Complex particles in Russian. Learn Russian language

A particle is an auxiliary part of speech that serves to express shades of meaning of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms.

In accordance with this, particles are usually divided into two categories - semantic and formative.

Particles do not change and are not members of the sentence.

In school grammar, however, it is customary to emphasize the negative particle not together with the word to which it refers; This is especially true for verbs.

Formative particles include particles that serve to form the conditional and imperative forms of the verb. These include the following: would (indicator of the conditional mood), let, let, yes, let (those) (indicators of the imperative mood). Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are components verb form and are part of the same part of the sentence as the verb, they are emphasized together with it even in a non-contact position, for example: I wouldn’t be late if it hadn’t rained.

Semantic particles express the semantic nuances, feelings and attitudes of the speaker. According to the specific meaning they express, they are divided into the following groups:

1) negative: not, neither, not at all, far from, not at all;

2) interrogative: really, really, whether (l);

3) demonstrative: here, there, this;

4) clarifying: exactly, just, directly, precisely, exactly;

5) restrictive-excretive: only, only, exclusively, almost, solely;

6) exclamation marks: what for, well, and how;

7) intensifying: even, same, nor, after all, really, after all, well;

8) with the meaning of doubt: hardly; hardly.

In some studies, other groups of particles are also identified, since not all particles can be included in these groups (for example, they say, allegedly).

The particle neither acts as a negative in the constructions of an impersonal sentence with an omitted predicate (There is not a sound in the room) and as an intensifying one in the presence of an already expressed negation (There is not a sound in the room). When repeated, the particle does not act as a repeating coordinating conjunction(No rustling or other sounds are heard in the room.)

The semantic particle -to must be distinguished from the word-forming postfix -to, which acts as a means of forming indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Let's compare: some, somewhere (postfix) - I know where to go (particle).

The postfixes -sya (-s), -to, -or, -ni and the prefixes not and are not particles in negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, as well as participles and adjectives, regardless of whether they are written together or separately.

Morphological analysis of a particle

Particles are sorted according to the following scheme:

1. Particle.

2. Grammatical features:

Immutable,

Rank by value.

According to school grammar, all particles - both semantic and formative - should be parsed according to this scheme, but it should be noted that the formative particle is a component of the verb form and is written out during morphological analysis along with the verb when parsing the verb as a part of speech.

Sample morphological analysis particles:

I'm not saying that he didn't suffer at all; I’m just now completely convinced that he could continue about his Arabians as much as he wanted, giving only the necessary explanations.

(F. M. Dostoevsky)

not - particle, unchangeable, semantic, negative.

only - a particle, unchangeable, semantic, restrictive-exclusive.

only - a particle, unchangeable, semantic, restrictive-exclusive.

According to school grammar, in this sentence you should also parse the particles as follows:

b - a particle, unchangeable, formative, serves to form the conditional form of the verb.

Service. It is intended to indicate various emotional and semantic shades. Also, with its help, completely new words and their forms are formed.

All particles in the Russian language are divided into two large categories:

1) those that express shades of various meanings and emotions (modal);

2) formative and word-forming.

This division is based on what meaning and what role this part of speech plays in a sentence.

Modal particles in Russian

Depending on the shades of meaning and emotions they express, particles, in turn, are divided into the following groups:

1) incentive: let, well, come on, come on, come on;

2) negative and affirmative: no, yes, no, definitely, not at all;

3) exclamatory-evaluative particles: well, of course, what the, how, what;

4) interrogative: what, really, really, whether;

5) intensifying particles: yes and, and, even;

6) concessional at least, after all, nevertheless;

7) comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, as if;

8) excretory-restrictive particles: only, solely, only, exclusively, almost;

9) clarifying: just, exactly, exactly, exactly;

10) demonstrative: here and, there and, here, this, there, that.

Formative and word-forming particles in the Russian language

The latter are:

1) particles neither and not, if they are used as prefixes to form adjectives, nouns, adverbs, as well as pronouns (indefinite and negative): untruth, someone, nothing, etc.;

2) particles -or, -something, -that, something-. They are used as affixes. With their help, indefinite pronouns and adverbs are formed: something, somewhere, somewhere, etc.

Shape-forming particle - would. With its help, the mood of the verb can be changed to the subjunctive: would help, would win.

Particles in Russian. Classification by origin

In the Russian language, some particles originate from various parts of speech, while others do not. On this basis, the following classification is made into:

1. Derivatives. They can come from adverbs: barely, directly, only, etc.; from verbs: come on, let, see, etc.; from pronouns: -some, everything, -that, it, etc.; from conjunctions: and, yes, same, a, whether, -or, etc.

