The best that history can give us is the enthusiasm it generates.
Goethe
The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access and capture the port cities Baltic Sea, which should have significantly improved economic situation Rus, by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levonian War, as well as all its aspects.
The beginning of the Livonian War
The sixteenth century was a period of incessant wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Rus.
The wars were fought along several lines:
- East direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
- South direction foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
- Western direction - events of a long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War(1558-1583), which will be discussed.
Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of the crusader conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltic people were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the elite.
Reasons for the start of the Livonian War
Ivan 4 the Terrible started the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar strove to push the state borders back in order to gain access to the shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:
- Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livni Order and Russia signed a document, according to which the first were obliged to pay the city of Yuryev an annual tribute. In 1557, the Order single-handedly removed itself from this obligation.
- Weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the background of national disagreements.
Speaking of the reason, emphasis should be placed on the fact that Livonia separated Russia from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles who wanted to appropriate new lands were interested in the capture of Livonia. But the main reason we can highlight the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he fought the war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.
The course of the war and the main events
The Livonian War was fought with long intervals and is historically divided into four stages.
The first stage of the war
At the first stage (1558-1561), hostilities were relatively successful for Russia. In the first months, the Russian army captured Dorpat and Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for an armistice. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order passed under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.
The most dangerous adversary for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were unhappy with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelty of the war, extortions and other disasters.
Second stage of the war
The second stage of the war (1562-1570) began when the new masters of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War end, and Russia was left with nothing as a result. After the Tsar's refusal to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could be continued only under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the "Chosen Rada".
It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united in united state- Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.
Third stage of the war
The third stage (1570-1577) is the battles of local importance between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were of a local nature and had no significant impact on the course of the war.
Fourth stage of the war
At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577-1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic region, but soon the tsar's luck turned away and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of the united Poland and Lithuania (Rzecz Pospolita) Stefan Batory expelled Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.). Fighting accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Assistance to the Commonwealth since 1579 was provided by Sweden, which operated very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.
From complete defeat Russia was saved by the defense of Pskov (from August 1581). During the 5 months of the siege, the garrison and residents of the city repulsed 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.
The end of the war and its results
The Yam-Zapolsk truce between the Russian kingdom and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Plus Peace Treaty was signed in 1583.
Thus, the following causes of defeat can be distinguished The Russian state, which summarizes the results of the Liovna war:
- adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage a war with three strong states;
- the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attack.
- A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.
Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the directions of Russian foreign policy on long years forward - to get access to the Baltic Sea.
In 1558 he declared war on the Livonian Order. The reason for the start of the war was the fact that the Livonians detained 123 Western specialists on their way to Russia on their territory. There are also many important role played the non-payment of tribute by the Livonians for their capture of St. George's (Dorpat) in 1224. The company, which began in 1558 and continued until 1583, was named the Livonian War. The Livonian War can be divided into three periods, each of which came with varying degrees of success for the Russian army.
The first period of the war
In 1558 - 1563, Russian troops finally completed the defeat of the Livonian Order (1561), took a number of Livonian cities: Narva, Dorpat, approached Tallinn and Riga. The last major success of the Russian troops at this time was the capture of Polotsk in 1563. From 1563 it became clear that the Livonian War was becoming a protracted one for Russia.
Second period of the Livonian War
The second period of the Livonian War begins in 1563 and ends in 1578. The war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Russian economy was weakened due to ruin. A prominent Russian military leader, a former member betrays and goes over to the side of the opponents. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania were united into a single state - Rzeczpospolita.
Third period of the war
The third period of the war takes place in 1579-1583. During these years, Russian troops were fighting defensive battles, where the Russians lost several of their cities, such as: Polotsk (1579), Velikie Luki (1581). The third period of the Livonian War was marked by the heroic defense of Pskov. Voivode Shuisky headed the defense of Pskov. The city held out for five months, and repulsed about 30 assaults. This event allowed Russia to sign a truce.
Results of the Livonian War
The results of the Livonian War were disappointing for the Russian state. As a result of the Livonian War, Russia lost its Baltic lands, which were captured by Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War severely depleted Russia. And the main task of this war - gaining access to the Baltic Sea, was never accomplished.
