Comparative adjectives are used to compare two or more objects with each other: objects, people, animals, etc. Bigger, smaller, prettier, faster, cheaper, better, smarter, braver, smarter, more daring- these are all comparative degrees of adjectives in Russian.
In English, adjectives also have a comparative degree ( comparative adjectives or simply comparative): bigger, less, more beautiful, faster, cheaper, better, cleverer, braver, more intelligent, more daring
The rules for the formation of comparative adjectives are very easy to understand, and to develop fluency you need experience, you need to repeat them more often, and it is better to repeat phrases, phrases or whole sentences. How to remember better, you can read in the article.
In this article we will give many examples of the formation and use of the comparative degree of adjectives in English.
Comparative adjectives. Rules of education. Examples.
Look at the table:
1. Examples for comparative adjectives formed from monosyllabic ones:
This coffee is very weak. I like it a bit stronger. (This coffee is very weak. I like it a little stronger)
Going by bus is cheaper than by train. (Travel by bus is cheaper than by train)
The weather is very cold today. I expected it to be warmer(The weather is cold today. I expected it to be warmer)
The water is colder today than it was two days ago. (The water is colder today than two days ago)
Mike studies harder than his brother. (Mike studies harder than his brother)
This building is higher than that one. (This building is taller than that)
My daughter is thinner than her. (My daughter is thinner than her)
My sister is older than me. (My sister is older than me)
Can we walk a bit faster? (Can we go a little faster?)
Pay attention to the following subtleties:
1. After the comparative degree of adjectives, a conjunction is often used than(than), emphasizing the object for comparison.
2. If a one-syllable adjective ends in -e, then to a comparative extent only -r: large - larger, late - later, wide - wider.
3. If a one-syllable adjective ends one vowel + one consonant, then the comparative degree duplicates the consonant: big - bigger, wet - wetter, thin - thinner
2. Examples of comparative adjectives formed from two-syllable adjectives ending in -y:
Yesterday I woke up earlier than usual (Yesterday I woke up earlier than usual)
You look happier today (You look happier today)
My bag seemed to get heavier as I carried it (My bag seemed heavier when I carried it)
We were busier at work today than usual (We were busier at work today than usual)
3. Examples of the comparative degree of adjectives formed from two-syllable and more adjectives
I think Hungarian is more difficult than Spanish. (I think Hungarian is harder than Spanish)
For lanuage learners, enthusiasm is more important than talent. (For language learners, enthusiasm is more important than talent)
I expected the hotel to be more expensive. (I expected the hotel to be more expensive)
I'd like to do something more interesting(I'd like to do something more interesting)
Why don't you phone me more often? (Why don't you call me more often?)
I'd like to have a more reliable car (I would like to have a more reliable car)
Unfortunately his illness was more serious than we thought at first. (Unfortunately, his illness was more serious than we first thought)
4. Exceptions.
Some words don't obey general rules and form their comparative adjectives in a special way. They are called incorrect - IRREGULAR:
A holiday by the sea is better than a holiday in the mountains. (A holiday by the sea is better than a holiday in the mountains)
The warmer the weather the better I feel. (The warmer the weather, the better I feel)
I can't walk any further. (I can't go any further)
The traffic is worse than usual today. (Traffic is worse than usual today)
The weather got worse and worse. (the weather is getting worse and worse)
His English is becoming better from day to day. (His English is getting better day by day)
Every day you and I compare different things: this car is better than that one, and the other one is generally the best. One person is cuter than the other. And someone considers himself the most beautiful.Today you will learn about degrees of comparison of adjectives in English: what they are and how they are formed.
What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that denotes a quality (attribute) that an object or person has. For example: tall, clear, smart.
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What degrees of comparison are there for adjectives?
Depending on what we are comparing, we can distinguish several degrees of comparison. Let's look at examples of how we can compare objects.
1. Comparison of 2 items based on a common feature.
- And we need to understand who has these qualities more.
We can compare these apples by their redness.
Note that we can compare things only if they have the same qualities. For example, we cannot compare these apples based on their redness:
2. Comparing an object with the same thing, but at different times.
- We have an object (person) that has some quality during a certain period of time.
- There is the same item, but in a different time period.
- And we need to understand what has changed in this capacity over this period.
We can compare apples by freshness:
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3. Comparing objects with each other in order to identify the one with the most pronounced characteristic.
- We have an object (person) that has some quality.
- There are other items that have the same qualities.
- And we understand which object (person) of all of them is the best in terms of these qualities.
This is the reddest apple of all the apples on this plate.
Thus, two degrees of comparison can be distinguished:
- Comparative - we compare objects based on characteristics (examples 1 and 2).