2. Non-derivative particles. Their origin is not connected with any parts of speech: -ka, over there, here, etc.

Particles in Russian. Spelling "not" mixed with words

An unstressed particle is not used when one intends to express negation. It is written together with words only in the following cases:

a) if it serves as a prefix for nouns, adverbs and adjectives: unkind, sad, failure;

b) if the word is not used in use without it: ridiculous, inappropriate, slob;

c) if the forms of indefinite and negative pronouns are unprepositional: no one, no one, nothing, some;

d) if at full communion no dependent words: unheated sun, uncorrected error.

Particles in Russian. Spelling "ni" is merged with words

This unstressed particle is used to express amplification. It is written together with words in cases where it acts as a prefix:

a) in negative adverbs: in no way, from nowhere, nowhere, not at all, not at all, not at all, nowhere;

b) in negative pronouns (in their non-prepositional forms): I didn’t have a chance to take anyone on the road.

Dyachenko S.V.
Jr Researcher
IRYa them. V.V. Vinogradov RAS

How to recognize a particle in a sentence

What is a particle? As we know from morphology, a particle is a service part of speech that helps express different shades of meaning. But how exactly do particles participate in changing the shades of our speech?

Shaping particles help us form new forms of words, for example, the conditional or subjunctive mood of verbs: I I'd like to visit Florence. These forms denote the speaker’s special relationship with the world around him: his wishes and dreams, aspirations, needs, requests and orders, assessments of objects and events.

*Remember that formative particles can also form the imperative mood of verbs and degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Find particles in the sentences and explain their role in each case:

1. The concert turned out to be longer than the organizers wanted, since the artists were often called for an encore.

2. May this year bring joy and success to all of us!

3. If I could play the piano, I would play Chopin every evening.

4. It was the most beautiful sunset I have seen in my life.

5. The teacher said that my essay about Lermontov turned out to be less interesting than the essay about Pushkin.

6. Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear!

7. I would love to show you this letter, but I can’t.

8. This time the student was more attentive in his preparation and made fewer mistakes in his work.

9. “Tell your father to take tickets not to the mezzanine, but to the stalls,” my mother asked.

10. The worst thing was that along with the key, the opportunity to get a brand new travel magazine from the mailbox disappeared.

11. After the business trip, Mr. N began to express himself even more pompously than before.

Of course, in addition to formative particles, there are also brighter particles that are more understandable to us - semantic. They help us express feelings and emotions that are associated with the subject of conversation: uncertainty and doubt in someone's words, surprise or indifference. In addition, these particles help organize information: they highlight an object, point to it, clarify information, or enhance meaning. For example, a sentence It will always be summer here we can change with the help of particles so that we get absolutely different meanings(think which ones):

It won't always be summer here.

May it always be summer here.

And it will always be summer here.

Will it always be summer here?

It will always be summer here.

And there will always be summer here...

So, semantic particles help us to unobtrusively express different feelings and thoughts and, moreover, do not attract attention to themselves - that’s why they particles! But besides modest small particles, other parts of speech also operate in sentences, designed to formalize syntactic connections and express emotions. How to distinguish a particle from a conjunction, preposition or interjection?

Union is always associated with parts of one whole: it occurs with homogeneous members or with parts complex sentence. That is why the conjunction has its place in the sentence, and it cannot “run” back and forth across the sentence: If you write the dictation well, we will watch a film in the next lesson. We cannot move the conditional conjunction “if” to the end: * You will write a dictation, okay if we watch a movie– sounds comical and incomprehensible, not in Russian, as they say. A particle, unlike a conjunction, does not depend so much on the relationship of parts, the beginning and end of the sentence. It can move more freely, like a particle “would”, or together with the word to which it is attached: Which- That the boy gave the veteran flowers. – Some guy gave flowers to the veteran. That boy.

As you noticed, the connection of a particle with a word often leads to spelling with a hyphen or even together - this is how the negative prefixes “not-” and “ni-” arise:

I asked you not to give me big bag, and a small green handbag. “I handed her a small green handbag.

Pretext is associated with cases of nouns and is used only with them. We cannot tear a preposition from a noun and move it to another part of the sentence, just as we cannot designate the emotion or idea that the preposition expresses : During Oleg studied music diligently for five years.

In its functions, the interjection is very close to a particle: this part of speech also expresses our emotions, secret movements of the soul and reactions to what is happening. To distinguish between particles and interjections, checking for connections with other parts of the sentence will help: usually the particle is connected with the rest of the sentence, and the interjection can be separated into a separate exclamation: Oh, it's been so long since I've been to the theater! – Oh! It's been a long time since I've been to the theater!

! Remember: If we come across a one-word sentence expressing doubt or irony, we should be careful:

Today I got an A for my dictation. - Really?

We were going to the cinema today. - Really?

* Think about what part of speech the words are in these sentences really And isn't it. You will find the answer at the end of the article.

Exercise. Find prepositions, conjunctions, particles and interjections in the sentences. Explain the role of these parts of speech.