Livonian War 1558 - 1583 - the largest military conflict of the 16th century. in Eastern Europe, which took place on the territory of present-day Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Leningrad, Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk and Yaroslavl regions of the Russian Federation and Chernigov region of Ukraine. Participants - Russia, Livonian Confederation(Livonian Order, Riga Archdiocese, Dorpat Bishopric, Ezel Bishopric and Courland Bishopric), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Zemait, Poland (in 1569 two last states merged into the federal state Rzeczpospolita), Sweden, Denmark.
The beginning of the war
It was started by Russia in January 1558 as a war with the Livonian Confederation: according to one version - with the aim of acquiring commercial ports in the Baltic, according to the other - with the aim of forcing the Dorpat bishopric to pay the "Yuryevsky tribute" (which was to be paid to Russia under the agreement of 1503 for the possession of the former Old Russian city of Yuryev (Dorpat, now Tartu) and the acquisition of new lands for distribution to the nobles in the estate.
After the defeat of the Livonian Confederation and the transition in 1559-1561 of its members to the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Zemait, Sweden and Denmark, the Livonian War turned into a war between Russia and the indicated states, as well as with Poland, which was in personal union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. , Russian and Zhemoytsky. The opponents of Russia sought to keep the Livonian territories under their rule, and also to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the event of the transfer of trade ports in the Baltic to her. At the end of the war, Sweden also set itself the goal of seizing Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Izhora land (Ingria) - and thus cutting off Russia from the Baltic.
Russia signed a peace treaty with Denmark in August 1562; she fought with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Zhemait and Poland with varying success until January 1582 (when the Yam-Zapolsk truce was concluded), and with Sweden, also with varying success, until May 1583 (before the conclusion of the Plyussky truce ).
The course of the war
In the first period of the war (1558-1561), hostilities took place on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia). Military actions alternated with truces. During the campaigns of 1558, 1559 and 1560, Russian troops captured many cities, defeated the troops of the Livonian Confederation at Tyrzen in January 1559 and at Ermes in August 1560, and forced the states of the Livonian Confederation to join large states North and of Eastern Europe or admit a vassalage to them.
In the second period (1561 - 1572), hostilities took place in Belarus and the Smolensk region, between the troops of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Zhemait. On February 15, 1563, the army of Ivan IV captured the largest of the cities of the principality - Polotsk. An attempt to move further into the interior of Belarus led to the defeat of the Russians in January 1564 at Chashniki (on the Ulla River). Then there was a break in hostilities.
In the third period (1572 - 1578), hostilities again moved to Livonia, which the Russians tried to take from the Commonwealth and Sweden. During the campaigns of 1573, 1575, 1576 and 1577, Russian troops captured almost all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina. However, an attempt to take Revel from the Swedes in 1577 failed, and in October 1578 the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish army defeated the Russians at Wenden.
In the fourth period (1579 - 1582), the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stefan Batory undertook three major campaigns against Russia. In August 1579 he returned Polotsk, in September 1580 he captured Velikie Luki, and on August 18, 1581 - on February 4, 1582 he unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. At the same time, in 1580 - 1581, the Swedes took away from the Russians the Narva they had captured in 1558 and seized the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ingria. The siege of the Oreshek fortress by the Swedes in September - October 1582 ended in failure. Nevertheless, Russia, which had to be resisted also To the Crimean Khanate, as well as suppress the uprisings in the former Kazan Khanate, she could no longer fight.
Results of the war
As a result of the Livonian War, most of the German states that arose on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia) in the 13th century ceased to exist. (with the exception of the Duchy of Courland).
Russia not only was unable to acquire any territory in Livonia, but also lost the access to the Baltic Sea that it had before the war (however, it had already returned as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1590-1593). The war led to economic ruin, which contributed to the emergence of a socio-economic crisis in Russia, which then escalated into the Troubles of the early 17th century.
The Commonwealth began to control most of the Livonian lands (Livonia and the southern part of Estonia became part of it, and Courland became a vassal state to it - the Duchy of Courland and Semigal). Sweden received the northern part of Estonia, and Denmark - the islands of Ezel (now Saaremaa) and Moon (Muhu).
