structure, a figure of speech such as inversion is distinguished. Inversion - this is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of a sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; Your fences have a cast iron pattern (A.S. Pushkin).
Expanding the function of a syntactic construction lies at the heart of the rhetorical question.
Rhetorical question - the sentence is interrogative in structure, but narrative in purpose of the statement. A rhetorical question is a rhetorical figure that represents a question for which there is no answer. Essentially, a rhetorical question is a question to which an answer is not required or expected due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a very definite, well-known answer, so a rhetorical question is, in fact, a statement expressed in interrogative form. For example, asking a question "How many more We we will tolerate this injustice?" does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that "We we tolerate injustice, and too much for a long time" and seems to hint that "It's time already stop her tolerate And undertake something By this about".
A rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (emphasis, emphasis) of a particular phrase. Characteristic feature of these phrases is a convention, that is, the use grammatical form and the intonation of the question in cases that, essentially, do not require it. A rhetorical question, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and rhetorical appeal, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness - the so-called. figures. Distinctive feature These phrases are their convention, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc. intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these phrases are used acquires a particularly emphasized connotation, enhancing its expressiveness. Thus, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement expressed only in interrogative form, due to which the answer to such a question is already known in advance. Example: Can I see beauty in the new shine of a faded dream? Can I again clothe the nakedness with the cover of a familiar life? - V.A. Zhukovsky.
Obviously, the meaning of these phrases is to assert the impossibility of returning “dreams of faded beauty,” etc.; the question is a conditional rhetorical turn. But thanks to the form of the question, the author’s attitude towards the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally charged.
Illustration from the Internet.
POETIC LANGUAGE (continued)
The next section of this chapter is devoted to the second group artistic means, with the help of which a poetic image is born. These are special ways of constructing sentences - syntactic (stylistic) figures of speech.
ANADIPLOSIS (from the Greek “repetition”) - repetition of the last word (group of words) of the previous sentence at the beginning of the next one:
Oh, spring, without end and without edge,
An endless and endless dream! (A. Blok)
ANAPHOR (from the Greek “anaphora” - bringing up) - repetition of identical elements at the beginning of sentences or lines. There are different types of it:
1.sound (repetition of identical sounds):
Bridges destroyed by thunderstorms,
A coffin from a washed-out cemetery. (A. Pushkin)
2. morphemic (repetition of identical morphemes):
The black-eyed girl
Black-maned horse! (M. Lermontov)
3. lexical (repetition of identical words):
It was not in vain that the winds blew,
It was not in vain that the storm came. (S. Yesenin)
4. syntactic (repetition of identical syntactic structures, that is, parallelism):
Do I wander along the noisy streets,
Do I enter a crowded temple,
Am I sitting among crazy youths,
I indulge in my dreams. (A. Pushkin)
5. strophic (repetition of the same words at the beginning of stanzas). Examples are from M. Lermontov (“When the yellowing field is worried”), from K. Simonov (“Wait for me”).
EPIPHOR - repetition of words at the end of lines:
Sun in the morning in the well of lakes
I looked - there was no month...
It dangled its legs over the hill,
Clicked - there is no month... (S. Yesenin)
If the same words are repeated in the middle of the line, then you have another figure - SIMPLOCA:
We have a place for young people everywhere,
Old people are respected everywhere. (V. Lebedev-Kumach)
ANTITHESIS (from the Greek “antithesis”) is an opposition that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech and feelings.
The basis of antithesis is antonyms (Greek “anti” - against, “onyma” - name) - words with the opposite meaning:
Memory has this property:
After the harshest adversity
The BAD is quickly forgotten,
And GOOD things live long. (K. Vanshenkin)
Each word, when encountered with its opposite meaning, is revealed more fully. A striking example of the use of this technique in poetry is the poems of Francois Villon, read by him at a poetry competition at the court of Charles of Orleans, who loved word games. Translated by Ilya Erenburg:
I'm dying of thirst over the stream.
I laugh through my tears and work while playing.
Wherever you go, everywhere is my home,
A foreign land to me is my native country.
I know everything - I know nothing.
Among the people I understand most clearly,
Who calls the swan a raven?
I doubt the obvious, I believe in a miracle.
Naked as a worm, more magnificent than all gentlemen,
I am accepted by everyone, expelled from everywhere.
Types of antonyms:
1) different roots (good - bad, clean - dirty),
2) single-rooted (kind - unkind, social - antisocial),
3) contextual, acquiring the opposite meaning only in a specific text, as, for example, in Derzhavin:
Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin.
Here the contrast is between “dishes” (a symbol of abundance) and “coffin” (a symbol of death), although in ordinary speech they are not antonyms at all.
