Carpentry and joinery work includes almost all types of work related to the processing or use of wood. In construction, carpenters do simple work with wood. Carpenters perform more delicate work, processing or assembling products from planed and even polished wood. In their work they use various tools. Nevertheless, it is impossible to draw a sharp line between a carpenter and a joiner. A good carpenter not only knows carpentry tools, but also performs many carpentry works, just as a carpenter can do the work of a carpenter, for example, laying a plank floor, making formwork, etc.
Carpenters make elements of wooden log houses, assemble wooden houses, make rafters when constructing roofs, make formwork, assemble and rearrange scaffolding and scaffolding, install window and door blocks, make floors and partitions, and make work equipment.
Carpenters install and adjust carpentry, trim, skirting boards, trims, install clean carpentry partitions, line walls with veneered panels, and perform other woodwork.
Today in carpentry, both thick bars and boards, which have great strength, are used, as well as very thin boards, such as plywood veneer, which require a wooden base. Veneer is used exclusively for cladding. The surface of boards and bars is processed by planing, cutting, turning. Since the natural basis of the carpentry material has not changed - it is the same wood, the principle of its processing has also been preserved, which means that the techniques of the old masters, who were fluent in hand tools, may well serve today's master, whose work is still made easier by the use of mechanisms.
Carpentry, along with the ability to choose a material and give a bar the desired shape, also requires taking into account the structural work of this bar in the product, based on the direction and shape of its fibers. As you know, there are many different types of wood, they differ in color, structure and strength of wood. Each breed has its own characteristics in processing and finishing. The art of carpentry also consists in being able to identify the species, knowing its characteristics - advantages and disadvantages, being able to find in a piece of wood - a blank - the parts most suitable for facial parts, being able to connect different species with each other so that this connection is harmonious , beautiful and would correspond to the design characteristics of the product.
Any carpentry product consists of individual parts interconnected. The craftsman must be able to choose the type of connection of parts, the shape and nature of their processing at the joints, as well as fastening materials. The ability to determine the required cross-section for a given location, taking into account not only work, but also beauty, is one of the main components of carpentry. The master must have a sense of proportion and what is called a sense of wood.
When starting to actually process wood, you need to learn several techniques for working with it: hewing, cutting, sawing, drilling, chiseling, planing, grinding and sanding. To perform each of these jobs you will need a certain set of tools and knowledge.
Wood cutting
Used only when processing ridges, plates and quarters. The main tool of work is an axe. Before starting to hew the log, it is freed from the bark, laid on a scaffold and the hew lines are marked with a cord. On the side of the log that is to be processed, cuts are made at a distance of 400–500 mm to the depth of the part of the log being trimmed. After this, they begin to chop wood chips and cut through the log, strictly adhering to the marking lines (Fig. 40).
Rice. 40. Basic techniques for cutting wood.
The ax is directed from the top to the base in a circle around the trunk. In this case, the ax blade should not penetrate deep into the bark layer, so as not to damage the wood itself. As work progresses, protruding knots should also be cut off along with the bark in order to best prepare the wood for subsequent processing.
Sawing wood
We will not touch on a type of sawing that requires the use of special equipment from woodworking enterprises.
Depending on how thick the solid wood is, choose one or another saw. And the sawing technique used during work depends on how the workpiece is secured on the workbench. If you fix the workpiece horizontally on a workbench, and at the same time place the saw perpendicular to the part itself, then this technique is called horizontal. In this case, the cutting site should extend slightly beyond the surface of the workbench so that it is impossible to damage the work board during work, and the procedure will be much more convenient.
The peculiarity of cross-cutting is that it does not pass along the fibers, but across them. At the same time, the likelihood of spalling increases both from the part left and from the part being sawed off.
If the chipping occurs on the piece being sawn off, then you can easily remove the excess wood from the desired part. But if the chipping occurs exactly where it is necessary to have a flat, smooth surface, then you will have to either restore the wood or cut out a new part.
A thin hacksaw with a “mouse” tooth will help you avoid such troubles.
When cutting, make several movements with the hacksaw blade along the already marked line, thereby strengthening the blade in the solid wood. During further work, only correct the movements of the hacksaw if its blade tries to get around a knot or difficult area. There should be no physical effort when sawing correctly: only a slight, even pressure on the hacksaw during smooth movements will ensure an even cut.
It is best to position the workpiece so that the piece to be sawn is on the left side. When you finish sawing, your free left hand will make it easier to hold the unwanted piece and prevent it from falling on your feet. All movements when cutting out a part are made in a sweeping manner, that is, completely moving the hacksaw blade along the cut.
You can cut along the workpiece (Fig. 41, a) and across it (Fig. 41, b), along the fibers and across, at an angle.
Rice. 41. Sawing the workpiece: a – along the grain; b – across the fibers.
You can use a sawing box - shtoslada (or miter box), in the walls of which cuts are made at an angle of 30, 45, 60 and 90° (Fig. 42).
Rice. 42. Sawing using a saw box.
The board is placed in the saw box with its end facing the cut line and pressed against one of the sides. The main thing is that you need to cut with a sharp, well-set saw, evenly and freely, without making sudden movements, not too hard, but firmly pressing the saw blade to the bottom of the cut. At the very end of the cut, the piece being cut should be held with your hand so that it does not break off under its own weight.
A wide saw is needed for sawing boards and bars. The teeth of such a saw are sharpened obliquely and made in the shape of a triangle. The teeth of a narrow hacksaw should be set apart. This saw is used for sawing planks and shalevki.
Using the example of working with an IE-5107 electric saw, we will consider in detail the process of longitudinal sawing of boards more than 50 mm thick. To do this, it is better to use the saw in a stationary mode, secured to the sawing table (Fig. 43).
Rice. 43. Scheme of processing lumber with an electric saw on a stationary machine: 1 – rack boards; 2 – lying down; 3 – diagonal fights; 4, 6 – inclined and horizontal tables; 5 – electric saw; 7 – portable electric switch; 8 – horizontal shield; 9 – cutting saw blade; 10 – clamp; 11 – processed board in a flat position; 12 – guide ruler; 13 – processed board in edge position.
The shield for the top of the table is assembled from boards 40 mm thick and 130 mm wide. A gap is left between the outer boards so that the saw blade can exit through it onto the surface of the shield. Below the shield, under the table, there are two tables for installing the electric saw in one of the positions: one is horizontal, the other is inclined. A horizontal table is located at the end part, an inclined table is located in the middle of a large table. The base plate of the electric saw is placed in the same plane with the top of the horizontal boards of the table, then the output of the disk above the table surface will be maximum.
The boards are cut according to a guide ruler or according to markings. If you need to cut the wane of an unedged board, then do it one mark at a time. The board should move forward evenly. In this case, it is necessary to ensure that the vertical plane of the saw blade coincides with the imaginary vertical plane of the cut passing through the marking line, otherwise the saw may fail.
In order to select a quarter in the sheathing boards, place the saw in the middle part of the table and make two mutually perpendicular cuts in the board. The saw is installed in the lower part of the table, and its disk is aligned with the gap in the boards of the table panel. Then the saw is moved up the table and fixed in a position where the disk protrudes above the table surface to the desired height.
To select a quarter in boards 40 mm thick, extend the saw blade 22 mm, that is, half the thickness of the board plus 2 mm. Before starting work, check whether the side surface of the saw blade touches the boards of the table board; To do this, simply turn the disk by hand. After this, the saw is fixed on the table, and a guide ruler 350–400 mm long is attached to the workbench board, for which a block with a cross section of 40 x 40 mm is used. The ruler is placed to the right in the direction of travel from the protruding part of the disk at a distance of 20 mm from its axis.
Before work, you need to check that the saw is installed correctly. To do this, place the board on its edge, bring its end to the disk and at the same time press its side edge against the guide ruler.
Having positioned the saw teeth along the axis of the board, turn on the electric saw and, pressing the board against the guide ruler, evenly feed it forward until it is sawn along its entire length. After this, the board is turned 90°, laid flat and again, pressing the board against the ruler, a second cut is made at a right angle to the first. When the second cut is completed, a strip with a cross section of 19 x 20 mm is separated from the board. In the same way, select a quarter on the opposite side of the board.
Marking, sawing and planing hard fibreboards
The decision to highlight issues of working with fiberboard in a separate chapter is not accidental. Fiberboards are used in flooring and making furniture with your own hands, so the skills of working with such boards can be useful for both carpenters and carpenters.
The cause of most mistakes made in the manufacture of furniture parts from slabs and in the installation of floors from them is incorrect marking, so this operation should be taken very seriously.
Before marking, the slab is carefully inspected and it is decided which edges should be sawed off, and also determine which side will be the front and which the back. To obtain one or another flat part, it is often sufficient to saw off two outer strips from the slab - longitudinal and transverse, so that, if possible, the largest defects remain on them. However, in any case, markings are made along the entire contour, otherwise this operation will have to be performed again before planing.
Marking, the sequence of which is shown in Fig. 44, a, is performed first on the front surface.
Rice. 44. Marking the slab for sawing (a) and transferring the markings: b – from the front face to the edge; c – from the edge to the back surface.
The first mark is carried out along a ruler along the longitudinal edge, which is not sawed off. It is done at such a distance from the edge that all traces of crumbled areas remain outside this line. Typically this removal does not exceed 3 mm. Then, using a square, two transverse marks are drawn at right angles to the longitudinal side, starting from the unsawed edge. After this, the contour is closed with a second longitudinal line. All dimensions of the part are set aside without allowances, exactly according to the design.
The marks are drawn along the wood with a pencil. Remember the rule: before taking risks, you need to check the correctness of the set aside dimensions and the accuracy of the right angle. If its value is more or less than 90°, the parts will not fit one another during assembly.
From the front side of the workpiece, the markings are transferred to the back side using a square, as shown in Fig. 44, b, c.