In parallel with the internal breakdown and the struggle in 1558, there was a stubborn struggle for the Baltic coast near Grozny. The Baltic issue was at that time one of the most difficult international issues... Many Baltic states argued for dominance in the Baltic, and Moscow's efforts to stand firmly on the seashore raised Sweden, Poland and Germany against the "Muscovites". It must be admitted that Grozny chose the right moment to intervene in the struggle. Livonia, on which he directed his blow, was at that time, in apt expression, a country of antagonisms. There was a century-old tribal struggle between the Germans and the aborigines of the region - Latvians, Livs and Estonians. This struggle often took the form of an acute social clash between the newcomer feudal lords and the native serf mass. With the development of the Reformation in Germany, religious fermentation spread to Livonia, preparing the secularization of the Order's possessions. Finally, all other antagonisms were joined by a political one: between the authorities of the Order and the Archbishop of Riga there was a chronic strife for supremacy, and at the same time there was a constant struggle with cities for independence. Livonia, in the words of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, "was a miniature repetition of the Empire without the unifying power of Caesar." The decay of Livonia did not escape from Grozny. Moscow demanded recognition of dependence from Livonia and threatened with conquest. The question was raised about the so-called Yuryev (Dorpat) tribute. From the local obligation of Mr. Dorpat to pay for something to the Grand Duke a "duty" or tribute, Moscow made a pretext for establishing its patronage over Livonia, and then for war. In two years (1558-1560) Livonia was defeated by Moscow troops and disintegrated. In order not to surrender to the hated Muscovites, Livonia succumbed to other neighbors in parts: Livonia was annexed to Lithuania, Estland to Sweden, Fr. Ezel - to Denmark, and Courland was secularized in fief dependence on the Polish king. Lithuania and Sweden demanded that Grozny cleanse their new possessions. Grozny did not want to, and thus the Livonian War from 1560 turns into the Lithuanian and Swedish War.
This war dragged on for a long time. Initially, Grozny had great success in Lithuania: in 1563 he took Polotsk, and his troops reached Vilna itself. In 1565-1566. Lithuania was ready for an honorable peace for Grozny and ceded all its acquisitions to Moscow. But Zemsky Cathedral 1566 spoke in favor of continuing the war with the aim of further land acquisitions: they wished the whole of Livonia and the Polotsk povet to the city of Polotsk. The war continued sluggishly. With the death of the last Jagiellon (1572), when Moscow and Lithuania were in a truce, even Ivan the Terrible's candidacy for the throne of Lithuania and Poland, united into the Commonwealth, arose. But this candidacy had no luck: first Heinrich of Valois was elected, and then (1576) - the Semigrad prince Stefan Batory (in Moscow "Obatur"). With the advent of Batory, the picture of the war changed. Lithuania from defense went on the offensive. Batory took Polotsk from Grozny (1579), then Velikie Luki (1580) and, having brought the war to the Moscow state, besieged Pskov (1581). Grozny was defeated not only because Batory had a military talent and a good army, but also because by this time Grozny had run out of means of war. As a result of the internal crisis that struck the Moscow state and society at that time, the country, in modern terms, "became exhausted into the wasteland and came to desolation." The properties and significance of this crisis will be discussed below; now let us note that the same lack of forces and means paralyzed the success of Ivan the Terrible against the Swedes in Estland.
Siege of Pskov by Stephen Bathory in 1581. Painting by Karl Bryullov, 1843
The failure of Batory near Pskov, who was heroically defended, allowed Grozny, through the papal ambassador, Jesuit Possevin (Antonius Possevinus), to begin peace negotiations. In 1582, a peace was concluded (more precisely, a truce for 10 years) with Batory, to whom Grozny ceded all his conquests in Livonia and Lithuania, and in 1583 Grozny made peace with Sweden on the fact that he ceded Estonia to her and, moreover, his land from Narova to Lake Ladoga along the coast of the Gulf of Finland (Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye, Oreshek, Korelu). Thus, the struggle, which dragged on for a quarter of a century, ended in complete failure. The reasons for the failure lie, of course, in the discrepancy between Moscow's forces and the goal set by Grozny. But this discrepancy was revealed later than Grozny began the struggle: Moscow began to decline only from the 70s of the 16th century. Until then, its forces seemed enormous not only to Moscow patriots, but also to the enemies of Moscow. The performance of Grozny in the struggle for the Baltic Sea, the appearance of Russian troops near the Gulfs of Riga and Finland and hired Moscow marque in the Baltic waters struck Central Europe. In Germany, the "Muscovites" were seen as a terrible enemy; the danger of their invasion was noted not only in official relations of the authorities, but also in the vast volatile literature of leaflets and brochures. Measures were taken to keep neither Muscovites from the sea nor Europeans in Moscow and, by separating Moscow from the centers of European culture, to prevent its political strengthening. In this agitation against Moscow and Grozny, a lot of unreliable was invented about the Moscow morals and despotism of Grozny, and a serious historian should always bear in mind the danger of repeating political slander, taking it for an objective historical source.