GRADATION - a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase (called climax) or decrease (anticlimax) of significance or feelings:
“I came, I saw, I conquered”, the famous phrase of Caesar, is a gradation-climax.
An example of an anti-climax gradation:
Nobody will give us deliverance,
Neither god, nor king, nor hero.
("International")
INVERSION is a violation of the usual word order, when the desired word is placed in an unusual place for it. If the poet wants to emphasize the importance of something, he places the desired word at the beginning of the line or at the end, making it logically stressed. Inversion examples:
a) the definition comes after the word being defined:
I am sitting behind bars in the RAW dungeon... (A. Pushkin)
B) adverb (adverb) comes after the main word:
In the wild north stands LONELY... (M. Lermontov)
C) predicate before subject:
The forest drops its crimson headdress... (A. Pushkin)
OXYMORON (OXYMORON) - a combination of words with opposite meanings - in fact, it is a paradoxical-sounding antithesis:
And the impossible is possible
The long road is easy. (A. Blok)
An oxymoron can be found in the titles of works: “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky, “The Living Corpse” by L. Tolstoy, “Dead Souls” by N. Gogol, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev. Poets love this figure, as it immediately attracts the attention of readers with its paradox and unusualness:
We love everything - and the heat of cold numbers,
And the gift of divine visions. (A. Blok)
***
Mother!
Your son is beautifully sick!
Mother!
His heart is on fire. (V. Mayakovsky)
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS (SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM) help to combine disparate details into a single image.
This is: a) the same construction of sentences following one another:
I called you, but you didn't look back,
I shed tears, but you did not condescend. (A. Blok)
B) compositional parallelism, based on the similarity of plot lines or parts of the composition: for example, a description of the autumn thaw is followed by a description of a sad mood;
C) chiasmus - when in neighboring sentences the second is built in the reverse sequence of parts:
Here Pushkin's exile began
And Lermontov's exile ended. (A. Akhmatova)
***
Spanish grandee, like a thief,
Waiting for the night and afraid of the moon. (A. Pushkin)
D) negative parallelism is especially loved in folk songs:
It's not the cold winds that rustle,
It’s not quicksand that runs, -
The grief rises again
Like an evil black cloud.
Modern poets also use such constructions:
I'm not lost
But poo anyway.
I'm not cold
But don't put out the fire.
I'm not blind
But give me your hand.
I haven't weakened
But have pity on me.
(M. Sopin. “The Field of My Fate”, M.: “Contemporary”, 1991)
PARTELLATION (French “ragcelle” from Latin “particle”) is an expressive figure of speech when a sentence is divided into parts as independent sentences. With the help of intonation, the most important parts for the author are highlighted. An example from A. Tvardovsky in the second quatrain of the example:
But if you happen somehow,
Out of stupidity, out of early youth,
You decide to take a shameful path,
Forgetting about honor, duty and calling:
You cannot support a comrade in trouble.
Turn someone's grief into fun.
Cheat in work. Lie. Offend your mother.
To equal glory with an unkind friend -
Then before you - there is only one testament to you:
Just remember, boy, whose son you are.
Purposes of parcellation:
- focusing on the main thing in the image;
- selection important details;
- emotional strengthening of the text’s impact on the reader;
- creating the effect of surprise;
- contrast enhancement.
An example of parcellation from A. Griboyedov:
And all the Kuznetsky Bridge, and the eternal French,
Where do fashion come to us, both authors and muses:
Destroyers of pockets and hearts!
When the Creator will deliver us
From their hats! caps! and stilettos! and pins!
And book and biscuit shops!
HYPENSION is a discrepancy between the end of the sentence and the end of the line. This creates an additional pause within the verse. It is interesting that in folk poetry there is almost no transference - it is characteristic mainly of the author’s speech. There are:
A) line hyphen:
Tell me that from everywhere
It blows over me with joy,
That I don’t know myself that I will
Sing - but only the song is ripening. (A. Fet)
B) syllable transfer is sharper, but also more expressive. In M. Svetlov’s “Grenada,” the break in a word seems to scream about the sudden death of the hero:
And the dead lips whispered: Gren...
Yes, to the distant region, to the sky-high reaches
My friend left and took the song away.
Daniil Kharms masterfully uses this technique in comic children's poems:
Do you know that
Do you know that pa,
Do you know that you
What's my dad's
Were there forty sons?
REPEAT is one of the most common stylistic figures, whose main goal is to emphasize the most important words or parts.
An excellent example of this technique is in a poem by Yakov Kozlovsky:
I'll contradict myself again
It's like I'm fighting with myself.
I'm afraid that I won't meet you
And I'm afraid to meet you.