1. Over the years, this story has acquired more details and has become more exciting than many modern detective stories.

2. I am talking exclusively about those biologists who prefer field research.

3. Even if I’m scared, how can you check me?

4. Alas, time flies too unnoticed for young people!

5. Far from your native land, your heart becomes chilly and uncomfortable.

6. What a strange person our neighbor is!

7.Oh, how wonderful it is to get up on a June morning and go out into the dew-breathing garden!

8.And why didn’t I think of calling you?

9. It was thanks to the horizontal extent of Eurasia that ancient people were able to exchange their inventions, plant seeds and domesticated animals.

10. Mother didn’t even remember the words she said at dinner.

11. I would gladly drop everything and go explore the desert, but I couldn’t break my promise.

Answer(task to determine the part of speech of words really And isn't it:

These words are semantic particles in these sentences - the sentences are incomplete, so the remaining members are omitted.

Particle– this is an unchangeable auxiliary part of speech that gives, clarifies or specifies various semantic (gradual, evaluative, optative, etc.), modal, emotional and expressive meanings of words, parts of a sentence or sentences and participates in the formation of individual morphological categories, and also expresses attitude speaker to reality or what is being communicated. For example: I sameI will give my life for you; The enemy is near Notyou'll be patient etc. Wed: [Chatsky] For what same way secret? – [Molchalin] In my summer Not must dare / Have your own judgment. – [ Chatsky] For mercy, we are with you Not guys / Why same other people's opinions only holy? (A. Griboyedov); Only The Black Sea is noisy... (A. Pushkin); Here the master will come - the master will judge us (N. Nekrasov); Here's the mill! She really collapsed (A. Pushkin); Here youth!.. read!.. and then grab it! (A. Griboyedov), etc.

By structure particles may be primitive(isn’t it, it’s only) And derivatives (it was just everything etc.). In its turn, derivatives particles are divided according to the nature of their relationship with those parts of speech from which they originated:

• – adverbial (simply, directly, precisely);
• – pronominal (all);
• – verbal (it was, it happened, give);
• – excretory particles correlated with unions(What thethe beauty of these tales; I, however,I won't follow you);
• – particles similar in meaning to prepositions (sort of).

From the point of view of the performed functions particles are:

• A) formative(give, come, let, let, let (Let it thunder stronger storm! (M. Gorky)) and word-forming(derivative. then, or etc. (someone, anyone and so on.));
• b) semantic, emotionally expressive And modal.

TO semantic include the following particles:

• – index fingers (here, there, this);
• – definitive and clarifying (exactly, just, exactly, almost);
• – excretory-restrictive (. only);
• – amplifiers ( well, directly, after all, simply);

TO emotionally expressive(they are pronounced with force, pressure) include particles what the, that, where is it, what is there, well, well And etc.

TO modal, expressing subjective attitude the speaker is assigned to the communicated particle:

• – affirmative (Yes of course);
• – negative (neither, no, not, by no means, of course);
• – interrogative (oh, really, really);
• – comparative (exactly, as if, as if);
• - indicating someone else's speech (de, they say – I mean, I don't know and so on.).

In the texts works of art particles express

various shades of meaning words, phrases and sentences:

Wed: I same told you! Said same I'll tell you! Or me whether you Not talked about this?! Isn't it I tell you Not talked about this?! Knew whether you about it? etc. – What the aces in Moscow live and die! (A. Griboyedov). I whether to you Not my own, I whether to you Not close, / In memory of the village I isn't it do I value it? (S. Yesenin).

In the Russian language there are two particles that express the meaning denial - not And neither. In connection with the particle Not particle neither receives intensifying meaning: Neitherdrops NotI'm afraid; Neithertrait NotI know. Area of ​​use of the particle Not in the Russian language is very wide, especially since in it “two homonyms merged, previously phonetically different (Not And n)". Complexity of the grammatical nature of the particle Not expressed in fluctuations in its use. It is characterized by prefix agglutination (indecent, independent etc.) and the function of a negative particle.

Particle neither expresses negation or in the structure itself unextended proposal (not a soul; not a sound; not from the place), or when spreading a negative sentence, combining the meaning denial with meaning gain (We haven't heard eithersound) or with the meaning of a union transfers (For you there is no letter or parcel,neither telegrams). In a particle neither there is an element of meaning of complete absence or categorical negation. Particle neither strengthens denial and participates in the formation of “hidden” meanings in the structure of counter-oppositions. Qualitative enhancement of the particle attribute neither expresses independently. Wed:

Neither bad, nor good, nor average.

They are all in their places,

Where there are neither the first nor the last...

They all slept there.

(A. Akhmatova)

// There are neither bad, nor good, nor average, nor the first, norlatest... // = "no" – the lowest degree of the characteristic.

Terminology problems

In modern Russian studies there is an opinion that particles are not special part speeches, but special function words. As an argument, the linguistic fact is given that a variable word can also be a particle.