To what has been said about the policies of Grozny and the events of his time, it is necessary to add the mention of a very known fact the appearance of English ships in the mouths of the S. Dvina and the beginning of trade relations with England (1553-1554), as well as the conquest of the Siberian kingdom by a detachment of Stroganov Cossacks headed by Yermak (1582-1584). Both were coincidences for Grozny; but both the Moscow government was able to take advantage of. In 1584, at the mouths of the S. Dvina, Arkhangelsk was set up as a seaport for fair bargaining with the British, and the British were able to trade in the entire Russian north, which they very quickly and clearly studied. In those same years, the occupation of Western Siberia was already begun by the government, and not by the Stroganovs alone, and many cities were installed in Siberia with the "capital" Tobolsk at the head.
Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
higher professional education
RUSSIAN STATE HUMANITARIAN UNIVERSITY
Institute of Economics, Management and Law
FACULTY OF ECONOMICS
Bubble Christina Radievna
"The Livonian War, its political meaning and the consequences "
Abstract on the history of Russia
1st year student of correspondence course.
2009- Moscow.
INTRODUCTION -2-
1. Background of the Livonian War -3-
2. The course of the war -4-
2.1. War with the Livonian Confederation -5-
2.2. Truce of 1559 -8-
2.3. War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania -10-
2.4. The third period of the war -11-
2.5. The fourth period of the war -12-
3. Results and consequences of the Livonian War -12-
CONCLUSION -14-
REFERENCES -15-
INTRODUCTION
The history of the Livonian War, despite the study of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the opposing sides, the results of the military clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the kaleidoscope of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other major foreign policy actions of the Moscow state in the second half of the 16th century.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the formation of a strong centralized state - Muscovite Russia - was completed on Russian lands, which sought to expand its territory at the expense of lands belonging to other peoples. For the successful implementation of its political aspirations and economic goals, this state needed to establish close ties with Western Europe, which could be achieved only after gaining free access to the Baltic Sea.
By the middle of the 16th century. Russia owned a small stretch of coastline on the Baltic Sea from Ivangorod to the mouth of the Neva, where there were no good harbors. This hindered the development of the Russian economy. To participate in the lucrative sea trade and intensify political and cultural ties with Western Europe, the country needed to expand its access to the Baltic, gaining such convenient ports as Revel (Tallinn) and Riga. The Livonian Order obstructed the Russian transit trade through the Eastern Baltic in an attempt to create an economic blockade of Muscovy. But the united Russia became much more powerful than the Livonian Order and finally decided to conquer these lands by force of arms.
The main goal of the Livonian War, which was led by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible with the Livonian Confederation of States (Livonian Order, Archbishopric of Riga, Dorpat, Ezel-Vik and Courland bishoprics) was the conquest of the outlet to the Baltic Sea.
The aim of this work is to study the political meaning of the Livonian War and its consequences.
Background of the Livonian War
Reforms of the state apparatus, which strengthened the armed forces of Russia, and the successful solution of the Kazan issue allowed the Russian state to begin the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea. The Russian nobility sought to acquire new lands in the Baltic States, and the merchants hoped to gain free access to European markets.
Livonian feudal lords, as well as the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, pursued a policy of economic blockade of Russia.
The Livonian Confederation was interested in controlling the transit of Russian trade and significantly limited the possibilities of Russian merchants. In particular, the entire trade exchange with Europe could be carried out only through the Livonian ports of Riga, Lindanise (Revel), Narva, and goods could only be transported on the ships of the Hanseatic League. At the same time, fearing a military and economic strengthening of Russia, the Livonian Confederation prevented the transport of strategic raw materials and specialists to Russia (see the Schlitte case), receiving the assistance of the Hansa, Poland, Sweden and the German imperial authorities in this.