- Excellent - we compare objects in order to identify the object with the most pronounced characteristic (example 3).
Now we will consider each degree of comparison separately.
How the comparative degree of adjectives is formed in English
We need it to compare something or someone with each other. For example, one car is more expensive than another, my friend is older than me.
Depending on the adjective, there are 2 comparative forms:
1. Simple form of comparative degree formed with adjectives that consist of one, two or three syllables. For example: soft (soft), new (new), dirty (dirty), calm (quiet), cool (cool), deep (deep).
2. Complex form of comparative degree formed with adjectives that consist of three or more syllables. For example: dangerous, frightened, effective, handsome, interesting, surprised.
1. Simple form of comparative degree of adjectives formed by adding the ending -er.
adjective + -er
Small (small) - small er(less);
sweet (sweet) - sweet er(sweeter).
For example
Your hair is long er than mine.
Your hair is longer than mine.
Her car is cheap er than his.
Her car is cheaper than his.
Below we will tell you what nuances there are when adding -er.
2. Complex comparative form adjectives is formed using the words more (more) or less (less), which are placed before the adjective.
more/ less+ adjective
Cheerful (happy) - more cheerful (happier);
strange (strange) - less strange (less strange).
For example
Explain your idea more clearly.
Explain your idea more clearly.
This book is more interesting than that.
This book is more interesting than that one.
Rules for adding the ending -er
1. If the adjective ends in -e, then only the letter -r is added:
larg e(huge) - larg er(larger);
simple e(simple) - simple er(easier).
Boys are brav er than girls.
Boys are braver than girls.
2. The last consonant is doubled if there is a vowel before it:
b ig(big) - bi gger(more);
h ot(hot) - ho tter(hot).
China is bi gger than Japan.
China is bigger than Japan.
3. If the adjective ends in -y, then -y changes to -i:
dr y(dry) - dr ier(drier);
eas y(light) - eas ier(easier).
He was lucky ier than many painters.
He was luckier than many artists.
How are the superlative degrees of adjectives formed in English?
We need superlatives to show that an item has the best characteristics: the largest, the most expensive, the best. For example: “This is the most talented writer I have ever read.”
Depending on the adjective, there are 2 forms superlatives.
1. Simple superlative form formed with adjectives that consist of one, two or three syllables.
2. Complex superlative form formed with adjectives that consist of three or more syllables.
1. Simple superlative form adjectives formed by adding the ending -est. Before the adjective itself we put the article the.
the+ adjective + -est
The rules for adding the ending -est are the same as adding the ending -er.
Small (small) - the small est(the smallest);
easy (easy) - the easy est(the easiest).
Examples
2. Complex superlative form adjectives is formed using the words most (most) or least (smallest), which are placed before the adjective. Before these words we put the article the.
the + most/least +adjective
beautiful (beautiful) - the most beautiful ( most Beautiful);
interesting (interesting) - theleast interesting ( least interesting or the most Not interesting).
For example
How much is the most expensive car?
How much does the most expensive car cost?
Summer is the most favorite season of mine.
Summer is my favorite time of the year.
He is the least talented actor in our class.
He is the least talented actor in our class.
Exceptional adjectives in the comparative degree in English
In English there are adjectives whose comparative and superlative degrees are not formed according to the rules. The only option is to remember them. Here are the most common ones.
| Adjective | comparative | Superlative |
| good good |
better better |
the best the best |
| bad bad |
worse worse |
the worst the worst |
| little small |
less less |
the least least |
| many/much numerous |
more more |
the most greatest |
| old (about family members) old |
elder older |
the eldest oldest |
| late late |
later last one listed |
the last last in order |
Examples
The weather today is worse than yesterday.
The weather today is worse than yesterday.
This pen is the best.
This pen is the best.
So, today we looked at the comparative and superlative degrees of comparison of adjectives. If you have any questions, ask them in the comments.
Reinforcement task
Now put the following adjectives into comparative and superlative form:
- expensive,
- strong,
- loud,
- dangerous,
- high,
- clever, clever
- interesting,
- dirty,
- lazy
- generous,
- clean
- rich
- good,
- important.
Leave your answers in the comments below the article.
(good, yellow, interesting).
Adjectives in English do not change either by gender, or by number, or by case. Adjectives in English can only be modified by degrees of comparison.
Adjectives can be simple or derived. Simple adjectives have neither prefixes nor suffixes. Derived adjectives contain suffixes or prefixes, or both at the same time.
Adjectives form, as in Russian, two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. The basic form of the adjective does not express comparison and is called the positive degree.