In order to achieve full compliance of the marks, both end points are first transferred to the back side, and then they are connected using a ruler using a mark. You cannot limit yourself to marking one front side, since during sawing the saw can become skewed and move beyond the risk, which is especially often observed among novice craftsmen. In the absence of control markings on the reverse side, it becomes impossible to check the correctness of the cut. As a result, the part ends up being narrowed or shortened, and a new one has to be made.
The need to mark the back surface is also due to another reason. When sawing, chipping and chipping may occur on the back side of the slab. To avoid this, the mark on the back is made deep, for which purpose an awl is drawn along the marking line several times, each time increasing the pressure.
The process of sawing slabs has one very important feature. It is necessary to cut not at the risk, but at a distance of about 2 mm parallel to it, leaving a small allowance for subsequent planing of the edge. It is impossible to do without such an allowance, because even with careful work with a saw, the edge will still not turn out as even and smooth as when planing. If several parts need to be cut from a large slab, not one, but two marks are drawn along their boundaries, located parallel and spaced approximately 5 mm from one another. You should cut in the middle between the risks. Some of the material in the gap will go into the cut, and the rest will go into allowances.
The slab is usually sawn first longitudinally and then transversely. To prevent the slab from shifting during operation, it is secured, and the simplest way is the following: sit on the slab, pushing the cutting area beyond the edge of the table or stool.
First, make a shallow cut with a light, short movement of the saw towards you. To prevent the saw from slipping off the cut, its blade is directed along the left thumb or nail bent at the joint (Fig. 45, a).
Rice. 45. Sawing a slab: a – sawed down; b – sawing.
Only after this can you start sawing at full arm span with light pressure while moving the hacksaw away from you. In this case, the saw is gradually installed almost perpendicular to the surface of the slab (Fig. 45, b).
You should not increase the pressure on the saw. This will only make work more difficult and increase the likelihood of misalignment. They saw slowly, trying to adhere to a single rhythm. During operation, it is recommended to periodically turn the slab over and check the location of the cut relative to the mark.
To avoid distortions, the slab is sawed in small sections, alternately from the front and back sides, but in this case it is recommended to cut deep grooves on both sides.
If the length of the cut is large, they cut in one direction until the middle, and then the slab is turned 180° and moved towards the cut made. Particular care must be taken where the cuts are connected, because the slab may break off. Slabs whose length does not exceed 300 mm do not need to be cut in two directions; but in order to prevent breakage, sawing is completed with slow movements, while holding the part being sawn off with your left hand.
When sawing the slab, local chipping of the facing layer occurs, but this is not a problem, since it does not extend beyond the marking line, and the remaining strip with damaged facing will be removed during the planing process, which aligns and makes all edges smooth. Before this operation, the plate is fixed in a vertical position. This cannot be done using a vice alone, so for fairly large slabs, an additional stand with a variable support height is required (Fig. 46, a), which is a stand with oblique notches mounted on a crosspiece. A slider moves along this rack, fixed at the level of any notch using a wire clamp.
Rice. 46. Stand for supporting the slab during planing (a) and securing the slab being processed (b): 1 – stand; 2 – cross; 3 – slider; 4 – bracket; 5 – vice; 6 – plate.
To make such a stand, you will need: a block of wood for the stand and slider, boards for the crosspiece, a piece of wire with a diameter of 3–4 mm for the bracket, nails for knocking together the crosspiece and attaching the stand to it. The supporting shoulders and notches on the stand are cut out with a hacksaw. The wire bracket is bent in a vice and inserted on both sides into holes punched in the slide with a nail. The fastening of the slab being processed is shown in Fig. 46, b: one side of it is clamped in a vice, and the other is supported on a slider installed at the required height, which is determined by the elevation of the processed edge above the floor level, convenient for planing. Usually it is 900–1000 mm.
The edges are planed without special markings, since this operation was carried out at the very beginning of processing, and after correctly sawing, the marking marks should remain clearly visible and untouched. First, one of the longitudinal edges is planed, then both transverse and the second longitudinal. Planing can be done from both ends or from one. In the first case, in order not to chip off the far corner of the slab, in the direction in which the plane is moving, the edge is processed to the middle from one end, and then, turning the slab 180°, from the opposite end. When planing in one direction, at the far end, at the level of the marking mark, a deep notch (notch) is first made, using a knife or chisel for this purpose.
The edges are first leveled with sherhebel and then with a plane. If the thickness of the shavings removed by the sherhebel does not exceed 1–1.5 mm, they begin to work with a plane. The edges of particleboard are planed in the same way as the edges of any other boards. The only difference is that instead of ordinary tape shavings are separated in the form of crumbs. The ends of the bars extend onto the edge of the wood slab, so when planing it, the release of the knife blade is reduced.
Beginner carpenters, when working with a plane, very often make the following mistake: at the beginning of the movement, when the tool enters the surface to be processed, it is lifted upward, and at the end, on the contrary, it is tilted downward. As a result, the initial and final sections of the edge are re-planed, and the middle part remains unplaned. To avoid such errors, you should press harder on the tool with your left hand at the beginning of planing, and with your right hand at the end. In the middle part of the edge, the pressure of both hands should be equal.
The plane being tilted to the side causes the surface to be treated to become skewed. And due to the change in inclination from one side to the other, a propeller-like surface is formed, which is very difficult to straighten. You can detect distortion using a square. This tool is periodically applied with the long side to the face of the slab, and the short side to the edge. If a distortion occurs, the elevated areas are removed.
Thanks to the presence of double-sided marking marks, control during planing is greatly simplified. The risks show in which places the slab is planed more and in which less. The main thing is not to over-plane the risks, otherwise you can ruin the edge and damage the facing layer.
The quality of the work done is checked by placing the slab with its sharpened edge on a smooth table. If it does not fall, it means that the planing was done correctly.
Wood planing
This wood processing technique involves leveling the surface after sawing. Depending on the stages of planing, different types of planes are used.
The part prepared for finishing is placed on a workbench and secured. They start with rough leveling, for which they use sherhebel. In this case, all movements are directed across the fibers, but not along them, since too much wood can be removed. If along the route of the scherhebel there are twists that make processing difficult, then there is no need to focus on them. Otherwise, the wood may break off in this place, and the block will become unsuitable for further work.
After treating the surface of small parts with Sherhebel, it is cleaned initially with a single plane, and then with a double one. When working with long parts, such as boards, it is better to use a jointer or semi-jointer. The jointer is held by the handle with the right hand, and the body is supported slightly behind the plug with the left. Only when one section of the part is processed in width with a jointer, do they move on to another section. When processing the ends, the movement parts are directed from the edges to the middle, then chips and flakes will not occur.
The techniques for working with a plane are slightly different. The plane's movement along the surface should be directed along the fibers, and not against them. When working with a plane, lightly press with your left hand on the front of its body, and with your right hand on the back. This is the only way to get a flat and smooth surface. In Fig. 47 shows techniques for working with a plane.
Rice. 47. Working with a plane: a – correct; b – incorrect.
Drilling wood
This technique is used to make various holes. The holes can be through and blind, deep and shallow, wide and narrow. Drilling is used to select round holes and sockets for tenons, screws, bolts; in addition, the drop-out knots are drilled out to replace them with plugs.
Before you start drilling, select a drill of the appropriate size, then use an awl to make a mark on the wood, secure the drill in the chuck and set it exactly to the mark. If you drill a blind hole, then as the drill moves into the solid wood, gradually weaken the pressure on the drill, then there will be no chipping of the wood and the formation of a through hole.
Wood chiselling
Chiseling is used when it is necessary to obtain through and blind sockets for tenon joints. This work is done with a chisel and chisels. If the tool is well sharpened, then, as a rule, there are no difficulties in performing it.
Before starting work, secure the block or workpiece well in a vice. Then markings are applied to the surface of the wood with a simple hard pencil, after which marks are made with a knife.
If it is necessary to make a sufficiently deep and large hole, then first select the wood with a chisel, and then begin to clean the surface with a chisel.
One more small note: when starting work, pay due attention to selecting wood near the edges that are located across the direction of the grain.
Large blind holes are made as follows: drive the chisel blade in with a mallet, then tilt it slightly in the opposite direction from which the blade is chamfered, and lift the blade up. The wood is broken and several pieces are separated from the massif. Then they retreat 2-3 mm from the hole made and repeat the same thing. When finishing edges, the recesses are always retreated by 1–2 mm, and the chisel is chamfered to the edge. If you lift the blade of the chisel with the side where the chamfer is removed, you can crush the wood with the uncleaned surface of the blade.
If it is necessary to make a through hole, then the wood is sampled from both sides simultaneously, gradually reducing the intermediate layer.
The hollowed out hole is cleaned at the edges with a straight, narrow chisel.
Wood cutting
Cutting is always done either with chisels or a jamb knife. Most often, wood is sampled using chisels, which allow you to make precise holes and recesses of various shapes and depths. A jamb knife can only partially replace a missing tool. When using the tool that is most suitable for the job, it must be remembered that replacement should always remain only a temporary phenomenon. The faster you find the tool you need, the faster and better the work will be.
Chisels are used in the same way as a chisel, only the impact on the wood is carried out without a hammer.
Wood cutting is carried out as follows: a chisel blade is placed on the marking with a chamfer inside the future recess. Then cut the chisel 2–3 mm deep into the wood. After the first cut, the chisel is placed 1-2 mm deep into the intended socket and the same cut is made. As a result, you get a small notch. Gradually moving deeper and capturing more and more wood at one time, the required hole is obtained. In the middle of the recess, the cut can be made to a depth of approximately 5–6 mm, but near the edges, so as not to damage the sides, only 2–3 mm.
In order to make a through hole, a cut is made from the very edges to the entire depth. If necessary, pruning is done in several stages.
After removing the wood, be sure to clean the bottom and sides of the resulting recess with a narrow straight or semicircular chisel.
Wood scraping
This type of processing allows you to use a scraper knife to clean the surface of the wood as smoothly as possible, where a chisel or plane cannot do it. In this case, the process itself is more like scraping. The movements of the cycle are directed towards themselves, and the knife itself is installed with the chamfer facing up.