In 1503, Ivan III concluded an armistice with the Livonian Confederation for 50 years, according to the terms of which it had to pay tribute annually (the so-called "Yuryev's tribute") for the city of Yuryev (Dorpat), which had previously belonged to Novgorod. Moscow treaties with Dorpat XVI century. traditionally mentioned about the "Yuryev tribute", but in fact it has long been forgotten. When the truce expired, during negotiations in 1554, Ivan IV demanded the return of arrears, the refusal of the Livonian Confederation from military alliances with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, and the continuation of the truce.
The first payment of the debt for Dorpat was supposed to take place in 1557, but the Livonian Confederation did not fulfill its obligation.
In the spring of 1557, on the banks of the Narva, Tsar Ivan IV built a port ( "The same year, July, a city was set up from the Nemets Ust-Narova-river Rossene by the sea for a shelter for a sea ship"). However, Livonia and the Hanseatic League do not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they are forced to go, as before, to the Livonian ports.
The Estonian and Latvian peoples have been associated with the Russian people since the days of the Old Russian state. This connection was interrupted as a result of the conquest of the Baltic by the German crusaders and the creation of the Livonian Order there.
Fighting against the German feudal lords, the working masses of Estonia and Latvia saw the Russian people as their ally, and the annexation of the Baltic states to Russia as an opportunity for their further economic and cultural development.
By the middle of the XVI century. the Baltic issue began to occupy a prominent place in the international relations of the European powers. Along with Russia, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were especially interested in accessing the Baltic Sea, in the economy of which trade with the countries of Western Europe was of significant importance. Sweden and Denmark took an active part in the struggle for the Baltic States, striving to strengthen their economic and political positions in this region. During this struggle, Denmark usually acted as an ally of Ivan IV, and Denmark's enemy was Sweden in 1554-1557. waged a fruitless three-year war with Russia. Finally, England and Spain, competing with each other, were also interested in the Eastern European sales markets. Thanks to friendly diplomatic and trade relations with Russia, England already from the end of the 50s of the XVI century. strongly pressed on the Baltic markets of the Hanseatic people who traded in Flanders cloth.
Thus, the Livonian War began in difficult international conditions, when its progress was closely watched or participated in by the largest European powers.
The course of the war
By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Confederation was weakened by a series of military defeats and the Reformation. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after the victories over the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the annexation of Kabarda.
War with the Livonian Confederation
The invasion of the Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. It was attended by 40 thousand people under the command of Khan Shig-Alei (Shah-Ali), the governor of Glinsky and Zakharyin-Yuriev. They passed through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March. The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers to settle accounts with Moscow in order to end the outbreak of the war. However, by May, only half of the claimed amount had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired at the Ivangorod border outpost, thereby violating the armistice agreement.
This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put in the field, not counting the serf garrisons, no more than 10 thousand. Thus, its main military property was the powerful stone walls of fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.
Voevods Aleksey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Focht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon Chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Mother of God into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the city walls, the Russians rushed to the assault. They broke through the gate and took possession lower town... Capturing the guns that were there, the warriors turned them around and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, the defenders of the castle surrendered in the evening themselves, on the terms of a free exit from the city.
The defense of the Neuhausen fortress distinguished itself with particular perseverance. It was protected by several hundred soldiers, led by the knight von Padenorm, who for almost a month repelled the onslaught of the voivode Peter Shuisky. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by the Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to keep the defense here, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue the senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Pyotr Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.
In July P. Shuisky laid siege to Derpt. The city was defended by a garrison of 2,000 under the command of the Bishop of Weyland. Having built a rampart at the level of the fortress walls and installed guns on it, on July 11, Russian artillery began shelling the city. The cannonballs pierced the roof tiles of houses, filling up the inhabitants who were hiding there. On July 15, P. Shuisky offered Weyland to surrender. While he was thinking, the bombardment continued. Several towers and loopholes were destroyed. Having lost hope for outside help, the besieged decided to enter into negotiations with the Russians. P. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city to its foundations and to keep its inhabitants the previous administration. On July 18, 1558, Dorpat surrendered. The troops settled in the houses abandoned by the inhabitants. In one of them, the warriors found 80 thousand thalers in a cache. The Livonian historian bitterly narrates that the Dorpat people, because of their greed, lost more than the Russian tsar demanded from them. The funds found would be enough not only for the Yuryev tribute, but also for hiring troops to protect the Livonian Confederation.