Adjective
An adjective is a part of speech that is used to denote a characteristic of an object.
- a clever boy
- an English book (English book)
- good butter (good butter)
- a cold winter
An adjective in English has three forms of degrees of comparison:
- positive degree
- comparative degree
- superlative degree.
Adjective degrees
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives
The basic form of an adjective is the positive degree. The comparative and superlative forms are usually formed from the positive degree in one of two ways:
The first way to form degrees of comparison of adjectives. If the form of an adjective in the positive degree consists of one syllable, the form of its comparative degree is formed using the suffix -er, and the superlative form - using the suffix -est, which are added to the base of the form of the positive degree.
The second way to form degrees of comparison of adjectives. From adjectives whose positive form consists of three or more syllables, the comparative degree is formed using the word more, and the superlative degree - using the word most, which are placed before the positive form of the adjective.
From two-syllable adjectives, the comparative and superlative forms are also formed using the words more and most.
Sometimes there are forms of two-syllable adjectives, formed using the suffixes -er and -est. Most often these are adjectives whose positive form ends in -у, -er, -ow.
Some adjectives form special forms of degrees of comparison, and these adjectives must be immediately memorized in all forms.
The adjective old forms degrees of comparison in two ways. In most cases, the suffix -er or -est is added to the base of the positive degree form.
However, in cases where they talk about members of the same family - “elder brother”, “eldest of the brothers”, they use the form elder (senior) or eldest (eldest).
To correctly write forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives, you need to know that when adding the suffixes -er and -est, the final letters of the adjective in the form of a positive degree change as follows:
- y changes to i after a consonant and does not change after a vowel: dry dry (dry) - drier - driest But: gay (cheerful) - gayer - gayest
- e is omitted: nice (good) - nicer - nicest
- the consonant is doubled in one-syllable adjectives after a short vowel: big - bigger - biggest
Using an adjective
The adjective is usually used in a sentence as a definition of a noun and stands before the word being defined. An adjective can also be a nominal member of a compound nominal predicate (predicative) and in this case stand after the linking verb to be.
Not a clever boy. He's a smart boy. (Clever - definition.) .Not is clever. He is smart. (Clever is a nominal member of a compound nominal predicate.)
Not all adjectives are used in these two functions. Adjectives alive (alive), afraid (scared), asleep (sleeping), awake (awake), ill (sick) and some others are used only as a nominal member of a compound nominal predicate.
To denote a lower or lowest degree of quality of one item compared to another, the adjective is usually preceded by the word less (less, less) or least (least of all).
Additional material.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
In English, just like in Russian, adjectives and adverbs have three degrees of comparison:
- positive
- comparative
- excellent.
In English there are two ways of constructing degrees of comparison.
1. For short (one syllable) words:
Notes:
The definite article is often used with a superlative adjective; When constructing degrees of comparison of adjectives in writing:
- the final consonant with the preceding short vowel is doubled: big (bigger ((the) biggest
- if there is a consonant before the final -y, then -y goes into -i:
easy (easy ((the) easiest; early (earlier ((the) earliest - when adding -er u -est, the final -e is omitted: (see large above). Spelling features do not affect pronunciation.
2. For long (two or more syllables) words:
It doesn't make sense to lengthen the word any further, so in English we add another short word in front:
- beautiful beautiful
- more beautiful
- easily easy
- more easily easier
- most easily
To pass values least and least of all (least) the words less and least are used respectively:
- less beautiful
- least beautiful least beautiful
Note:
Sometimes monosyllabic words form degrees of comparison using more / less or most / least , and conversely, words consisting of more than one syllable have -er / -est at the end; it depends only on the sound - if some form is perceived better by ear than another, it is put into the sentence: crisp - more crisp - (the) most crisp sounds better than crisp - crisper (the) crispest.
The forms of degrees of comparison of some adjectives and adverbs in English are not formed according to the rule:
Note: The word little can be either an adjective or an adverb; in this case it is used only as an adverb little; if you need to construct degrees of comparison from the adjective small, we use the word small (see above).
Note: the forms elder / eldest are used more often when the speaker is talking about members of his family:
- My father is older than my mother. My father is older than my mother.
- This is my eldest son. This is my eldest son.
In most other cases, degrees of comparison of adjectives are formed using method 1:
old old er old est
.The word most with the indefinite article (a most) is not a degree of comparison, but means very: a most beautiful girl is a very beautiful girl.
The word most can come before a noun or pronoun in plural(often with the preposition of) and has the meaning many/most:
Most people like this. Many people like it. Most of them will not be able to come. Most of them won't be able to come.The definite article is preserved before the superlative form even if there is no noun: Not is the best. He is the best.