Sanding wood
After all the work is completed, the treated surface is leveled and cleaned after the plane. To sand the surface, use emery cloth, which is an abrasive coating on a paper, fabric or cardboard base.
Depending on the size of the grains and the type of abrasive, several types of sandpaper are distinguished. On the inner surface of the roll you need to pay attention to the letter and number designations. The letters indicate the types of abrasive used in the sandpaper, and the numbers indicate the degree of grinding of the abrasive. The smaller the number on the inside, the finer the grains applied to the surface of the skin.
The letter C on the inside means that crushed glass is used here, KV is quartz, and KR is silicon. These are one of the most commonly used abrasives.
Rough, coarse-grained sandpaper is used for rough surface treatment, and for final sanding, fine-grained sandpaper is used, which leaves no marks on the surface.
To make the work easier, take a small block and wrap it in sandpaper.
In addition, such a block allows you to smoothly clean the surface without the formation of bumps and depressions. The quality of the surface also depends on the force of pressure on the block. The stronger the pressure, the greater the likelihood of creating an uneven surface.
The direction in which the grinding is done is also important. If you sand across the direction of the grain, the marks will remain more noticeable than when sanding in the direction of the grain or obliquely.
Carpentry works include white wood and cabinet wood. The starting material for whitewood work is coniferous and soft deciduous wood (birch, linden, poplar), for cabinetry - hard wood of valuable deciduous species. For both types of work, tree species with a relatively straight trunk and a small number of healthy knots are used.
The influence of wood properties on the choice of material. To choose the right wood, you need to know the properties of wood species.
Coniferous species are used as a base when veneering parts with veneer made from hard valuable species; hard deciduous species (oak, beech, common and Karelian birch, walnut, hornbeam, common and bird's eye maple, ash, etc.) are used in their natural, whole form. Deciduous and softwood veneers are used in mosaic work. For wood carving, with subsequent etching and dyeing of wood in a dark color, only certain hardwood species are chosen - linden, aspen, willow, rowan, birch. If they want to leave the natural color of the details of the carved product, then they use pear, maple, walnut, chestnut, oak, etc. to make it.
Coniferous species are mostly soft wood, so they are rarely used for front parts in products. This is due to the fact that soft wood is sensitive to mechanical damage and shock. Practice shows that if the requirements for the technological process are met, coniferous species can be successfully used for the manufacture of furniture.
Small-sized products are made mainly from coniferous wood without knots, with beautiful, clearly defined annual layers (cypress, juniper, larch, red pine, etc.). Spruce with a large number of knots, as well as white pine and fir are species that require additional decorative finishing by tinting or ornamental carving. Coniferous wood is easily painted, but with intense coloring the color tone dampens its decorative qualities.
When drying, the wood contracts in volume and undergoes natural warping.
In carpentry, it is necessary to correctly determine the drying time of wood, since both under-dried and over-dried material are equally unsuitable for work. Under operating conditions with normal environmental humidity, overdried wood will inevitably absorb moisture from the air and warp. Variable temperature changes also have a detrimental effect on the normal state of wood: the material cracks.
The condition of the wood, its drying and swelling is influenced by a number of reasons: harvesting time, duration, aging conditions, etc. Wood harvested in winter has less moisture (compared to summer harvest), since during this period it slows down its growth . It must be remembered that under-drying and over-drying have the greatest effect on hard and dense rocks and less on soft and loose ones. For the product, it is necessary to select wood of species that are homogeneous in structure so that the degree of drying of the workpieces is the same.
Rice. 2. Drying of parts of a sawn tree trunk (warping): 1 – sapwood area; 2 – heartwood
When drying, the sawing material exhibits deflections and bulges (Fig. 2), i.e., it warps. The warping of the center board will be barely noticeable, since the hard heartwood dries out much less than the sapwood. The suitability of the joinery material can to some extent be determined by the external features of the trunk of the felled tree. When selecting wood, pay attention to radial cracks in the end: their absence or the presence of small cracks indicates the good quality of the material; deep cracks are a sign of poor quality. With deep radial cracks, there may be cavities in the trunk, which, for example, in pine, are filled with a resinous substance - resin (this defect in pine is called tar). If cracks run along the annual layers of wood, i.e. in arcs, then such wood is unsuitable for carpentry work.
When choosing soft coniferous wood, pay attention to the density of the annual layers. The thicker they are and the smoother their transitions, the denser and more homogeneous the wood, and therefore the better quality. The wide grain of wood indicates its friability and low strength; Products made from such wood should not be subjected to sudden and variable loads. The parallelism of the annual layers indicates the relative straightness of the wood in a longitudinal section, and therefore the good quality of the material.
In separately growing trees, after felling and sawing, one can observe that the wood fibers are not parallel, i.e., cross-layered. Along with the cross-layering of such trees, the core part is shifted towards the sapwood. Wood with these defects cracks more and warps more.
When selecting wood, you should pay attention to the age of the tree. Young wood is soft and loose, while old wood is more susceptible to rotting, so it is best to choose wood from a medium, mature growth period. Thus, for carpentry work, the best wood is considered to be pine aged 80–90, oak – 80–150, birch and ash – 60–70, spruce – 120, alder – 60 years, etc. The age of a felled tree is determined by its cross section , on which the annual layers are clearly visible.
In carpentry, some wood species are considered more flexible, others less flexible (resilient). At the same time, wood harvested in autumn is more flexible than wood harvested in winter. It has been established that the flexibility of a tree is most evident in its middle age.
Flexible rock bends easily, but is difficult to break. You should know that pine is inferior in flexibility to linden, and alder is inferior to birch. Linden, birch, elm, aspen are the most flexible; then follow oak, beech, spruce, ash, maple; Larch, alder, hornbeam, fir, and pine are considered the least flexible. The flexibility of a tree largely depends on where it grows, the presence of various nutrients in the soil, the environment in which the tree grows (in the thick of a forest or in an open place), the presence of knots, etc.
In carpentry, when bending wood, its property, such as viscosity, is very important. With high viscosity, wood bends in all directions without breaking, but also without regaining its former straightness. Maple, elm, juniper, hazel, birch, ash, larch, beech, young oak, etc. have this quality; alder, aspen, spruce, etc. are considered fragile species.
To a large extent, the viscosity and fragility of wood is influenced by the soil on which the tree grows. So, if pine and beech grew on wet soil, then their wood will have high viscosity, and if on dry soil, then it will have medium viscosity. Oak has high fragility if it grows in a humid or too dry environment. Under production conditions, to obtain uniform viscosity, certain species are pre-steamed before processing, saturating the wood with moisture, and then subjected to bending.
Wood tends to split in the direction of the grain, and the more linear its structure, the easier it splits. Dense and flexible rocks split more easily than soft ones. Knotiness, curling, sagging and entanglement of wood fibers reduce the degree of splitting. Oak, beech, ash, alder, spruce, etc. are easier to split; pear, poplar, hornbeam, etc. are more difficult. Species with a lower degree of splitting ability are selected for carving.
Long-term storage of wood reduces its strength, so the carpenter must comply with the storage conditions of the material, and protect finished products from atmospheric influences by covering them with varnishes, mastics, etc.
When selecting material for carpentry, carpenters pay attention to the color in the section or in the wood flake. If its color is uneven or too bright, then this indicates the onset of a fungal disease. Such wood is unsuitable for carpentry work.
Knots in structural parts are undesirable, as they reduce the strength of the wood. When the wood dries, they usually fall out. In conifers, the cavity of the fallen knot is filled with a resinous substance, and then a “tobacco” knot is observed. Material with a large number of knots is used for non-critical structures.
Rice. 3. Scheme of sawing a tree trunk: 1 – timber; 2 – edged board; 3 – unedged board; 4 – croaker
Lumber and wood products. Wood materials come in the form of sawn, crushed and laminated wood, as well as veneer.
The sawing range used in carpentry is obtained by sawing a tree trunk (Fig. 3). The range of lumber is determined by the presence of various wood defects and depends on the accuracy of its sawing, the cleanliness of processing and the degree of warping. When purchasing or preparing material, proceed from its size and required volume. Material is always prepared a little more than necessary, taking into account the hidden defects of the workpieces.
The most common sizes of lumber for working at home are as follows: boards - thickness 13–45, width 80–250 mm; bars - 50–100 and 80–200 mm, respectively; beams - section 130–250x130–250 mm. The length of lumber is no more than 6.5 m.
For carpentry blanks, unedged boards are usually used, cut closer to the center of the trunk. They are less susceptible to shrinkage and drying out. For small products, boards that are generally defective are also used: with camber, curvature, cracks, slight cross-layers, knots.
Material for carpentry is bought in stores. But we should not forget that for their manufacture you can use old furniture, container boards, waste lumber, old parquet, elements of dismantled wooden buildings, beam floors, etc.
Wood processing products include planed and peeled veneer, plywood, particle boards and fibreboards.
Sliced and peeled veneer serves as material for facing and mosaic work. Veneer comes to stores from woodworking plants or furniture factories in packs of various lengths and widths. It is obtained by planing or peeling wood: peeled - birch, alder, spruce, pine, beech, linden and other species with a weak texture, planed - walnut, ash, beech, etc. Sliced veneer is used, as a rule, for veneering furniture, and peeled – for carpentry and particle boards. For veneering at home, 0.6–1.5 mm thick veneer is recommended.
In addition to planed and peeled veneer, sawn veneer with a thickness of 1–12 mm is also used for veneering products in carpentry. At home, such veneer is obtained by sawing wood with an ordinary one-handed saw with an appropriate tooth set. Sawn veneer is used for veneering small products.