In May-October 1558, Russian troops took 20 fortress cities, including those who voluntarily surrendered and became citizens of the Russian tsar, after which they left for winter quarters to their borders, leaving small garrisons in the cities. The new energetic Master Gotthard Kettler took advantage of this. Having collected 10 thousand. army, he decided to return the lost. At the end of 1558, Kettler approached the Ringen fortress, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers under the command of the governor Rusin-Ignatiev. A detachment of Voivode Repnin (2 thousand people) went to the aid of the besieged, but it was defeated by Kettler. However, the Russian garrison continued to defend the fortress for five weeks, and only when the defenders ran out of gunpowder did the Germans manage to take the fortress by storm. The entire garrison was killed. Having lost a fifth of his army (2 thousand people) at Ringen and having spent more than a month on the siege of one fortress, Kettler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October 1558, his army withdrew to Riga. This small victory turned into a big disaster for the Livonians.
In response to the actions of the Livonian Confederation, two months after the fall of the Ringen fortress, Russian troops carried out a winter raid, which was a punitive operation. In January 1559, the prince-voivode Silver, at the head of the army, entered Livonia. The Livonian army under the command of the knight Felkenzam came out to meet him. On January 17, at the Battle of Terzen, the Germans were completely defeated. Felkenzam and 400 knights (not counting ordinary soldiers) died in this battle, the rest were captured or fled. This victory opened the gates to Livonia wide for the Russians. They freely passed through the lands of the Livonian Confederation, captured 11 cities and reached Riga, where they burned the Riga fleet in the Dunamun roadstead. Then Courland lay on the way of the Russian army and, passing it, reached the Prussian border. In February, the army returned home with huge booty and a large number of prisoners.
After the winter raid of 1559, Ivan IV granted the Livonian Confederation a truce (the third in a row) from March to November, without consolidating his success. This miscalculation was due to a number of reasons. Serious pressure was exerted on Moscow from Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark, which had their own views on the Livonian lands. Since March 1559, the Lithuanian ambassadors insistently demanded that Ivan IV cease hostilities in Livonia, threatening, otherwise, to side with the Livonian Confederation. Soon, Swedish and Danish ambassadors made requests to end the war.
By its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade in the Baltic Sea was then growing from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant. Revel merchants, who were deprived of the most important item of their profits - income from Russian transit, complained to the Swedish king: “ We stand on the walls and with tears watch as merchant ships pass our city to the Russians in Narva».
In addition, the presence of the Russians in Livonia hurt the complex and confusing general European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent. So, for example, the Polish king Sigismund II August wrote to the English queen Elizabeth I about the importance of Russians in Livonia: “ The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, for here, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him ... military specialists come, through which he acquires the means to defeat everyone ...».
The ceasefire was also conditioned by disagreements over foreign strategy within the Russian leadership itself. There, in addition to supporters of access to the Baltic Sea, there were those who supported the continuation of the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. In fact, the main initiator of the armistice in 1559 was the okolnichy Aleksey Adashev. This group reflected the sentiments of those circles of the nobility who, in addition to eliminating the threat from the steppes, wanted to receive a large additional land fund in steppe zone... During this truce, the Russians struck a blow at the Crimean Khanate, which, however, had no significant consequences. The truce with Livonia had more global consequences.
The region was annexed to Russia and immediately received special benefits. The cities of Dorpat and Narva were given: complete amnesty for residents, free practice of their faith, city government, judicial autonomy and duty-free trade with Russia. They began to restore Narva, destroyed after the assault, and even provided a loan to local landowners at the expense of the royal treasury. All this seemed so tempting for the rest of the Livonians, who had not yet been conquered by the "infernal Tatars", that by autumn another 20 cities had voluntarily passed under the rule of the "bloody despot".