To denote the comparative degree of an adjective, the word than is used; however, in order to avoid repetition of the same noun, the word one is often used as a substitute for this noun or a possessive pronoun in absolute form:
- My car is bigger than their one / theirs. My car is bigger than theirs.
- These cigars are stronger than those ones. These cigars are stronger than those.
In the second part of comparative constructions, you can use pronouns both in the objective case (colloquial version) and accusative case(literary version, usually with an auxiliary verb):
- She reads more than him / he does. She reads more than him.
- You are taller than me / I am. You are taller than me.
- Didn't come earlier than them / they did. He arrived earlier than them but
- I know him better than her. I know him better than her.
- I know him better than she does. I know him better than she does.
When comparing the same quality, the combination as ... as (same (same) ... as (s) / as (same) ... as (s) is used: She is as beautiful as my mother(She is as beautiful as my mother.
When comparing quality in a negative form, the combination not so ... as is more often used (not such ... as: I am not so beautiful as her / she is.(I'm not as beautiful as her.
When comparing with a multiple effect, the combination as ... as with numerals is used; the second as may be omitted if another comparison object is not mentioned in the situation:
- My sister is twice as beautiful (as yours).(My sister is twice as beautiful (as yours).
- His car is about three times as big (as my car).(His car is three times larger (mine).
The word half in such cases means half as much:
This liquid is half as strong (as that one).(This liquid is twice as weak (that one). I have half as much money (as you have).(I have half as much money (than you).Sometimes a comparison can be strengthened with the help of additional words; more often than others, much is used for this: much more / less beautiful;
The Russian version of than..., the... is translated into English the + comparative degree of the adjective... the + comparative degree of the adjective:
- The faster you come the more you will get. The faster you arrive, the more you will get.
- The sooner you do it the better. The sooner you do this, the better.
Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison: positive(original form), comparative(com parativ) And excellent(superlative). Grammatical category degrees of comparison acts as a grammaticalized core of the functional-semantic category of gradualism, the meaning of which is realized by multi-level linguistic means. The meaning of degrees of comparison is that the comparative degree conveys intensity of a feature in comparison with the same feature in another object .
Scientific discussion
From Aristotle to the present day, words conveying gradual meaning (measure, degree, magnitude of a characteristic, process, phenomenon, object), have been the object of study by many researchers 3 . M. V. Lomonosov in his “Russian Grammar” considered the degrees of comparison of the category subjective assessment. Russian grammarians of the 19th century. These aspects brought us closer together. Two categories of quality levels have been established - non-relative(old, old, old) And relative(the oldest of..., one is older than the other) .
Without calling the presented phenomena by a term gradualism, which is used by modern scientists, linguists have described a number of linguistic phenomena, corresponding to the very essence of gradualism. All theories and descriptions of various quality levels with historical point of view represented an important perspective in the study of gradualism. Since the 15th century. In the Russian language there are all kinds of forms with graduated meanings.
Characteristics, procedurality, objectivity in a certain way (to a greater or lesser extent) correlate with the concepts degree, measure. Most words in the modern Russian language express changeable and measurable ( qualitative) sign: degrees of comparison (adjectives); formations with augmentative and diminutive suffixes (nouns); ways of verbal action with the meaning of measure; gradual oppositions in the lexical system of language; gradational syntactic constructions; the use of gradation as a stylistic method. As graduated And graduated units, words are considered that, due to their semantic and grammatical features, are capable of expressing one or another degree (measure) of manifestation of a characteristic: “In everyday language, “compare” means expressing one’s attitude, “evaluating”, “measuring”, guided by our feelings and our passions."
Graduality– functional-semantic category with meaning measures, degrees of manifestation a sign, process, phenomenon, state expressed by multi-level linguistic means. Comparative degree ( comparative) denotes such variable attribute, which may appear in an object to a greater or lesser extent than in another object. Wed: This question more difficultprevious one. – This question more difficult,than the previous one. Excellent degree ( superlative) denotes such a variable characteristic that manifests itself in an object to the greatest or smallest extent than in another object: This the most difficultquestion of the topic being studied. - This the most difficultquestion of the topic being studied.
The forms of comparative and superlative degrees can be simple(synthetic) and complex(analytical).
Simple form comparative degree has indicators - suffixes -ee(s), -e: high – highere(alternating s//sh at the root of the word + truncation of the stem - suffix -ok-), strong – strongher (strong-to her) and so on. From adjectives good, bad, small Supplemental comparative forms are formed: good is better, bad is worse etc. The simple superlative degree is formed by adding suffixes -eysh-, - aish-: highaishyay, strongeishth etc. For example: Leo Tolstoy is a geniuseishth fromwriters of the 20th century.