Particles unite with prepositions And unions syntactic nature of meaning: they do not express concepts they are assigned those semantic increments that a statement receives when a particle is introduced into it. For example, in sentences In the morning I drink only coffee with milk And In the morning I drink coffee with milk it is reported that coffee with milk is the only drink which (I) drink in the morning. Since the given sentences differ in composition only by the word only, we can say that the indicated restrictive-exclusive meaning is introduced by the particle and is its meaning. If in offer Rain is coming introduce a particle even if, the content of its syntactic modality will change: instead of the designated real fact the proposal will call desirable(optional) fact. As a result even if turns out to be a particle with the value of desirability.

Particles are part of one or another member of a sentence if these particles are formative. Would say tell me about this(form subjunctive inclinations); Hallowed be it your name (form imperative inclinations). Some modal particles are also included in the members of the sentence, for example the particle not: He told me did not believe.

Various parts of speech can become particles. For example: In the audience only girls or stood in the room one table(one/one = "just; nothing/nobody else"); On the street one pampering,It grows here one nettle - formation of particles from numerals. Another example - Think: giveI'll tell you, maybe he'll believe you – shows education verbal particles. Or compare: Allthe space was occupied by roses, He did Alldepending on him – cases of use of pronouns, according to: And he everything is silent and silent -everything - amplifier particle.

Particles are widely used in sentences, communicative purpose which is expression of the degree of magnitude of a characteristic. For example, low the degree of the attribute is conveyed by an intensifying particle Just meaning "completely": Our affairs are very badus there's just nothing to live with(A. Ostrovsky) // there's just nothing to live with = We have absolutely nothing to live with.

Limiting particle only appears in the statement in the first and second meanings of the particle only:

• 1) "not more than so much, nothing else but" - It only costs (= "only; just" five rubles // It's only worth(just)five rubles, that's only(= "only") Start // This just the beginningand to be continued;
• 2) "only, exclusively" – Only(= "only") in the villageResting // I only relax in the village, nowhere else, Only(= "only") Youyou feel sorry for me // Only you feel sorry for me, no one else. Wed: union only carries the meaning "as soon as": Just enteredshe comes towards him // How just walked inshe meets him.

High the degree of manifestation of a characteristic is expressed by an intensifying particle only(or in combination "not + verb") in preposition in relation to pronouns and adverbs in negative sentences, used to enhance the idea of large quantities, volume, girth, etc. For example: Who hasn't beenin Gorky's house, who didn't writeto him, I wasn't interested in any kind of businessHe!(P. Pavlenko) // Who doesn't... + verb = "very many (almost all)"; just what kind (affairs) Not + verb= "very many (almost all)".

With a numeral, with a word Total or without it, particle only used in the sense of “no more than, just”: He was raging [pestilence] just three hoursbut killed two hundred and forty breeders and an uncountable offspring(I. Ilf, E. Petrov). With the word more or without it particle only indicates the limitation of an action or phenomenon to initial, preliminary, etc. moment in the meaning of “yet, for now”: It's just(= "yet") Start , expresses meaning reinforcements - Everyone has been at work for a long time, and he only(= "yet") Dressing, Only(= "yet") seven weekshow he took over the regiment(L. Tolstoy). Wed: union only combined with words how, just, barely or without them, attaches a temporary or conditional subordinate clause in the meaning “at that moment, as, now, as”: Just sayI will come // As soon as you say so, I will come. Like an opposing union only used in the sense of “however, but, on condition”: I agree to go just not now //I agree to go however not now.

Particle even used to highlight and strengthen the word to which it refers: Evenhe will come; Here Pasha Emilievich, who had a supernatural sense, realized WhatNow hismaybe they will beat even with your feet(I. Ilf, E. Petrov).

In modern Russian language the lexeme Just functions as particle, adverb, predicative (short form adjective simple), conjunction And state category word.

As particles token Just functions in the preposition position in the following combinations:

• – simple + adjective(Justclumsy)
• – Just + noun (It was just a boyWith next street, This just a mockery - preposition in relation to the predicate expressed by a noun);
• – Just + verb (He he just doesn't lookon me, me I just want tohome – V impersonal offer);
• – simple + state category word (You just can'tbelieve here just deep).

In modern Russian language adverb– one of the most productive and semantically complete grammatical categories. On its periphery there are transitional types of words close to particles, conjunctions and prepositions. As an adverb lexeme Just occurs predominantly in postposition in relation to the predicate, expressed by conjugated and inconjugated forms of the verb: He said Just; Write Justand clear.

lexeme Just belong to the class predicates (short adjectives) based on the expression quality condition and syntactic role predicate. The solution to the problem is quite Just ,Everything was Just ,war / / Just - short form of adjective simple as a function of part of a compound nominal predicate: Solution (was) Just,The state of affairs was extreme Just ,All Justand clear.