Plywood consists of several (three, five or more) glued layers of peeled veneer. The main types of wood used to make plywood are alder, birch, beech, pine, linden, etc. Plywood is sold sanded and unsanded, marked according to the adhesive compositions used. Plywood is used as a structural and facing material. It is covered with sliced veneer of valuable species - oak, ash, birch, beech, walnut, mahogany, maple, etc. Instead of veneer, plywood can be covered with decorative films or decorative paper. Plywood thickness 3–18 mm.
Wood slabs are slats glued together, lined with peeled veneer or plywood. To make structures lighter, slabs are also made in which slats are placed in blocks to form voids. Shields made in this way do not bend or crack. The thickness of the wood slabs is 16–50 mm. At home, a master can make a wood slab himself, using the appropriate materials and tools. Wood panels are used to make furniture.
Particle boards (chipboards) are made from wood and its waste, which is crushed, dried, sorted, mixed with a binder, shaped and pressed at a certain pressure and temperature. The thickness of the slabs is 10–20 mm. The slabs are waterproof and non-waterproof, of different densities, sanded and unsanded. Chipboard is used mainly for the construction of partitions, cladding of structural frames and the manufacture of individual pieces of furniture.
Fiberboard (fibreboard) is also made from crushed wood, which undergoes additional special processing. Fibreboard thickness 2.5–25 mm. The plates have different densities, water resistance and degrees of sound absorption. Fiberboard of increased hardness is used for cladding furniture frames, panel structures of sliding doors, partitions, etc.
Use of bark. The bark of some trees is used in mosaic work. The most widely used bark is birch (birch bark), pine aged 45–60 years, willow, young shoots of rose bushes, etc.
Birch bark is harvested in May-June, when sap flow is especially strong. Better than others is the bark from ordinary birch, especially from trees growing on moderately moist soils: it is clean, without black marks or streaks. Birch bark is peeled off from a felled tree using a sharp spruce or rowan wedge along previously made cuts. After being separated from the wood, it is thoroughly wiped with a cloth; Store in bundles under weight in a cool, shaded place. Before work, birch bark is soaked in hot water, after which it becomes soft and pliable. Sometimes birch bark is thicker than sliced veneer, and to make it thinner, several inner layers are removed. It is not recommended to put pressure on the birch bark while working, because this causes it to thicken and darken. Birch bark also darkens a little under varnish.
The pine bark on top has a red-orange scaly structure, under which there is a green sublayer - young bark, easily removed from the trunk. It is not recommended to hit the bark, as blackening appears at the points of impact. After removal from the tree, the pine bark is dried until excess moisture disappears. It darkens a little when it dries. After varnishing, the color of the bark becomes richer. Pine bark is used mainly for inserts where a natural, green color is needed, in floral patterns, etc.
Helpful notes. To determine the moisture content of wood, an alcohol solution of iodine is applied to a fresh chip of a flake from a workpiece with a brush. If the wood is harvested in winter (less raw), the veins will acquire a dark purple hue, if in summer (more raw), the veins will become yellowish.
If, when struck with a hammer or the butt of an ax on the end of the workpiece, a dull sound is obtained, the wood is damp; if it is loud, the wood is dry. However, it is difficult to determine the moisture content of a knotted piece in this way, since the presence of knots will enhance the “sound” of the wood.
It is best to determine the moisture content of wood by the chips removed from the workpiece with a jointer. The wood will be damp if thin and long shavings can be tied into a knot, and dry if the shavings break.
The density of wood can be determined by the degree of saturation with moisture. So, in order to select high-quality oak boards, equal-sized samples of several boards are placed in water for several hours, after which they are weighed. The heaviest sample will be the lowest quality because it has absorbed a lot of water, which means it has less dense wood than the others.
The juices that the tree feeds on during its growth contain many different salts. When the wood dries, they remain in the pores of the checkered structure of the tree, where, under certain conditions, moisture enters with the air. This promotes rotting of the workpiece material. To get rid of salts, the workpieces with a load are lowered onto a clean river bottom with their butts against the current. After a certain time (usually 7–8 months), water will wash all the salts from the wood. After drying, the wood becomes very durable, almost does not warp or crack. It should be remembered that not every tree can be removed from salts in this way, since many species rot in a humid environment. Therefore, only those species that are tolerant of staying in a humid environment are subject to leaching: oak, pine, alder, yew and some others.
There are several wood processing techniques:
- Cutting;
- Sawing;
- Planing;
- Drilling;
- Chiseling;
- Cutting;
- Cycling;
- Grinding;
To perform each of these techniques, you will need a certain set of tools and knowledge of a certain set of knowledge. If you have never encountered any technique before, then during your first experiments you may not succeed. There is no need to be upset about this - even the most skilled craftsmen always started from scratch.
Used only when processing ridges, plates and quarters. This processing technique involves separating the bark from the solid wood. The main tool used in the work is an axe.
All actions of the ax are directed from the top to the base along the circle of the trunk. In this case, the ax blade should not penetrate deep into the bark layer, so as not to damage the wood itself. As work progresses, protruding knots should be cut off along with the bark, thereby maximizing the preparation of the wood for subsequent processing.
Sawing wood
This technique contains two varieties at once.
Firstly, mechanical sawing of ridges and plates can produce boards of varying degrees of quality.
Secondly, using this technique you can make certain parts from the resulting boards.
We will not touch on the first type of sawing, since this requires special equipment that is used only in woodworking enterprises.
The second cutting method can also be done on a workbench at home. Depending on how thick the wood you choose is, you will need to choose one saw or another. The sawing technique used during work depends on how you secure the workpiece on the workbench. If you fix the workpiece horizontally on a workbench, and the saw is positioned perpendicular to the part itself, then this technique is called horizontal.
In this case, the cutting site should extend slightly beyond the surface of the workbench, so that during work you cannot damage the working board, and the procedure itself will be much more convenient. The peculiarity of a cross cut is that the cut does not run along the fibers, but across them. At the same time, the likelihood of spalling increases both from the part left and from the part being sawed off. It’s good if the chipping occurred on the piece being sawn off - you can then easily remove the excess wood from the desired part.
But if the chipping occurs exactly where it is necessary to have a flat, smooth surface, you will have to either restore the wood or cut out a new part. A thin hacksaw with a “mouse tooth” will help you avoid such troubles.
If you need to saw off a board or block at a right angle or at an angle of 45 degrees, and you already have a miter box on hand, then you only need to lay the board evenly in the groove, press it to the side farthest from you and evenly, without moving the workpiece, saw off the unnecessary piece . When cutting, make several movements with the hacksaw blade along the already marked line, thereby strengthening the blade in the solid wood. In further work, you will only need to adjust the movements of the hacksaw if its blade tries to get around a knot or difficult area. Your efforts are reduced only to monitoring the uniform penetration of the teeth throughout the entire area. There should be no physical effort when sawing correctly: in this you can completely rely on the saw, but not with your whole body, because only a slight, even pressure on the hacksaw during smooth movements will ensure an even cut. During this operation, it is best to position the workpiece so that the piece to be sawn is on the left side. When you finish sawing, your free left hand will make it easier to hold the unwanted piece and prevent it from falling on your feet. All movements when cutting out a part are made in a sweeping manner, i.e. completely moving the hacksaw blade along the cut. When using an electric saw, all operations are performed in the same way as when working with a hand saw.
This wood processing technique involves leveling the surface after sawing. Depending on the stages of planing, different types of planes are used. Place the part prepared for finishing on the workbench and secure it. First of all, start with a rough leveling using sherhebel. In this case, all movements are directed across the fibers, but not along them, since too much wood can be removed.
If along the route of the scherhebel there are twists that make processing difficult, then do not focus on them. Otherwise, the wood may break off in this place, and the block will become unsuitable for further work. After treating the surface of small parts with Sherhebel, it must be cleaned with a single plane and then a double one. If you are working with long pieces, such as boards, then you are better off using a jointer or semi-jointer. The plane's movement along the surface should be directed along the fibers, and not against them. This is the only way to make the surface even and smooth. When planing the ends of boards and bars, make several movements with the plane from one edge to the center, and then several movements from the other edge to the center. This will allow you to avoid the formation of chips and flakes at the ends.
This technique is used to make various holes. These holes can be through or blind, deep or shallow, wide or narrow. Before you start drilling, you need to select a drill of the appropriate size, then use an awl to make a mark on the wood, secure the drill in the chuck and set the drill exactly to the mark. If you want to drill a blind hole, then as the drill moves into the solid wood, gradually loosen the pressure on the drill - this way you will avoid chipping the wood and forming a through hole.
Before starting work, secure the block or workpiece well in a vice. Then mark the surface of the wood, first with a simple hard pencil, and then make marks with a knife. If you need to make a fairly deep and large hole, first select the wood with a chisel, and then proceed to clean the surface with a chisel. One more small note. When starting work, pay tribute to the selection of wood near the edges, which are located transverse to the direction of the grain. Large blind holes are made as follows: drive the chisel blade in with a mallet, then tilt it slightly in the opposite direction from which the blade was chamfered, and lift the blade up.
Break down the wood and separate several pieces from the massif. Then step back 2-3 mm from the hole made and do the same. When finishing the edges of a recess, always step back 1-2 mm from it, and place the chisel with a chamfer towards it. If you lift the blade of the chisel with the side where the chamfer is removed, then you will crush the wood with the uncleaned surface of the blade. If you need to make a through hole, then remove the wood from both sides at the same time, gradually reducing the intermediate layer. Clean the hollowed out hole at the edges with a straight, narrow chisel.
Wood cutting
Cutting is always done either with chisels or a blunt knife. Most often, wood is sampled with chisels, which allow you to make precise holes and recesses of various shapes and depths.
A blunt knife can only somewhat replace a tool that does not exist. When using the tool that is most suitable for the job, you will understand that replacement should always remain only a temporary phenomenon. The faster you find the tool you need, the faster and better the work will be. Chisels are used in the same way as a chisel, only the impact on the wood is done without a hammer.