Complex form comparative degrees are formed by additional words more/less+ positive degree: more (less)tall (kind).
Complex form excellent degrees are formed in several ways:
- a) using an additional (auxiliary) word (particles) most: most complex, highest and so on.;
- b) using additional (auxiliary) words most, least: least complex etc.;
- c) combination " simple form comparative + genitive pronoun Total(or everyone)": the hardest thing (of everyone) and etc.;
- d) the combination “reinforcing particle All + simple form of comparative degree": The pain in my heart became Allhote(M. Sholokhov).
In a sentence, a simple form usually performs a function predicate, and a composite can be like predicate, so and definition. Wed: She was more beautifulwhat he imagined her to be(L. Tolstoy).
The complex form of comparative and superlative degrees is formed from almost all qualitative adjectives. The simple form has limitations.
Forms of the simple comparative degree are not formed from adjectives:
- – with absolute qualitative value: bald, blind, lame, dumb, barefoot, deaf and so on.;
- – with a base on [ w"], [and]: beggar, stalwart and etc.;
- – with suffix -sk-: friendskoh, enemyskth etc.;
- - from some verbal adjectives with suffix -k-: padToyay, moveToyay, shatToth etc.;
- – with suffix -ov-/-ev-: badovoh, boevOuch and so on.;
- – with suffix -l-: unyloh, mouthlth etc.;
- – from individual adjectives that stand apart for reasons historical nature, For example proud, young and etc.
Simple superlative forms are not formed from adjectives:
- – with suffix -sk-: friendskoh, tragicskoh, enemyskth etc.;
- – with suffix -k-: bastardTooh, thunderToyay, ringingToth and so on.;
- – with suffix -ov-/-ev-: rowovoh, stroevoh, boevOuch and etc.;
- - from adjectives proud, young etc.
Excellent degree has two types of meaning:
- 1) manifestation of a sign in highest degree compared to other items ( superlative): oldest ofworkers and so on.;
- 2) expression extreme degree manifestations of a characteristic regardless of other objects (regardless of the large measure of the characteristic - elative): Got into stupidestposition, this raresthappening etc.
IN grammatical relatively complex shapes comparative And excellent degrees are no different from positive(original) degree. Simple comparative forms are unchangeable, cf.: House(s) (pine tree(s), building(s)) higher,how...
Syntactic(syntagmatic) conditions The use of morphological formations of different types in the Russian language is characterized by the following features.
1. Expressing the relative degree of presence of the characteristic, adjective in comparative or excellent degree is used as a gradual syntactic member – predicate or definitions. Wed:
So, reasoning, Selifan finally wandered into the most distant abstraction. Maybe it prompted him to do this another, more significant reason more serious, closer to the heart... But the reader will learn about all this gradually and in due time, if only he has the patience to read the proposed story, which is very long, which will then expand wider and more spacious as it approaches the end, which crowns the matter (N. Gogol).
These are complex, analytical formations. The role of the exponent is the word more(comparative degree) and words most or most(superlative). Superlative exponent most stylistically neutral, and the word most is bookish in nature. Wed:
Most typical cases; most simple question. - Disdaining the prudent comfort of castling, he sought to create the most unexpected, the most bizarre relationships between figures (V. Nabokov).
2. Adjectives in comparative degrees acting as definitions can express the result of a subjective assessment.
The shade of the meaning of a subjective assessment can be conveyed by lexical means, for example: elderly person (as opposed to old). Combined with the word more The adjective is used in both full and short form: this question is more important: important(composite form); this question is more important: more important(simple form). Short form more important conveys a state of mind in time: Currently this question more important.
Typical for the Russian language is the simple (synthetic) form of the comparative degree in -ee, -ey, -e. It is homonymous to the comparative form of the adverb. Wed: he behaves modestly(adv.); his demands are more modest(adj.).
Excellent The degree of the adjective, acting as a nominal predicate, has three forms similar to the forms of the comparative degree: this question is the most (important): most (important): most important of all (everything). If the superlative expresses quality inanimate or animate object, then preference is given to the forms “most + full form adjective":
This suitcase the heaviest; His job the best.– Vronsky is one of the sons of Count Kirill Ivanovich Vronsky and one of the best samples of gilded youth (L. Tolstoy).