As union token Just acts for communication homogeneous members sentences and in complex sentences: He didn't hit, but Justlowered his fist onto the table; ...my haste was not explained by the fact that I was happy to be free from classes, JustI tried to do as quickly as possible what the teacher told me(F. Iskander).

The element is quite expressive Just in the version of the gradational union not only but. Such expressiveness is created as a result of inherited from the name of the adjective simple, adverbs Just and particles Just meanings. The only sign of seme is the seme “not complex” (archiseme “measure, degree”). In all sentences as part of the gradational conjunction the element Just conveys the meaning: 1) “not containing many parts”; 2) “easier – more difficult”; “without intention - with purpose”; “ordinary – extraordinary, standing out from others.” The first meaning is present in coordinating sentences with gradational unions.

Element Just as part of a gradation union marks an equal component denoting a simple action, and with its lexical meaning indicates on the fact that the value of the first equal component is simple compared to the value of the second equal component: He not easynoticed errors but alsotried to fix them. The first equal component is notice – contains the seme “to see, discover”, the second component – try to fix – In other words, “to try to eliminate shortcomings in something.” The second component evokes in the consciousness of the speaker and listener what is named by the first: one action, designated by the predicate notice is a prerequisite for another - try to fix it. A similar ratio of two equal components syntactic construction creates material gradation, since one of the equal components actually includes in its content another equal component. Element Just as part of the union emphasizes the importance material gradation.

Particle even from an implementation point of view gradual semantics and grading of a sentence-statement is a productive enhancer and is freely used in combination with all syntactic elements of a sentence as predicative, so and non-predicative plan. Particle even combines freely with words of all significant parts of speech in all their forms.

Amplifiers Components and, but, well both independently and in combination with other graders (cf. and even, but even, well, even; and simple, but simple, well simple; and more, by (a) more, well (a) more etc.), highlighting the word with which they are used, often require placing this word at the beginning of the syntagma: And a poor man can be happy!(A. Chekhov).

Particle more in different contexts expresses a number of meanings, for example in the text by I. Ilf and E. Petrov: The janitor stood at the workshop three more minutes,filling with the most poisonous feelings... – additional value; Victor Mikhailovich for a long timeswaggered; Never beforeBartholomew Korobeinikov was not so vilely deceived– in combination with the pronoun particle more used to emphasize some feature. When used after pronouns and adverbs more acts as a particle to enhance expressiveness: Which one elsea gift for him! IN colloquial speech what else is used in the meaning “amazing, wonderful, exceptional”, and the combination nothing yet - meaning "to some extent satisfactory": This nothing yet!He's been doing this for years and have never been caught yet, Where more with a previous union and, yes acts in the sense of “in addition, in addition, in addition, in addition.” Particle more expresses the presence of sufficient time, sufficient conditions for some action:

In the center such subtropics long gone, but on the periphery, in the localities, they still meet; Madame Kuznetsova a long time yet she would talk about flour, about the high cost, and about how she found Claudia Ivanovna lying by the tiled stove...

Combination and also... used in the sense of reproach, irony, condemnation ( And also a doctor!); to strengthen the expression of a greater degree:

And Ostap Bender told Ippolit Matveyevich a story, the amazing beginning of which excited the entire secular Petersburg, and the even more amazing end was lost and went completely unnoticed by anyone in recent years.

Wed: Little did I know that this would be the case? ABOUT, how else did you know! Knew it very well(N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What elseTeddy bear? NoneBears Don't know(M. Gorky) – reinforcing particle more used with adverb How(or pronoun what) to emphasize a sign, fact - Knew it very well; I didn’t know any Mishka. Like a limiting particle more used to clarify, emphasize any attribute or fact: Here, you see where still at the low pointrows of mown hay lie, here is the bridge(L. Tolstoy).

Functioning of particles in text

Particle more is very productive and is used in constructions with the following meanings:

• 1) remembering, referring to the known: But you don’t know Lizaveta, the merchant ? She came down here. More I mended your shirt(F. Dostoevsky);
• 2) concerns: ...He will come, yes, perhaps more will be rude(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin);
• 3) inconsistencies (usually with complicated elements a, i): I am a peasant, but I won’t do this. And alsonobleman! (N. Gogol); Where did they stop? Alsoclever man...(N. Gogol);
• 4) condemnation, dissatisfaction, doubt: That brute is still talking! (V. Garshin); Where did you get it from?? My sister is healthy. - Bet some more!..(A. Ostrovsky);
• 5) assumptions;
• 6) accents: More, as if on purpose, with the newest pieces of paper(N. Gogol);
• 7) reinforcement (with pronominal words how, which)". And how else draws beautifully...; What elseclever...