Cutting wood is carried out as follows: on the marking, place the chisel blade with a chamfer inside the future recess. Then cut the chisel 2-3 mm deep into the wood. After the first cut, place the chisel 1-2 mm deep into the intended socket and make the same cut. As a result, you will end up with a small notch. By gradually moving deeper and grabbing more and more wood at a time, you will make the hole you need. In the middle of the recess, the cut can be made to a depth of approximately 5-6 mm, but near the edges, so as not to damage the sides, only 2-3 mm, no more. In order to make a through hole, make a cut from the very edges to the full depth. If necessary, pruning can be done in several steps. After removing the wood, be sure to clean the bottom and sides of the resulting recess with a narrow straight or semicircular chisel.
Wood cycling
This type of processing allows you to use a knife to clean the surface of wood as smoothly as possible, where a chisel or plane cannot do it. In this case, the process itself is more like scraping. The movements of the cycle are directed towards themselves, and the knife itself is installed with the chamfer facing up.
After all the work is completed, all you have to do is level and clean the treated surface after the plane. To sand the surface, emery cloth is used, which is an abrasive coating on a paper, fabric or cardboard base. Depending on the size of the grains and the type of abrasive, several types of sandpaper are distinguished. On the inner surface of the roll, pay attention to the letter and number designation. The letters indicate the types of abrasive used in the sandpaper, and the numbers indicate the degree of grinding of the abrasive. The smaller the number on the inside, the finer the grains applied to the surface of the skin.
If you see the letter “C”, then this means that crushed glass was used here.
“KB” in this case means quartz, and “KR” means silicon. These are one of the most commonly used abrasives.
Rough, coarse-grained sandpaper is used for rough surface treatment, but for final sanding it is better to use fine-grained sandpaper, which will not leave traces of grains on the surface. To prevent your fingers from getting tired of holding the skin correctly, take a small block and wrap it in the skin. In addition, such a block allows you to smoothly clean the surface without the formation of bumps and depressions. The evenness of the surface also depends on the force of pressure on the block. The harder you press, the more likely it is to create an uneven surface. The direction in which you sand is also important. If you sand across the direction of the grain, the marks will remain more noticeable than when sanding in the direction of the grain or slightly obliquely.
It is almost impossible to do without glue when connecting parts. When gluing wood, you need to use glue that should be either transparent or light, not change the color of the wood, not set too quickly, its excess can be easily removed, and inside the seam it would help protect the wood from rotting and the penetration of microorganisms inside. In addition, most adhesives are water-repellent.
- Bonding technology
- Gluing technology
Adhesives
All adhesives can be divided into natural and synthetic. Depending on what ingredients are used in the preparation of natural glue, they can be animal, vegetable and mineral. In the manufacture of synthetic adhesives, only artificially created compounds are used. Any glue that you need for work consists of several components: the adhesive itself, a solvent that maintains a certain consistency of the composition, a hardener that helps it set and connect the parts, and antiseptics that protect the treated surface from the effects of insects, microorganisms and various substances , destroying the structure of wood.
The most commonly used natural adhesives are bone, prepared on the basis of bone meal. But such adhesives do not react well to humidity, and therefore, if you are going to do something for a bathhouse, sauna, or put it near a pool, you are better off using a different glue for gluing.
Casein adhesives are made on the basis of milk protein. They glue surfaces very firmly, but alkali is used as a solvent, which stains the wood.
Glue K-17 convenient for clean gluing large surfaces; it forms a thin film and does not harden for a long time.
PVA glue, or polyvinyl acetate dispersion, sets quickly and therefore requires speed in work. It is a white liquid, which after drying becomes a transparent film. This glue is the most versatile when gluing parts. Carpentry glue can be used several times. To do this, you just need to heat the glue on fire. Both wood glue and bone glue are sold in granules or shavings, which can be turned into a sticky mass at home. If you bought glue in the form of shavings or granules, you can immediately pour it into hot water and, stirring, bring it over low heat until completely dissolved. If you bought glue in the form of tiles, then before putting it in water, crush the glue, then fill it with cold water in a bowl and leave it for a day until it completely swells. And only then transfer the pieces to another bowl and begin the gluing procedure itself. The finished glue should flow from the stick used for stirring, it should be thick and resemble the consistency of rich sour cream.
In order to prepare glue, you will need to acquire a special device - a glue gun. It can be replaced with two ordinary pans, and one of them should be slightly smaller so that it can easily be attached to the sides of the other with handles. Pour water into a smaller pan and add glue, and pour water into another pan so that the glue you are preparing does not burn. If foam forms during glue preparation, it must be removed periodically. Most glues do not last long and the next day at room temperature they acquire a rotten smell. In order for the glue to last for several days, during its preparation you can add a few grams of phenol at the rate of 1 g per 1 liter. glue.
Now the prepared glue can be applied to the surface of the part. To do this, you will need either a bristle brush or linden bark, a piece of which has been previously soaked. In any case, the glue is applied to the surface in a thin layer.
Gluing
There are two ways to connect parts using glue: gluing or gluing. Bonding is used for various tenon and miter joints. Gluing is used only in the manufacture of plywood, when finishing the surface with veneer, etc. There are two ways to glue parts: by squeezing the surfaces with clamps or by rubbing the surfaces together after applying glue to them. By lapping, mainly thin parts are connected, which, after slightly setting, are adjusted to each other and left until the glue dries completely. This method of gluing parts together must occur quickly and accurately, so before you begin, prepare everything you need for work: clamps, gaskets, tapes, supports, belts, as well as the surfaces of the parts being glued, which must be clean. If you accidentally stain it with dirty hands or drop oil, wipe the stained areas with acetone or alcohol. When gluing, spacers are used to distribute the compression force as evenly as possible. It also protects surfaces from the formation of dents when clamped with clamps. The gasket is always made slightly larger than the dimensions of the parts to be glued. Most often, gaskets are made from sheets of plywood. Additionally, to prevent the surfaces from sticking to the pads, you will need to place additional sheets of paper between the pad and the surface. When gluing using the compression method, be sure to ensure that when installing the clamps, there is no displacement of the surfaces, which can then no longer be restored.
To ensure a good, durable seam, it is best to work in a room where the temperature does not drop below 20 degrees. Also, the glue must be applied in a thin, even layer, and the glue should not be too liquid. But a thick layer is also unacceptable - it will crack when it dries. Also, do not try to grind the surfaces to be glued - the surfaces should be slightly rough, which will allow you to get a reliable connection. If you need to glue several parts at once, do not try to apply glue to everything at once - in the lower layers the glue will begin to set, but will not be evenly distributed, which will cause the surface to form waves. To prevent this from happening, divide the parts into several parts, glue the strips of the parts together, and then the parts. It is best to glue in levels, for example, in one step - the legs of chairs, in another - the seats. If you have to glue a complex structure consisting of many nodes, then first connect all the parts without glue, adjust if something protrudes, and only then apply glue. Obvious defects during gluing cannot be eliminated, and it is also impossible to disassemble an already glued structure without damaging it. After you have applied glue to the components of the structure, you need to put it under a press and wait a certain time so that the glue completely sets and dries. If you used wood glue, then you can remove the part from under the press only after 24 hours. PVA glue requires less time - only 4-5 hours. But this does not mean that the glue has completely dried and the structure is ready for further work. After the required time has elapsed, loosen the clamps, check if everything is as you need, if there are any shifts in the layers, and leave it for another day so that the glue dries completely.
Pasting
Gluing differs from gluing in that only facing work is performed here. This is a fairly simple way to imitate solid wood using only veneer and a wooden base. In addition, this technique will also help you when making a mosaic, which will perfectly decorate the top of any table, cabinet doors, bedside table in the bedroom, etc. Although veneer of valuable species of wood is used here, and the work itself requires attentiveness and precision of the eye, this work Even a person who has never dealt with wood can do it. It looks more like an appliqué made of paper and cardboard. But there are several features that must always be remembered and observed during work.
- Veneer should only be glued onto a very flat surface, slightly rough, but without visible notches. If I may say so, the surface of the base should be velvety.
- The veneer must be glued across the direction of the base fibers, but not along, otherwise cracks may appear that will only spoil the surface. They arise due to different shrinkage of the veneer and the base.
- If you use expensive veneer and glue it onto a particle board, be sure to glue an intermediate layer of cheap veneer or cotton fabric.
- When using burl or high-grain wood veneers, select a base of thoroughly dried wood to prevent cracks from forming later.
- To glue veneer on small surfaces, use PVA glue, and on large surfaces, use wood glue. This will help you make the pasting better.
Just like gluing, gluing is carried out in two ways: pressing and lapping. Both methods are performed in the following sequence:
- First, apply a layer of glue to the base, then put veneer on it, iron it with a clean cloth, thereby removing all air bubbles from under it. After this, for a better connection, moisten the top of the veneer with a sponge and warm water. After 1-2 hours, when the glue begins to thicken, rub the veneer in the direction of the grain, being careful not to pick up the edges. To do this, all movements must be directed towards the edges or diagonally towards them
- Before leaving the structure until completely glued, place sheets of white paper on
seams. Now all this can be left as it is, or you can put it under a press, laying it on top of the veneer
paper, then the gasket and only then clamp it with clamps; - Sifted and heated sand can be used as a press for parts with an uneven, curved surface. First place a sheet of paper on the surface, thereby protecting the veneer from contamination, and then a canvas bag with sand. The more sand, the more pressure will be exerted. But it should not be excessive so that the veneer does not deform. The optimal pressure will be exerted by a layer of sand of 9-11 cm. The surface can be freed from such a press only after the sand has completely cooled, so that the veneer does not “bubble”.
Now let's talk about the disadvantages that may arise when gluing veneer to a base.
First of all, this is the formation of so-called “siskins” - places where the layer of glue was insufficient and air cushions formed. The simplest tapping will help you detect such areas - empty places will sound dull under impacts. The “siskin” should be cut with a joint knife, then carefully lift one edge and use a pipette or syringe with a needle with a large bore to pour a few drops of glue into the void. After this, using a rag, stroking the surface in a circular motion, spread the glue inside the former “siskin” and iron the seam, onto which you then need to apply a paper strip.