- 3. Comparative degree in function predicate-predicate used in special comparative constructions in which the object of comparison is expressed in one way or another. It is formed in two ways:
- 1) connecting a simple comparative form with a genitive comparison: Wilson is more important than other birds(V. Mayakovsky);
- 2) by connecting a compound comparative form consisting of the word more and the short form of the positive degree, and the conjunction than: Wilson is more important than the other bird.
The first method should be considered the most common, because the use of “forms of the comparative degree is not limited to simple morphological rules. The types of formation and functioning of degrees of comparison in the Russian language should be studied and assimilated in close connection with the syntactic and semantic conditions of their use.”
All qualitative-evaluative and most qualitative adjectives form degrees of comparison, expressing different degrees of quality. But in a number of cases they do not have degrees of comparison due to their semantics: adjectives like mute, barefoot and so on. denote absolute quality and logically do not allow comparatives or superlatives. It is important to note that comparative and superlative degrees indicate different meanings as opposed to meaning positive degrees:
"She's at two meetings at once..."
(V. Mayakovsky)
Forms of comparative degree with prefix more (smarter, more fun, cheaper etc.), acting as a predicate, acquire the shade of a “softened” comparative degree: He's younger than me; He will be smarter than all of us. -
And the man - he was quick-witted,
He went after the bear,
He planted a spear in it
What higher navel, lower liver
- (meaning “slightly higher/lower”).
- (A. Pushkin)
Forms of adjectives on -ee, -e, -she with attachment By- indicate the predominance of some quality in one of the objects being compared: (book) more interesting; (boy) smarter and so on.
In combination with the genitive case of attributive pronouns Total or everyone(which, in essence, became formants, indicators of the superlative degree) The comparative degree takes on the meaning of the superlative. Such stable combinations carry the meaning of the highest degree of quality by comparative contrast anything other items in the aggregate and not from the same category. This complex shape elative, which does not match the shapes on -eysh-, -aysh-. For example:
What struck him most was that from Monday he would be Luzhin (V. Nabokov); And the geese screamed, / Disappearing in the sky, / What is most precious / The native side... (M. Isakovsky).
All three degrees represent a gradational series: rough: rougher: rudest; rough: more rough: the roughest and so on.
In russian language comparative degree is often used to mean excellent. This usage is distinguished by genitive case of the second element at a comparative degree. It can also be used with superlatives: best of all, richest of all. In some cases you may notice a “limited” meaning of the superlative – better (...) all others except one (two...).
Based on Otto Jespersen’s system of degrees of comparison, which excludes from consideration the superlative degree as a type of comparative, we will highlight the stages of gradation:
- 1.Superiority (>) more dangerous (better) than...
- 2. Equality(=) with as dangerous (good) as...
- 3. Lower degree(less dangerous (good) than... etc.
It's obvious that first and third steps are closely related because
in both cases it is expressed inequality. There are two ways of expression with opposite meanings, which make it possible to reverse the relations of the first and third steps: worse than = less good than. Based on this, the following can be established equality: older than = less young than. Wed:
Levin himself did not remember his mother, and his only his sister was older than him, so that in the Shcherbatskys’ house he saw for the first time that very environment of the old noble, educated and honest family, which he was deprived of by the death of his father and mother (L. Tolstoy).
Comparison Levin's sister is older than him doesn't mean that Sister is old and the comparative degree can therefore mean lesser degree than the positive in the expression Sister is old. Similar sentence Sister is older than Levin says nothing about Levin's old age; By old age Levina will be implied if we add the adverb more: The sister is even older than Levin. We see that such a use of the word more is not self-evident.
When negating a step superiority (1) Sister is not as old as Levin we get the value either equality(2), or lower degree(3). When negating a step equality(2) we get the value lower degree (3): less old than; younger than. Wed: And as old as V. An objection to this statement would be the following: Oh no, not as old as B, but much older.
There are designs proportional compliance, in which the determining element represents a period of time, but does not have an explicit expression. In such sentences the following meanings and features of their expression are revealed:
a) repetition of the comparative degree form:
It was becoming getting darker and darker (= the longer it has continued, the darker became). He was becoming more and more impatient; Heartache was getting hotter(M. Sholokhov);
b) formant All together with the comparative degree it forms the superlative degree: He said everything is more and more illegible.
V.V. Vinogradov pointed out that adjectives in - the greatest/- the greatest can have three meanings in modern Russian:
1) regardless of large measure (maximum degree) of the characteristic (elative meaning):
He is the smartest person; The weather is wonderful. – He began to tear out leaves and flowers in his hearts and sneezed from the smallest dust (V. Nabokov).