Particle All can introduce the most different meanings and shades. This is an adverbial particle used in constructions with the meaning long-term, permanent And predominant feature : Do you know why he is like this? Allsad, Allsilent, you know? (I. Turgenev). Token All V this proposal is a particle, introduces a semantic sense of long-term and permanent sign, emphasizes what someone has been doing for a long time not happy, sad, silent etc. The proposal is two-part; particle All is part of the nominal predicate (still not so cheerful) and as part of the verbal predicate (everything is silent) is located immediately before the significant word (funny- adjective, is silent- verb). The particle introduces into the sentence, in addition to its semantic meaning, a stylistic shade of colloquialism. Likewise: Father will even be happy; he keeps pushing me to serve, and I I keep making excuses ill health(F. Dostoevsky).

A touch of colloquialism gives the statement a complicated that's all. Wed: He lies in his hole day and day, doesn’t get enough sleep at night, doesn’t finish a morsel, and still thinks: "It seems like I'm alive?.."(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin) – particle All introduces into the sentence the meaning of constant action and the predominance of the person’s thought process, and the morph - That, adjacent to the particle, highlights, emphasizes, accentuates the semantic meaning of the predicate verb thinks.

Complex particle so and in modern Russian it functions in verbal sentences with the following meanings:

• 1) intensively And full emerging predicative sign (Rain it's pouring like that; Sun it's burning so hot);
• 2) signs like completion or identifying previous state (I'll leave, – I'll never know truth; Bed it was still untidy);
• 3) confident and defiant denial (They were so scared of you!).

A. A. Shakhmatov saw in combination so and“an adverb meaning a relationship, i.e. one or another degree of manifestation of a characteristic” and, accordingly, “a complementary circumstance.” In his opinion, construction " so and + verb in the form present, past,(less often) future time" in modern Russian colloquial speech are extremely common. For example: Boards underneath they bend and crack(I. Turgenev) – present tense verb; There was such an air of misfortune from his figure(L. Tolstoy) – past tense; Me it started shaking laughing(A. Chekhov) – past tense.

Particle So may be complicated by an element Here, and then the syntactic construction conveys the meaning of direct and unhindered identification of the predicative feature:

The whole lower back hurts, and the leg that is above the bone, so it aches(N. Gogol); So All and hide it in a shop when you see him (N. Gogol); “How I love your Pokrovskoye,” he said, interrupting the conversation. – It would be so all life and sat here on the terrace (L. Tolstoy).

Combination so and also used in η constructions with the meaning completion or identifying a pre-existing condition. Predicative feature expressed by the combination so and characterized as the result or natural completion of another feature that prepared it, independent and dissimilar to the final one ( I cried all evening so andfell asleep), close and similar to it ( been sick for a long time that's how he died), or the same sign emanating from the past, which lasted for some time and naturally ended on its own ( never arrivedto visit). The meaning of the syntactic parts with so and is revealed as a result of comparison, cf. I fell asleep, I died, I never came and so on.: ...he realized that he was lost, that there was no return, that the end had come, completely the end, and doubt it's not allowed, it will remain that waydoubt(L. Tolstoy).

The meaning "very, to a large extent" is conveyed intensifying particle Where in colloquial speech: WhereYou cold and dry!(A. Pushkin). In combination with an adjective (or adverb in comparative degree) particle Where means “significantly, incomparably, much” (MAC) and is characteristic of colloquial speech: Much more beautiful, Much cheaper,Work in progress much more friendly;...our oil pipeline – much more worthyobject for literature than all the delights primitivetaiga(V. Azhaev).

With a particle Where are being formed infinitives sentences with the meaning of confident denial of the possibility of performing an action - the dative subject is usually used as part of the sentence (as a rule, the particle begins the sentence): WhereI, a catechumen, have to go to big bars...(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Usually this particle is complicated by reinforcing elements already, there, here, same:

Well, where to should she marry, should she marry? Here I am getting married, so I am getting married (Gogol); Oh, no, master... don't transfer me to the hospital, don't touch me. I will only take more flour there. Where can I be treated!.. (I. Turgenev).

Sentences with particles Where, conveying the meaning of denying the possibility of performing this or that action, can only consist of a particle and the following dative subject: Where should he go! Where are you going?! Where are you going?

Particle same way has the meaning of mocking disapproval, irony, assertion of the inconsistency of a characteristic with the internal capabilities and qualities of its bearer. The particle can be used both at the beginning and at the end of a syntactic construction - a one-part, nominal or verbal sentence: Every creature same wayclimbs to love! (I. Goncharov); Same way,one of the funny ones...(A. Griboyedov).

There are widespread sentences in which we use complicated enhancement particle Well -Well; well... well; well yes and; well, yes and... well; well; well then :

Well, ball! Well, Famusov! (A. Griboyedov); Well your build, brother (A. Rybakov); Well was and a pig is just a lion! (K. Paustovsky); Well, really house! I got to the place! (A. Ostrovsky); Well, really and I'm glad same I saw you! (I. Turgenev); Well stupid same this girl... is kind, but... stupid - unbearable! (M. Gorky).