Your outstretched hand
I'm afraid to hold it in my palms,
I'm afraid, in pain,
And letting go too quickly.
And again I'm from distant wanderings
You are the only one I strive for,
I'm afraid of your sad eyes,
But I’m also afraid of funny eyes.
I'm afraid you don't see everything in me,
I'm afraid that you can see without difficulty,
I'm afraid you'll get married soon,
I'm afraid you'll never get out.
What events await me?
I don’t presume to foresee this.
And I'm afraid to forget about you,
And I'm afraid to remember you.
There are different types of repetitions:
a) simple repetition of words or phrases:
Father, father, stop threatening
Don't scold your Tamara. (M. Lermontov)
B) anaphora, simploca, epiphora, rediff, parallelism, assonance, alliteration (you have already met them),
C) leitmotif - repetition especially important elements plot,
D) refrain - repetition of a sentence, phrase or stanza-verse in songs.
“The Green Noise is coming and going, / The Green Noise, the spring noise!” - this refrain sounds in every stanza of N. Nekrasov’s poem “Green Noise”.
D) pleonasm - excessive repetition of similar words and similar phrases (dreamed about it in a dream, ran at a run, snub nose...):
E) tautology - repetition of words with identical meaning, extreme degree of pleonasm:
The shadow frowned darker... (F. Tyutchev)
Repetition can become an element of a ring composition, when a poem begins and ends with the same words, as, for example, in “Star of the Fields” by N. Rubtsov.
RHETORICAL FIGURES
RHETORICAL APPEALS, as in the poems of Svetlana Petrovskaya:
Wind, are you my friend or enemy?
You and I have been together for a long time!
Evenings, raising the black flag,
The wind drinks sunset wine.
You're lucky with wings
And mine are like the rustle of pages...
Wind, why do you spite me?
Throwing joyful birds skyward?
In the first stanza there is another figure - RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION.
Another example of exclamations: look how unusually - polynomially - V. Brusov expresses his expression:
I can't reach it! I can't reach it! I'm tired! tired! tired!
The dryness of the steppes is more hospitable than the ledges of these rocks!
There are stones everywhere, just stones! moss and bare pine!
Chest of granite, be soft to me! sing me a song, silence!
A RHETORICAL QUESTION does not require an answer at all, it only has an emotional meaning, filled with feelings and edges, as in the poem by Veronica Tushnova:
Do you know,
what is grief,
when a tight noose
on your throat?
In poetry, it is not necessary to fully reveal your thoughts and feelings. Reticence, understatement is also a special stylistic figure.
This is a DEFAULT, whose main goal is to enable the listener or reader to think out (or invent) their own version of what is happening. In writing, silence is usually indicated by an ellipsis, in oral pronunciation - by a long pause.
A striking example of silence that awakens deep thoughts and strong feelings, - in a poem by I. Bunin:
In the forest, in the mountain, a spring is alive and clear,
An old cabbage roll above the spring
With a blackened popular print icon,
And in the spring there is birch bark.
I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slavish poverty.
But this cross, but this white ladle...
Humble, dear features!
What reconciles the poet with the “slave poverty” of Rus'? What do the cross and the ladle, carefully left at the spring, tell his heart? Think about this too, dear readers.
The default is ELLIPSIS (ELLIPS) - omission of the implied word. Unlike the default, the missing word in the ellipsis is easily restored in the given context. At the same time, the entire intonation of the line becomes more energetic and elastic. Most often, a verb is skipped, giving the text dynamism.
In speech, an ellipsis is a short pause; in writing, it is a dash (or without it). Examples:
To the horses, brother, and your foot in the stirrup,
Saber out - and cut! Here
God gives us a different feast. (D. Davydov)
In literary studies you will come across terms such as ASINDETON (non-union) and POLYSYNDETO (multi-union). The first technique enhances the dynamics, as in A. Pushkin’s description of the Battle of Poltava:
Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.
Drumming, clicks, grinding...
The second slows down speech, but at the same time emphasizes the unity of what is being enumerated:
Oh, summer is red! I would love you
If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies. (A. Pushkin)
CHIASM (from the Greek “chiasmos” - cruciform) is a stylistic figure, a rearrangement of words against the background of parallel construction of sentences: in the first half of the chiasmus, the words are arranged in one sequence, and in the second - in the reverse order. The first two lines in A. Blok’s poem are constructed according to the principle of chiasmus:
I'm waiting for a cold day
I'm waiting for the gray twilight.
The heart froze, ringing:
You said: "I'll come..."
The inversion of the major and minor terms makes the second line a mirror image of the first. And it is unusually beautiful and expressive.