Truce of 1559
Already in the first year of the war, in addition to Narva, Yuriev (July 18), Neishloss, Neigauz were occupied, the troops of the Livonian Confederation were defeated at Tirzen near Riga, Russian troops reached Kolyvan. The raids of the Crimean Tatar hordes on the southern borders of Russia, which happened already in January 1558, could not shackle the initiative of the Russian troops in the Baltic.
However, in March 1559, under the influence of Denmark and representatives of the large boyars, who hindered the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, an armistice was concluded with the Livonian Confederation, which lasted until November. The historian RG Skrynnikov emphasizes that the Russian government, represented by Adashev and Viskovaty, "had to conclude a truce on the western borders," as it was preparing for a "decisive clash on the southern border."
During the armistice (August 31), the Livonian Land Master of the Teutonic Order, Gotthard Kettler, concluded an agreement with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II in Vilna, according to which the lands of the order and the possessions of the Riga Archbishop were transferred under "clientele and patronage", that is, under the protectorate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the same 1559, Revel ceded to Sweden, and the Ezel bishop ceded the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to Duke Magnus, brother of the Danish king, for 30 thousand thalers.
Taking advantage of the delay, the Livonian Confederation gathered reinforcements, and a month before the end of the armistice in the vicinity of Yuryev, its troops attacked the Russian troops. Russian governors lost more than 1000 people killed.
In 1560 the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg was taken (now Aluksne in Latvia); German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed.
During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Wilhelm von Fürstenberg, was captured. In 1575, he sent his brother a letter from Yaroslavl, where the former landmaster was granted land. He told a relative that "he has no reason to complain about his fate."
Having acquired the Livonian lands, Sweden and Lithuania demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused and Russia found itself in conflict with the coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.
War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
On November 26, 1561, the German emperor Ferdinand I banned the supply of Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blocked the Narva port and sent Swedish privateers to intercept the merchant ships sailing to Narva.
In 1562, Lithuanian troops raided the Smolensk region and Velizh. In the summer of the same year, the situation on the southern borders of the Moscow state worsened, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to autumn.
The way to the Lithuanian capital Vilna was closed by Polotsk. In January 1563, the Russian army, which included "almost all the armed forces of the country", came out to capture this frontier fortress from Velikiye Luki. Early February Russian army began the siege of Polotsk, and on February 15 the city surrendered.
Mercy for the vanquished was typical of the army of Grozny: when Polotsk was recaptured from the Poles in 1563, Ivan released the garrison in peace, presenting each Pole with a sable fur coat, and the city retaining legal proceedings according to local laws.
Nevertheless, Ivan the Terrible was cruel towards the Jews. According to the Pskov Chronicle, during the capture of Polotsk, Ivan the Terrible ordered all Jews to be baptized on the spot, and those who refused (300 people)) were ordered to be drowned in Dvina. Karamzin mentions that after the capture of Polotsk, John ordered "to baptize all the Jews, and drown the disobedient in the Dvina."
After the capture of Polotsk, Russia's success in the Livonian War began to decline. Already in 1564 the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). The boyar and a major military leader who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A.M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania; he betrayed the king's agents in the Baltic states to the king and took part in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki.
Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and unwillingness of the eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565 the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, the Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to partition Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor convened at this time supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.
Third period of the war
The Union of Lublin had serious consequences, which in 1569 united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Republic of Both Nations. A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden were aggravated again, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and ruined the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of both peoples of a long "rootlessness", the creation in Livonia of the vassal "kingdom" of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed to tip the scales in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet-Giray was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573 the Russians took the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress by storm. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near the castle of Lode in western Estonia with two thousand Swedish troops. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to abandon all their guns, banners and train.
In 1575, the Sage fortress surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. After the 1576 campaign, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Kolyvan.
However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltics to the Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, and serious internal difficulties had a negative impact on the further course of the war for Russia.
The fourth period of the war
Stefan Batory, who entered the Polish throne with the active support of the Turks (1576), went on the offensive, occupied Wenden (1578), Polotsk (1579), Sokol, Velizh, Usvyat, Velikiye Luki. In the captured fortresses, the Poles and Lithuanians completely destroyed the Russian garrisons. In Velikiye Luki, the Poles exterminated the entire population, about 7 thousand people. Polish and Lithuanian troops ravaged the Smolensk region, the Seversk land, the Ryazan region, the south-west of the Novgorod region, plundered the Russian lands up to the upper Volga. The devastation they produced was reminiscent of the worst Tatar raids. Lithuanian governor Philon Kmita from Orsha burned 2000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge full. In February 1581, the Lithuanians burned Staraya Russa.