Graduation value conveyed by data linguistic units, is supported by the lexical meaning of the words that make up the sentence. A negative or positive assessment is revealed directly from the sentence itself, the modal meaning of which can be defined as an accentuated assessment in combination with surprise caused by a certain quality or nature of a feature, process, object or phenomenon.

Function gain particle transmits really in constructions where the predicative unit includes a word with a qualitatively characterizing meaning - a verb or name denoting a characteristic that manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent, an adverb of measure and degree or a pronominal such as:

And here we are fighting, fighting with money... How needed, how needed!(A. Ostrovsky); I don’t understand how you can hang out with such a fool. So stupid Here really true skank! (L. Tolstoy); And the dowry: a stone house in the Moscow part, about two buildings, so profitable that is true pleasure (N. Gogol).

Complicated particle – already; already and... same; already... then; well; really– often used in one-part nominal sentences, less often in verbal or two-part sentences. Such usages are characteristic primarily of colloquial and artistic speech:

Already bear same was (I. Gorbunov); Already horse! Kabardian catch-brand (L. Tolstoy); Before you can blink your eye, it will all be over. And I'm a grandmother, a midwife! (K. Fedin); Already didn't get angry whether He? (A. Ostrovsky); What does it mean? Already not suitors whether? (N. Gogol).

Accentological particle Yes quite productive from the point of view of use, including in sentences with gradual semantics. Characteristic feature particles is the fact that Yes in sentences with meaning accentuated opposition is located between opposing components, which can be any members of the sentence, but when mandatory condition inclusion in this group of the predicate, the main member of the sentence or the entire predicative basis. Wed: Yes you dodon't you understand? – With him - Yesdon't agree? (I. Turgenev); Yes you areGuess you don’t know how to work! – Sapper, Yescan not!(Yu. Nagibin) - the discrepancy between the predicative feature and its carrier (object) is emphasized.

From a pronunciation point of view similar designs differ in a longer pause between compared words. The pause is intensified and emphasized in the case when the particle is followed by so that dividing the sentence structure into two parts: With his abilities Yesnot to study! // With his abilities yes sonot to study; At the forester's yes sothere was no money! (A. Chekhov).

Among the sentences of accented opposition, the following meanings are distinguished: concession restriction(N. Yu. Shvedova) and "affective expression"(A. A. Shakhmatov).

In offers concession restriction(with an unknown subject, object or circumstance) must include adverbs or pronouns something, anyone, somewhere, somewhere, for some reason:

And always anything yes stuck to his uniform ... (N. Gogol); Yes to anyone to be killed or wounded is true (L. Tolstoy); In mechanics and me something yes I’m standing (A. Krylov).

Such sentences convey the meaning of such an accented feature, which is always combined with the meaning of confidence in its presence: “at least something (someone, something, etc.), but definitely...” – will stick; will be killed or wounded; has a price etc.

Offers affective expression are dialogue lines that emphasize the message (not always the answer) with an emotional connotation of meaning - irritation, bewilderment, confidence, evaluation, etc. In such statements, the particle always begins the remark, and the accentuation of the sentence is enhanced by complicating the construction with the particle same, following the logically selected word.

Wed. in the works of L. Tolstoy:

• “Natasha, lie down in the middle,” said Sonya.
• “No, I’m here,” Natasha said. . - Yes, go to bed“,” she added with annoyance.
• (War and peace)

Vasily Lenidych I told you, those boots. I can't wear these! Grigory. Yes and those they stand there.

Vasily Leonidych. But where is it?

Grigory. Yes there same.

Vasily Leonidych. You're lying!

Grigory. Yes you'll see.

(Fruits of Enlightenment)

It is obvious that the presence of particles in a sentence-statement presupposes both the selection of one of the words and a broad plan of messages, and an attempt to remove particles narrows, impoverishes and even distorts the content of the statement. The role of the particle lies not only and not even so much in allocation, how many in instructions on broader shades of meaning meanings. These shades are usually worn measuring character.

• Wed: Starodumova E. A. Russian particles (written monologue speech): monograph. Vladivostok, 1996; Shibanova A. E. Semantic-functional characteristics of the particle even// Russian language at school. 1974. No. 1. P. 33-35; Nagorny I. A. Expression of predicativity in sentences with modal-persusive particles: abstract, dissertation.... Dr. Philol. Sci. M., 1999.
• Shakhmatov L. A. Syntax of the Russian language. (1941). P. 404.
• See additional: Kolesnikova S. M. The particle "here" in a Russian sentence: grammatical transformation, desemantization and gradual function // Russian language at school. 2013. No. 6. pp. 92–97.

Among the particles should be distinguished. There are quite numerous examples of them in the Russian language. The difficulty is that they can perform several functions, and particles often go into Let's look at how these particles are represented in the Russian language, examples will help with this.