Some forms of the superlative degree break away from the paradigm and appear in the meaning of the elative, i.e. in the sense of an absolutely greater degree of quality: greatest scientist(does not mean the greatest) ,
- 2) excellent degrees: the most faithful of friends, the greatest poet,
- 3) comparative degrees (a meaning almost lost in modern Russian, but which has left traces in phraseology): upon closer inspection.
The most common is the use of forms on -the greatest/-the greatest in an elative sense. Such forms in free combinations have an evaluative character. Wed:
I found myself in a stupid situation; This is a rare case, etc. - This the smartest, most decent and most talented man (N. Gogol); But nothing of the sort happened, he listened calmly, and when his father, who was trying to pick up the most curious, most attractive(= “evaluative character”) details, said, among other things, that as an adult he would be called by his last name, the son blushed, blinked, leaned back on the pillow, opening his mouth and shaking his head... (V. Nabokov).
Gradual-evaluative value of the superlative degree of the form on -the greatest/-the greatest realized in combination with the preposition from:the most brilliant of (musicians), oldest of (workers)) and so on. For example:
And as in my cart... with clothes and linen there was also a bed, then in my misfortune I honored myself happiest of mortals (A. Pushkin).
Elative meaning is very close to the category of subjective evaluation. Elative forms express gradual meaning and serve to express the extreme degree of quality without indicating the relationship to other objects: Tiny specks of dust fluttered in the air; I found a rare specimen.
Consequently, the formal means of expressing the meanings of measure and degree (graduality) in the field of qualitative adjectives (and qualitative adverbs) is morphological level concerning the properties of morphemes and cases of analytical formation. As a grammaticalized core gradualism the corresponding category appears degrees of comparison – comparative, superlativeAndelative
- Cm.: Kolesnikova S. M. Semantics of gradualism and ways of expressing it in modern Russian. M., 1998; Hers. Functional-semantic category of gradualism in modern Russian language. M., 2010. pp. 78-86.
- See additional: Falev I. A. On the question of degrees of comparison in the modern Russian language // Language and thinking. Vol. 9. M.; L. 1940; Nikulin A. S. Degrees of comparison in modern Russian. M.; L., 1937; Knyazev Yu. P. On the semantics of degrees of comparison of adjectives // Scientific notes of the Tartu State University. un-ta. T. 524: Problems of intrastructural functional description language. Tartu, 1980; Kolesnikova S. M. Degrees of comparison of adjectives and the intensity of the attribute they express // Russian language at school. 1998. No. 5.
- Wed: Galich G. G. Gradual characteristics of qualitative adjectives, verbs and nouns of the modern German language: abstract. dis.... cand. Philol. Sci. L., 1981; Kharitonchik Z. A. Turansky I. I. Semantic category of intensity in modern English. M., 1990; Novikov L. A. Antonymy in Russian. M., 1973; Arutyunova N. D. Language and the human world. M., 1999; Apresyan Yu. D. Lexical semantics. Synonymous means of language. M., 1974; Wolf E. M. Functional semantics of evaluation. M., 1985; Ubin I. I. Lexical means of expressing intensity (based on the Russian and English languages): abstract. dis.... cand. Philol. Sci. M., 1974; Turansky I. I. Semantic category of intensity in English. M., 1990; Vorotnikov Yu. L. Degrees of quality in modern Russian language. M., 1999; Norman V. Yu. Gradation in the Russian language // Qnantitat und Graduierungals kognitiv-semantische Kategorien. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz verlg, 2001. pp. 381-403. Sapir E. Graduation: semantic research// New in foreign linguistics. M., 1986. P. 43; Halina N.V. The category of gradualism in words and texts. Barnaul, 1993; Krzhizhkova E. Quantitative determination of adjectives in the Russian language (lexico-syntactic + analysis) // Syntax and norm. M., 1974. S. 122-144; Bolinger D. Degree words. Paris: Mouton, 1972; Studia gramatyezne bulgarsko-polskie. T. 3: Ilosc, gradaeja, osoba. Wroclaw, 1989; Kolesnikova S. M. Graduality: linguistic description (based on the Russian language) // Akademiai Kiado. Budapest, 2011; Repasi D., Szekely G. On gradualism in a comparative aspect // Bulletin of MGOU. Ser. "Russian Philology". Vol. 5. M., 2010. P. 110-117; Kolesnikova S. M. Functional-semantic category of gradualism in the modern Russian language // Modern Nyelvoktatas: A Magyar Alkalmazott Nyelveszek es Nyelvtanarok Egyesfiletenek folyoirata. XVI. 2010. S. 116-118; Sjostrom S. Spatial relations: Towards a theory of spatial verbs, prepositions, a pronominal adverbs in Swedish. Goteborg: Dept. of linguistics, 1990.