Then this place must be ironed with an iron heated to a temperature of 100-110 degrees.
Air bubbles formed due to uneven grinding most often have a convex shape. Such a bubble also needs to be cut, slightly soak the veneer around the bubble, then pour in a few drops of glue from a pipette or syringe and rub it with a warm iron through the paper.
Some veneer parts may move when glued. Thus, millimeters of excess veneer appear at the edges.
Only after the glue has completely fixed will they have to be aligned. Depending on the size of the protruding edges, either a jamb knife or a plane is used. The plane is only suitable for a relatively small protrusion - about 1 mm. The larger protrusion is removed with a jamb knife. In this case, be sure to place a strip of the same thickness next to the part so that the veneer does not break off during alignment.
The ability to work with a noble material – wood – has always been highly valued in Russia. But acquiring the skills of a master carpenter and joiner is impossible without the right approach to choosing materials, tools, organizing the workplace, and studying the technological subtleties that make up the wood processing process. This book will show the possibilities of using these skills both in the process of building a wooden house and in making furniture with your own hands, and will help you achieve certain heights in this exciting and useful process.
A series: Home master
* * *
The given introductory fragment of the book Joinery and carpentry work (E. M. Sbitneva) provided by our book partner - the company liters.
Woodworking
A home craftsman has to be both a carpenter and a joiner, so he needs to be able to use carpentry and carpentry tools and perform certain types of work.
Carpentry work refers to the methods of rough wood processing - chopping, trimming, sawing, planing, drilling, chiseling, as well as fitting and assembling parts of wooden structures. These works are performed during the construction of a fence or gate, formwork for the foundations of fence and gate posts, preparation of various kinds of workpieces, etc.
Carpentry work includes sawing, planing, drilling, chiselling, sanding, assembling and fastening parts of joinery, finishing and finishing of wood. Carpentry work is divided into white wood (they are made from coniferous or soft deciduous wood) and cabinetry, when hardwood (oak, beech, hornbeam, etc.) is processed.
Naturally, a wide variety of instruments are used. There are several types of saws alone, and each is designed for a specific type of work.
If possible, wood processing operations should be tried to be mechanized (performed on woodworking machines) or purchased lumber that has undergone mechanical processing - planed, planed, with milled grooves and ridges, with selected quarters (along the boards and beams), etc., for high quality It is quite difficult for a novice craftsman to carry out such processing with hand tools. Even when using factory-made lumber blanks, you have to spend a lot of time adjusting wooden parts during their assembly.
Tools
There is no doubt that every self-respecting man should have at least the most necessary tools on hand: a hammer, an axe, pliers, pincers, screwdrivers, etc. However, it should be taken into account that if they are in poor condition, not only complex, but also simple operations are difficult to perform impeccably. The golden hands of an experienced master will not help in this situation. Only with a good tool can you create a unique masterpiece. When starting work, we must not forget one golden rule: the tools must be kept in perfect condition.
Over time and as needed, this minimal set of tools can be expanded. Gradually, the arsenal will include a jamb knife, chisels of various profiles, hacksaws for wood, a jigsaw, an electric drill with a set of drills and a grinding disc for surface treatment, various types of sandpaper - from fine-grained to coarse-grained, files and needle files with different notching frequencies.
Inspection, measuring and marking tools
Without them, it is impossible to imagine performing even the simplest operation. Before you start actually processing the wood, you need to choose the right block and mark the position of the future part.
Roulette
A tape measure is a measuring tape made of thin flexible steel, enclosed in a metal or plastic casing. The tape rewinds automatically. The length of the measuring tape ranges from 100 to 200 cm. The divisions on the tape are marked every millimeter. The numbers indicate centimeters and tens of centimeters. A tape measure is used to measure linear quantities.
Folding meter
This meter is made of metal, plastic or wooden plates with millimeter and centimeter divisions. The plates are connected to each other by hinges. Such a meter is convenient when installing parquet and when measuring small quantities (Fig. 12, a).
Rice. 12. Marking tools: a – folding meter; b – surface planer; c – square.
Square
Used to establish an exact right angle and to measure the angle between the sides of parts. It most often consists of metal or wooden parts, less often it is made entirely of steel. On one side there is a 1 mm marking for ease of use (Fig. 12, c).
Square finder
Used when searching for the center of a cylindrical part. It consists of a ruler attached to the middle of the base of an isosceles triangle. The square is placed on a cylindrical surface and then gradually moved towards the center, while the required values will be the diameters of the circle.
Reismus
Used for marking and making marks parallel to one of the sides of the bar. It looks like a thick block into which two strips are inserted, with metal points on one side for marks (Fig. 12, b).
Erunok
Erunok is a square made of two plates, one of which is fixed in the middle of the other at an angle of 45°. Such a square is convenient for determining an angle of 135° (Fig. 13).
Rice. 13. Erunok.
Malka
This tool is needed to accurately measure angles based on a sample and transfer them to the workpiece without degree-by-degree refinement. Such a tool consists of two wooden plates mounted on a hinge (Fig. 14).
Rice. 14. Malka.
Compass
Used for drawing round parts on workpieces, as well as for quickly transferring markings.
Bore gauge
It is something like a compass, the ends of which are turned outward. This device is used to measure the internal diameter of various parts.
Level
Used to check the verticality or horizontality of a surface.
It is a fairly thick and wide ruler, equipped with ampoules of liquid. It is by the position of the liquid bubble in the ampoule that the horizontal plane is determined (Fig. 15).
Rice. 15. Level.
Plumb level
This type of level is a small cone-shaped or cylindrical weight on a string. By lowering it parallel to the wall or side of a large workpiece, deviations from the vertical can be identified (Fig. 16).
Rice. 16. Plumb.
Otvoloka
It is used when marking lines on the edge of a workpiece; it is a small block with a bevel at one end and a protrusion with a nail driven in. Lines are marked on the surface of the wood with the sharp end of this nail (Fig. 17).
Rice. 17. Otvolochka.
Bracket
This is a carpentry tool for marking lugs and sockets when removing them manually. The device of the bracket is based on a wooden block, in which a quarter is selected on one side at a distance of 1/3 of the entire length. Then, at this quarter, nails are driven in at a certain distance, the tips of which mark marks in the form of parallel lines on the wooden surface (Fig. 18).
Rice. 18. Carpenter's bracket.
Calipers
This tool is used to measure the size of parts. To do this, the side of the part is placed between the rod and the frame; the top whisker will show the size of the distance being measured.
Carpentry and joinery tools
Hand tools are designed to perform work using one's own strength. Most of the tools described can easily be replaced with mechanical or electrical counterparts. But for many types of carpentry and carpentry, hand tools remain indispensable.
Conventionally, carpentry and joiner's tools can be divided by purpose: for sawing, planing, chiseling and trimming, drilling and auxiliary work.
General Purpose Tools
Hammer, perhaps the most important tool for carpentry and joinery work. Stores sell ready-made hammers, as well as their individual parts. For the hammer handle, dogwood, pear, and acacia wood is used, which are particularly hard and inexpensive. Only high-quality steel is used for the hammer head. But even this simple tool has several varieties.
Regular hammer can be found in any store. The impact surface of such a hammer has a rectangular or square plane. The other end of the striker is pointed and is often used to straighten nails when driving.
Wooden mallet or mallet(Fig. 19), used for grinding in wooden blocks when gluing. It is also quite often needed when working with a chisel whose handle is made of wood. Impacts caused by a regular hammer can simply break the handle and render the chisel unusable.
Rice. 19. Mallet.
carpenter's hammer differs from the usual one in that the tail of the striker is divided into two parts like a dovetail. This end is most often used to pull out nails.
Ticks necessary for working with wood. Their main purpose is to pull out nails, bite off nail heads, and bend wire and nails when fastening.
Depending on what needs to be done with the nail, there are needle-nose pliers, flat-nose pliers and round-nose pliers.
For example, pliers and pliers used for pulling out, bending, biting nails, unscrewing nuts, removing screws with broken grooves from wood and for other auxiliary work.
Doboynik in carpentry and carpentry, it is used to embed the head of a nail into solid wood.
Screwdriver used for fastening wooden parts with screws. Depending on the groove on the screw head, you need to have two types of screwdrivers: wedge-shaped and Phillips-shaped.
Fixing devices
Fixing devices: clamps, wedges, clamps, clamps, presses, vices.
Clamps are necessary when gluing, tightening and fastening parts. This is a fairly large group of devices that are used in carpentry and carpentry. Not only clamps act as clamps. Their metal construction is not always suitable for fastening parts, as it often leaves marks on the surface.
For the same purposes, pieces of rubber, rope or wooden blocks are often used.
chopping tool
An ax is simply irreplaceable in carpentry. Remember what miracles the old masters performed using only an axe. It is much simpler than a hammer, but it also has its own variations. It all depends on the angle of the ax handle. Often the blade is sharpened on both sides, which allows it to be used for two types of work at once: chopping and hewing. An ax sharpened on one side only is used for cutting wood (Fig. 20).
Rice. 20. Ax and principles of sharpening.
Straight ax used for splitting wood. The working part relative to the handle should be located at an angle of 90°.
Sharp Ax designed for primary wood processing: removing bark and protruding knots on the trunk. The working part of this type of ax relative to the handle is located at an angle of 80–85°.
Blunt Ax has its own characteristics. Its ax is located relative to the handle at an angle of 100° or slightly less. This ax is used for the roughest work, for example, for processing entire logs and cutting large blocks of wood.
Sawing tool
Everyone knows what a saw is. Nevertheless, it is worth saying a few words about what types of saws there are. A saw is a metal strip or metal disk with cut teeth. The saw pitch is the distance between the tops of two adjacent teeth, and the distance between the top of a tooth and its base is called the tooth height. To remove sawdust generated during sawing, the blade is provided with depressions called sinuses. Each tooth has three cutting edges - one front (short) and two side.