Concept

What is a particle? This is a special auxiliary part of speech, which is designed to convey additional semantic or emotional shades both to the entire sentence as a whole and to a specific word. They also have another important function: they participate in the formation of word forms.

Let's look at two sentences that use particles. Examples are as follows:

• Only she can help me do this hard work.
• Let them finish this task quickly and move on to the next one.

If in the first sentence the particle only strengthens the pronoun she, gives the word the meaning of isolation, exclusivity, then in the second particle let performs a completely different function - it participates in the formation of the imperative mood: let them finish, let them move on.

Syntactic role

Just like other function words (prepositions and conjunctions), particles do not carry a syntactic load; it is wrong to single them out as a part of a sentence. The only exception is their formative role. In this case, the particle is indicated with the member of the sentence to which it is adjacent.

• Wasn't it you and me we met on the bus yesterday? (The addition not with you includes the particle Not.)
• Let the lights sparkle brighter. (The predicate in the imperative mood let them sparkle includes the particle let him.)

Let's compare with sentences where there are no examples:

• Should you be on class duty today? (Interrogative particle isn't it does not carry any syntactic load.)
• How beautiful the sea is at dawn! (Exclamation particle how come is not part of the sentence.)

Main functions

Let's figure out what forms this part of speech (particle) is used to form. Examples will help with this.

1. The imperative mood of the verb. These are the particles: let (let), come on, yeah. (Let's start your duties as soon as possible . Yes the celebration will begin! )
2. Conditional mood of the verb. The particle used here is would (b). (If would just return everything back. Came b you came to me, you got it done would much faster.)
3. In order to form the degree of comparison of an adjective or adverb, particles are also used. Examples: taller, less deep, most beautiful; more interesting, less broad.
4. A number of linguists identify some (we will give examples of them in this paragraph) as participating in the formation of indefinite pronouns: either, either, something(someone, somewhere, anyone, some). However, classical science still identifies them as suffixes and prefixes (some-).

Transmitted values

Much more diverse Examples will help prove that with the help of these function words you can convey various emotional and semantic shades.

There are several groups of such particles:

1. Interrogative. Really, really, really) indicate a question. ( Really Is it so difficult to complete a simple task? Isn't it Did I say I'll come after lunch? You whether stood behind that tree?)
2. Exclamation marks. How, what the talk about admiration or indignation. ( How It's great to come home after a day of work! What the beautiful morning! What the disobedient child! How You can make such a terrible soup!)
3. Index marks. Here, there are used when it is necessary to attract the listener's attention to a specific subject. ( Here this house. It is over a thousand years old. There, look, a wedge of cranes.)
4. Amplifiers: even, after all, after all, then. They are used to emotionally enhance a specific word. ( Even a small child knows that he needs to wash his hands after going outside. After all I warned you that you could make a mistake here. Still you are an incorrigible romantic. Anya same I went into the forest through the thicket. To me -That Don’t you know how hard it is to study and work!)
5. Clarifying: exactly, exactly, exactly- used to designate specific objects and phenomena. (It was exactly that dress that was hanging in the window just yesterday. Exactly This is what I'm trying to convey to you. Just Pavel should know this.)
6. Conveying doubt: hardly, hardly.(Hardly there will be someone who can help us. Hardly he will cope with such a difficult test.)
7. Negative particles: no, neither. We will look at examples of their use in more detail below. Here we will only say that they convey negation in different ways.

Denial with no and no

It is the negative particles that cause the most difficulties. The difficulty is that they are used in different speech situations. Yes, particle Not used when it is necessary to convey the negation of a sentence as a whole. ( Not talk to me in that tone! I Not Can Not go to this meeting . )

Another thing is the particle neither. It is designed to strengthen the already existing denial. In other words, it is always used in conjunction with Not, giving it additional meaning. By the way, instead of a particle Not there may be an equivalent word no. (In heaven there is no neither clouds, neither clouds. I will not go neither to the store, neither to visit - I want to stay at home.) Word No, which is a predicate, can be omitted, it can be easily restored from the context. (In the house neither souls. Wed: Not in the house neither souls.)

Particle neither can also take on an intensifying meaning. (Where neither I’ll look - everywhere they rejoice at the first sun.) In such cases, the function word is used in subordinate clauses along with for example, who, what, where, where.

Spelling no and no

When to write Not, and when neither? The answer is simple: try to “eliminate” the controversial particle from the sentence. If the meaning does not change, you need to use neither, otherwise - Not. ( Whichever book I neither I read, everywhere I meet characters who are similar to my loved ones.) If you remove the sentences, it will remain the same, it will not suffer grammatically.

(Who Not I was preparing for exams and passed them very poorly.) If you remove the particle, the meaning of the sentence will change to the opposite. Must be consumed Not.

It should also be remembered that in exclamatory sentences, together with the particle only always written Not.(Where is he? Not I looked for the loss - everything is useless!)

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