- Kartsevsky S. O. Comparison // Questions of linguistics. 1976. No. 1. P. 112.
- Isachenko A.V. The grammatical structure of the Russian language in comparison with Slovak. Bratislava, 1965. P. 201.
- Cm.: Jespersen O. Philosophy of grammar: trans. from English M., 1958.
Adjectives (Adjectives) are words that express qualities, characteristics of objects. They answer the question Which?. In a sentence, they usually define a noun. In English they do not change either by gender, or by number, or by case:
a little girl - little girl
a little boy - little boy
little children - little children
With a little boy - with a little boy.
Adjectives change only by degrees of comparison (Degrees of Comparison). There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives: positive (Positive Degree), comparative (Comparative Degree), excellent (Superlative Degree).
Rules for the formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives.
Adjectives in the positive degree do not have any endings, for example: quick (fast), slow (slow), old (old), new (new). The comparative and superlative degrees are formed using the suffixes -er and -est or by adding the words more (more) and most (most). The choice of method depends on the original form of the adjective.
Monosyllabic and some two-syllable adjectives form the comparative degree with the suffix -er, and the superlative degree with the suffix -est. Using the suffixes -er, -est, degrees of comparison are formed into two-syllable adjectives ending in -er, -ow, -y, -le (clever, narrow, early, simple).
Here are some examples:
One- and two-syllable adjectives
| Positive degree | comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|
| high - high | higher – higher, higher | highest - the highest |
| small - small | smaller - less | smallest – smallest, smallest |
| strong - strong | stronger – stronger, stronger | strongest - the strongest |
| cheap - cheap | cheaper - cheaper, cheaper | cheapest - the cheapest |
| quick - fast | quicker - faster | quickest - the fastest |
| new - new | newer – newer | newest - the newest |
| clean - clean | cleaner – cleaner, cleaner | cleanest - the cleanest |
| cold - cold | colder – colder, colder | coldest - the coldest |
| short - short | shorter - shorter, shorter | shortest - the shortest |
| great – great, big | greater - more | greatest – the greatest, greatest |
| weak - weak | weaker - weaker | weakest - the weakest |
| deep – deep | deeper – deeper, deeper | deepest - the deepest |
| low - low | lower - lower | lowest - the lowest |
| clever - smart | cleverer – smarter, more intelligent | cleverest – smartest, most intelligent |
| narrow - narrow | narrower - narrower | narrowest - the narrowest |
| shallow - small | shallower - smaller | shallowest - the smallest |
When writing you must comply certain rules spelling.
1. If an adjective has a short vowel and ends in one consonant, then in the comparative and superlative degrees this consonant is doubled:
big – bigger – biggest
big - bigger - biggest, biggest
Fat – fatter – fattest
thick, fatty – thicker – the thickest
Wet-wetter-wettest
wet, humid – more humid – the most humid
Sad – sadder – saddest
sad, sad – sadder – saddest
thin – thinner – thinnest
thin, thin – thinner – thinnest
2. If the adjective ends with a letter -y with a preceding consonant, then in the comparative and superlative degrees the letter y changes to i:
Easy – easier – easiest
light - lighter - lightest, lightest
early – earlier – earliest
early – earlier – earliest
dry – drier – driest
dry, arid – drier – driest
But the word shy (shy, fearful) does not obey this rule and forms degrees of comparison as follows:
shy – shyer – shyest.
3. If the adjective ends with a letter -e, then in the comparative and superlative degrees it is added -r, -st:
wide – wider – widest
wide - wider - widest, widest
late – later – latest
late – later – the latest
fine – finer – finest
good, wonderful – better – the best
simple – simpler – simplest
simple - simpler - simplest
Polysyllabic adjectives, i.e. Adjectives consisting of three or more syllables form degrees of comparison using the words more for the comparative degree and most for the superlative degree. Consider the following examples:
Polysyllabic adjectives
| Positive degree | comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|
| interesting – interesting | more interesting – more interesting | most interesting - the most interesting |
| beautiful – beautiful | more beautiful - more beautiful | most beautiful - the most beautiful |
| expensive - expensive | more expensive - more expensive | most expensive - the most expensive |
| difficult - difficult | more difficult – more difficult | most difficult - the most difficult |
| dangerous – dangerous | more dangerous – more dangerous | most dangerous - the most dangerous |
| important - important | more important - more important | most important - the most important |
| comfortable - convenient | more comfortable - more comfortable | most comfortable - the most convenient |
In the same way, i.e. Using the words more for the comparative degree and most for the superlative degree, some two-syllable words that end in -ed and - are formed into degrees of comparison.