The teeth of saws for longitudinal sawing with a short cutting edge cut the fibers, and with the side ones they separate the fibers from each other in their direction. The teeth of these saws are straight-sharpened, can cut only in one direction, and are shaped like a triangle.
The teeth of a crosscut saw have a short cutting edge that separates the fibers and a side cutting edge that cuts them. The teeth, shaped like an isosceles triangle, are sharpened on both sides, so they can be sawed in both directions (Fig. 21).
Rice. 21. Saw teeth.
Hacksaw can also help when working with wood. The quality of the sawn surface depends on the thickness of the blade and the alignment of the hacksaw teeth. When performing different types of work, different types of hacksaws are used: hacksaws with thick or thin blades, with large or small teeth. For carpentry work, a hacksaw with a “mouse” tooth - small and frequent - is more suitable, and for carpentry - a hacksaw with a rare and large tooth (Fig. 22).
Rice. 22. Types of hacksaws: a – transverse wide; b – narrow; c – with butt; g – hacksaw-reward; d – two-handed cross-cut saw.
Wide hacksaw(Fig. 22, a) is used when cutting wood across the grain. The teeth of such a hacksaw are sharpened at an angle of 45° and spaced 0.5 mm apart from the central axis; a wide hacksaw is used for transverse cutting of boards and bars.
Narrow hacksaw(Fig. 22, b) is used primarily for cutting thin boards and through cuts, as well as for curved cutting of parts. The size of the setting and the method of sharpening the teeth of such a hacksaw are no different from sharpening a wide hacksaw.
Hacksaw with a butt(Fig. 22, c) are used when cutting out small parts and when adjusting joints. The peculiarity of this hacksaw is that the blade is reinforced with a board along its entire length. The thin blade of this hacksaw is not able to independently maintain the cutting direction and often breaks during operation.
Hacksaw reward(Fig. 22, d) is used for sawing grooves.
Crosscut two-handed saw(Fig. 22, d) is used for cross-cutting round timber, beams, and boards.
Jigsaw used for cutting out thin parts with curved shapes (Fig. 23).
Rice. 23. Jigsaw.
Bow saw(Fig. 24) are used for sawing wood materials. The saw blade of this tool is fixed at both ends in the machine (beam) and tensioned, due to which it is longer and thinner than that of a hacksaw. During operation of a bow saw, its blade does not bend, the cut is thinner and cleaner, and therefore the size of the workpiece will be more accurate. This saw allows you to make movements at the full span of your arm, which greatly reduces the time required.
Rice. 24. Bow saw: 1 – saw blade; 2 – handles; 3 – racks; 4 – spacer; 5 – bowstring; 6 – twist.
Electric saws are used for cross-cutting and longitudinal sawing of materials, such as boards and bars. In addition, they can be used to cut at a certain angle.
An electric hacksaw can handle materials such as hard wood, drywall, plastic and brick.
Electric circular and chain saws significantly reduce the time spent cutting timber, but they are not suitable for performing delicate work. The following brands of saws are widely used: IE-5107, K-5M, EP-5KM.
For sawing unhewn logs and ridges, saws of the EP-K6 brand are needed.
The cutting part of such saws is a saw chain, which consists of teeth connected to each other by hinges.
Working with the listed saws requires compliance with safety regulations:
1. When sawing in a damp room, the mains voltage should not exceed 36 V.
2. The saw can only be transported by placing it in a case.
3. After finishing work, the saw must be put away in a specially designated place.
When working with an electric saw, you should remember that this is a tool that is a source of increased danger. Having purchased such a saw, first of all carefully study the device and the rules of its operation. Before starting work, remove the bushing and fill the oil seal with grease. Lubrication is repeated every 25–30 hours of operation.
The hand-held circular saw IE-5107 has a fairly high disc rotation speed - 2940 rpm - this is provided by a 750 W electric motor, so it can be used to saw wood materials up to 65 mm thick, and a special device allows you to change the angle of inclination of the cutting part from 0 to 45° .
This saw has an electric motor with a single-phase commutator and operates from a regular electrical network with a voltage of 220 V.
Before work, check the correct sharpening and setting of the saw teeth and the firm fit of the disc on the spindle. The disc must not have cracks or damage. To check the condition of the gearbox, turn the disk slightly. If it is difficult to turn the disk, the lubricant should be thinner. This can be achieved by idling the tool for 1 minute.
Before starting work, the material to be cut is secured on a workbench. After this, grab the rear handle of the saw with your right hand, and the front handle with your left hand and install the cutting part of the saw on the material. Guide the saw along the intended line easily and smoothly, since sudden jerky movements can jam the tool disk, which can result in damage to the electric motor.
If the disk nevertheless jams, move the saw back. This is done so that the disk comes out and reaches the required rotation speed. Only after this they continue to work.
After finishing work, turn off the tool and wipe it with a rag soaked in kerosene.
Working with an electric saw requires increased attention and strict adherence to operating technology. Deviations from work procedures and inattention can result in serious injury. Therefore, if any deviation from the normal operation of the electric saw is detected, it should be turned off immediately and the cause of the failure should be investigated. If the breakdown is serious, it is best to seek help from a specialized workshop.
Cutting tools
To remove roughness, warping, and risks remaining on the surface of wood after sawing, a type of processing such as planing is used. Each of the planing tools has its own purpose.
Plane allows you to remove unnecessary wood and makes the surface of the part smooth. The plane can have a metal or wooden body. A metal plane is more convenient to use when processing hardwood and chipboard.
A wooden plane is mainly used when performing basic work. It is this that glides more easily over the surface of the wood being processed, which allows for less strain on the arm muscles.
To work, you should definitely acquire several types of planes, which would be convenient for planing both fragile, thin, small parts, and huge boards and jambs (Fig. 25).
Rice. 25. Types of planes: a – sherhebel; b – single plane; c – double plane; g – jointer; d – zenzubel; e – folded hebel.
Sherhebel used for rough processing of wood. It prepares the surface for further leveling and smoothes out any unevenness after cutting. A feature of its structure is that its cutting part (knife) has a semicircular chamfer. The Sherhebel must be massive and heavy to make it easier to overcome obstacles, so most often its body is made of metal (Fig. 25, a).
Single plane used to level the surface after working with sherhebel. The peculiarity of this plane is the blade, the width of which is about 4 cm, or even more. The chips coming out from under the blade are smooth and practically do not break. But when processing the surface, pieces of wood may break off or burrs may form (Fig. 25, b).
Double planer Use only for surface cleaning and finishing. After planing with this plane, the wood acquires an absolutely smooth, mirror-like surface. Obtaining a surface of such quality is explained by the structure of the plane itself. Each knife here must be equipped with a chipbreaker, which protects the surface from the formation of scoring and chipping (Fig. 25, c).
Jointer and semi-jointer used for planing the surface of large parts. This purpose is explained by the length of the block, which is approximately 70–80 cm for jointers and 50–60 cm for semi-jointers. Knives for jointers and semi-jointers must also be appropriate - 5–8 cm wide. After processing the surface with a jointer, it is additionally necessary to go through a double plane, the blade of which protrudes no more than 0.3 mm (Fig. 25, d).
Sander It is a shortened plane with two narrow, obliquely set knives. This plane is used to clean out burrs formed during planing with Sherhebel, as well as curls and knots that cannot be processed with a simple plane. Its design does not include a chipbreaker, so it can chip wood. To improve it, you can equip the plane with a chipbreaker yourself.
Zinubel looks very similar to a plane. Its purpose is to level the surface of boards and slabs for their subsequent gluing. Various curls, burrs and knots lend themselves well to processing with this plane. In addition, if you treat the surface of the plywood with such a plane and then cover it with veneer, you will get a coating of very good quality. If you plan the surface of an untreated board first in the direction of the grain, and then across it, you can remove all the irregularities. All these features are associated only with the use of a special knife and its installation. The edges of the knife blade always protrude, thereby forming a small hollow inside. Therefore, when planing, small shafts are obtained on the surface. The knife is always placed almost perpendicular to the surface - at 70–80°.
Zenzubel and foldgebel used for making rectangular folds on bars, for example for door frames (Fig. 25, e, f).
Electric planer used for leveling the surface of a wood board or board along the grain. The surface is planed using rotating cutters driven by an electric motor. The lowering and rising front ski changes the depth of penetration of the cutting cutter into the solid wood.
If you remove the protective cover and attach the plane to a workbench, you will get a machine that is often used in woodworking.
Electric planer IE-5707A helps to quickly process a large surface area. A plane can be used to process wood surfaces 100 mm wide and 3 mm deep. You can vary the depth of processing of the cutter. The electric planer can operate from a household network. Before working with an electric planer, be sure to secure the board to the workbench.
Move the plane only in the direction of the grain. After two or three passes with an electric plane, take a break. Firstly, to check the degree of processing of the part, and secondly, to avoid overheating of the tool’s electric motor. Planer knives become dull after 2–3 hours of operation, and the quality of planing becomes significantly worse. When taking a break from work, place the plane on its side or with its skis facing up.
Chips and sawdust can get under the ski plane guides, and the depth of cut of the wood layer can change, so you need to keep an eye on this.
The reasons for uneven processing of the wood surface may be incorrect and uneven placement of cutters and dullness of their cutting part. It is also possible that the sliding surface becomes clogged with a large amount of sawdust or shavings.
Overheating of the electric planer motor and its failure can occur due to pressing the tool from above during operation and lack of lubrication in the seals.
The surface processed with an electric planer is not always even and smooth.
The first defect occurs when the cutting cutters are incorrectly and unevenly positioned in the groove relative to the level of the skis. The second defect is the result of using dull cutters.
Safety measures when working with an electric planer consist mainly of proper wiring, careful handling of the cutting tool, and turning off the tool during breaks.
After working with an electric planer, you need to remove the cutters from the grooves, clean them with kerosene and put the tool in the box.