In 1581, the Polish-Lithuanian army, which included mercenaries from almost all of Europe, laid siege to Pskov, intending, if successful, to march on Novgorod the Great and Moscow. In November 1580, the Swedes took Korela, where 2 thousand Russians were exterminated, and in 1581 they occupied Narva, which was also accompanied by a massacre - 7 thousand Russians were killed; the victors did not take prisoners and did not spare the civilian population.
The heroic defense of Pskov in 15811582 determined a more favorable outcome of the war for Russia: it forced the Polish king to abandon his further plans and conclude a truce with the Russian government in Zapolsky Yama for 10 years in 1582. Under the terms of this truce, the old state border was preserved. For the Russian state, this meant the loss of Livonia. In the next 1583, an armistice was concluded on the Plyussa River with the Swedes, who held onto the Russian cities of Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, except for a small outlet to the Baltic Sea near the mouth of the Neva.
Results and consequences of the Livonian War
In January 1582 in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov) a 10-year truce was concluded with the Republic of Both Nations (the so-called Yam-Zapolsky Peace). Russia abandoned Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border lands were returned to it.
In May 1583, a 3-year truce was concluded with Sweden in Plusa, according to which Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the adjacent territory of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland were ceded. The Russian state was again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the north-western regions were depopulated. The war was lost on all counts. The result of the war and the repressions of Ivan the Terrible was the decline in the population (decreased by 25%) and the economic ruin of the country. It should be noted that the course of the war and its results were influenced by the Crimean raids: only 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no significant raids.
The Livonian War, which lasted a quarter of a century (1558-1583) and cost enormous sacrifices to the Russian state, did not solve the historical problem of Russia's access to the Baltic Sea.
As a result of the Livonian War, Livonia was divided between Poland, which received Vidzeme, Latgale, South Estonia, the Duchy of Courland, and Sweden, to which Northern Estonia with Tallinn and Russian territory at the Gulf of Finland ceded; Denmark received the ostroz of Saaremaa and separate regions in the former Kurzeme bishopric. Thus, the Latvian and Estonian peoples remained as before politically fragmented under the yoke of the new conquerors.
But the Livonian War was not inconclusive for the Russian state. Its significance consisted in the fact that the Russian troops defeated and finally destroyed the Livonian Order, which was a cruel enemy of the Russian, Latvian, Estonian and Lithuanian peoples. During the years of the Livonian War, the friendship of the Estonian and Latvian peoples with the Russian people grew stronger.
CONCLUSION
In 1558, Moscow troops entered Livonia. The Livonian Order was unable to fight and disintegrated. Estland surrendered to Sweden, Livonia to Poland, the order retained only Courland. By 1561, Russian troops finally defeated the Livonian Order. The first period of the war turned out to be very successful for Russia. Russian troops occupied the cities of Narva, Dorpat, Polotsk, and Revel was besieged.
By its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade in the Baltic Sea was then growing from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant.
In addition, the presence of the Russians in Livonia hurt the complex and confusing general European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent.
Military actions were victorious for Moscow until Stefan Batory, who had an undeniable military talent, was elected to the Polish-Lithuanian throne.
The following periods of the war were unfortunate for Russia. In 1579, she turned to defensive operations. Batory, becoming king, immediately launched a decisive offensive against Ivan the Terrible. Under the onslaught of the united troops, the Russians left Polotsk and the strategically important fortress Velikiye Luki. In 1581 Batory laid siege to Pskov, intending, after the capture of the city, to march on Novgorod and Moscow. Russia faced a real threat of losing significant territories. The heroic defense of Pskov (1581-1582), in which the entire population of the city took part, predetermined the relatively favorable outcome of the war for Russia.
The results of the Livonian War, which lasted twenty-five years, turned out to be very difficult for Russia. Russia suffered territorial losses, military operations ravaged the country, the treasury was devastated, the central and northwestern districts were depopulated. The main goal of the Livonian War - access to the Baltic Sea coast - was not achieved.
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