Shtap necessary for smoothing the edges of parts.
Rebates can be made with the help of carpenter's and carpenter's chisels; they are also used to select sockets, grooves, and make tenons.
Cleaning of sockets and grooves is carried out using chisels, which can be flat or semicircular.
Chisel helps to select wood in places where it is impossible to reach with a saw, or to level the surface where a plane cannot do it. Several types of chisels are needed for woodworking.
Straight chisel Most often used for cutting rectangular recesses. At the same time, the width of the canvas allows you to make both large and small holes. Most often, the width of the blade does not exceed 6 cm, but cannot be less than 3 mm, and the thickness of the chamfer ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 cm, while the sharpening angle of the knife also changes. Straight chisels, as a rule, are single-phase only. They are used for cutting out recesses of various shapes and leveling flat surfaces (Fig. 26).
Rice. 26. Straight chisels.
Semicircular chisel used where it is necessary to make a round hole or recess. It is impossible to do without it when leveling the surfaces of semicircular recesses. In addition, using a semicircular chisel allows you to create a smooth line that cannot be achieved using a straight chisel.
The main difference between semicircular chisels is the width of the blade and the radius of its circumference, as well as the size of the radius: the smaller the radius, the greater the depth of a given chisel. Depending on this, semicircular chisels are divided into steep, sloping and deep, or cerasics. A steep chisel is used to remove wood and make holes. A sloping chisel is necessary for a wood carver when cutting out the contours of figures and ornaments.
A minimum carpentry kit must include 2 semicircular chisels with a blade width of about 10–12 mm, one of which should be steep and the other sloping (Fig. 27).
Rice. 27. Semicircular chisels.
Angle chisels used for sampling wood to obtain precise geometric recesses. Angle chisels differ in the width of the blade and in the angle between the chamfers of the blade, which can range from 45 to 90° (Fig. 28).
Rice. 28. Corner chisels.
Semicircular and corner chisels can be made from standard chisels with blade widths of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 16 mm. To do this, heat the end of the blade of a standard chisel on a gas burner or blowtorch and then slowly cool it. Firmly clamp the resulting workpiece in a vice and saw off the very tip of the industrial chisel with a metal hacksaw. Then, using a round file, a groove of the required size is sharpened on the workpiece blade, after which the blade is sharpened on the other side with an ordinary flat file, giving it the required shape.
After this, the chisel must be sharpened. First, it is sharpened on a sharpening wheel, and then corrected on a whetstone, which is specially selected for the profile of the chisel. When working with sharp tools, precautions must be taken to avoid accidents. The basic rule is that you need to securely secure the workpiece while working and never use your hand as a clamp.
When working, try to direct the movement of the tool away from you, and not towards you.
Chisels necessary for sampling wood in hard-to-reach places or at a sufficiently great depth, where it is impossible to use another blade. Such chisels are available in carbon, straight and semicircular. Their differences lie in the width of the canvas. Semicircular cranberry chisels also differ in radius, and corner ones - in angle. The nature and magnitude of the bend are also important (Fig. 29).
Rice. 29. Cranberry chisels.
Bit it looks like a chisel, but it is a completely different tool (Fig. 30). The chisel is designed for chiselling wood, and therefore a metal tip is attached to its handle, which does not allow the wood to crack from hammer blows. In order not to damage the handle, as well as for better penetration of the blade into solid wood, the chisel is used only in conjunction with a wooden mallet.
Rice. 30. Chisel.
The chisel has a more massive blade than the chisel. Depending on the type of work, chisels are divided into carpentry and carpentry chisels. The width of the working blade of a carpenter's chisel does not exceed 15 mm, and the blade of a carpenter's chisel is never narrower than 20 mm. Moreover, the blade of a carpenter's chisel does not have any extensions at the base, unlike a carpenter's chisel, which simply needs it.
Electric Shaper used for selecting wood for rectangular sockets for fastening parts. The main part of this tool is a slotting chain, which consists of small cutters connected to each other by hinges.
To obtain nests of different sizes, you only need to change the plate on which the slotting chain is attached, and the depth of the sampling is adjusted by lowering the handle.
To get smooth edges of the mounting socket, first sharpen or clean the cutters and only then prepare the machine for work. Then they fix the board or part on the workbench, install the machine on it and turn it on.
If you attach an electric shaper to a workbench, you will get a stationary machine. When working with a slotting machine, precautions must be taken. First of all, this consists in the correct fastening of the slotting chain, the serviceability of the electrical wiring, and the correct feeding of solid wood when using a fixed machine. If the machine is not secured, then you must ensure that the block is well secured. Do not operate an ungrounded machine.
Knife-jamb Designed for cutting small recesses in solid wood, as well as for cutting veneer into pieces. The blade of the jamb knife is beveled at an angle of 30–40°, and the blade of the knife can vary depending on its purpose - from 4 mm to 5 cm (Fig. 31).
Rice. 31. Knife-jamb.
Sharpening a knife blade can be done on one side or on both sides. Depending on this, knives with one and two chamfers are distinguished. Knives with one bevel are differentiated into right-handed and left-handed ones depending on where the bevel is cut.
Single-bevel knives are used only when working with either the right or left hand. They are more specific than dual bevel knives and only cut through the wood on one side depending on which side needs cutting.
Knives with two bevels are universal in operation, but they cut through wood on both sides of the blade at once. Their main purpose is simple cutting.
Knife-scrape used for scraping, it is a cutting knife mounted in a handle made of hardwood. When sharpening, the chamfer is removed only from one side by 45°, which allows the knife to slide along the surface without going deep into the mass and remove thin chips.
Files of different shapes are needed for final grinding of the surface, removing all burrs, irregularities and roughness where it is impossible to use another tool.
Drilling tools
Drilling tools are varied. It is used to make holes for panels, round tenons and bolts; it is used to drill out knots (the holes from the knots are then sealed with plugs).
As you work you will definitely need drill with a set of drills (Fig. 32).
Rice. 32. Set of wood drills: a – center drill with a flat head (“perka”); b – screw; c – spiral; g – cork; d – countersink.
Drilling is most often used to select round holes and sockets for tenons, screws, and bolts.
The drills used by joiners and carpenters are different from those used for drilling metal and other materials. Their cutting edges are sharpened differently, and they are located mainly in the lower part of the drill.
Center drill with a flat head (feather drill, “perka”) is used for drilling cylindrical holes for inserted round tenons. Using center drills (Fig. 32, a), through holes are drilled across the fibers. It is quite difficult to work with them, since they do not throw chips out well. The center drill is a rod that ends at the bottom with a cutting part, consisting of a trimmer, a blade and a guide center (point). Drills are produced in gradations of 2 mm from 10 to 60 mm and in lengths of 120 and 250 mm.
To drill deep holes across the fibers or through holes in thick workpieces, drills with a screw part are often used (Fig. 32, b). According to their shape they are divided into screw, screw and corkscrew. At the end of such drills there is a screw with a fine thread. When drilling with such drills, the holes are clean, since chips are easily removed along the screw grooves.
Spiral drills (Fig. 32, c) also give accurate and clean holes.
Cork the drill (Fig. 32, d) allows you to drill holes of sufficiently large diameters. Its working part is a cylinder with a diametric cutter inside and a circular cutter on the side surface. Typically, such a drill is used to drill out knots or seats for four-hinged hinges.
Countersinking Using a drill (or a conical countersink), the working part of which is made in the form of a cone with longitudinal grooves towards the center, holes are drilled for the heads of screws and bolts (Fig. 32, e).
All types of drills can be used both for drilling with hand-held non-mechanized devices (rotators, spiral drills), and with hand-held mechanical drills, as well as drilling machines.
Electric drill Designed for drilling holes in solid wood. This tool consists of an electric motor, which is connected through a series chain of fasteners to the spindle of the drill chuck. Most often, twist drills are used for this operation. In addition to its direct purpose, an electric drill is used for polishing, grinding, stirring paints, etc.
During work, the drill should penetrate into the array gradually, without jerks or jolts. If it is necessary to make a through hole, then the pressure on the wood must be reduced as the drill moves.
Kolovorot(Fig. 33) are used for manual drilling of holes with drills for various purposes.
Rice. 33. Rotary.
Buraw(Fig. 34) drill deep holes using gimlet with a diameter of 2–10 mm (Fig. 35) shallow ones are obtained.
Rice. 34. Burav.
Rice. 35. Gimlet.
In order to mark the center of the hole, it is pricked with an awl. The drill must be well sharpened, only then the hole will be accurate. Then the drill must be firmly secured in the chuck of the brace or drill. When working with a drill or brace, you need to ensure that their axis of rotation coincides with the axis of the hole.
Through holes are made according to precise markings on both sides of the part. When drilling from one side of a part, before the drill exits to the other side, the pressure on the handle of the brace head (or the handle of the drill) should be slightly loosened to prevent chipping, flakes or cracks in the part. Another way to avoid this is to place a board under the part.
Wood processing equipment
Miter boxes and templates are often used as devices. They make work much easier and reduce the time spent performing a particular operation.
Miter box is a kind of gutter consisting of three boards. The two boards should be knocked down parallel to each other on the base, and the angle between the base and the sides should be 45°. Several special cuts are made on the sides of the miter box at a certain angle, and their number should be the same on both sides. The line on one side of the board should continue on the other so that it is convenient to cut the board at a certain desired angle.
Most often, 2–3 cuts are made on the walls: at an angle of 45, 90 and 60°. The last one is rare.
A miter box is used to speed up the process of sawing boards at a certain angle. To do this, the board is placed between the sides of the miter box and pressed against the far side; only after this do they begin sawing the board.
Templates used for quick marking of parts. For repeated use, templates are made from hard, thin material, such as plywood, fiberboard or tin.
Preparing tools for work
To make tools easy and convenient to use, they need to be properly prepared. The principles of sharpening an ax were discussed earlier (see Fig. 20).
To prevent the blade from getting stuck in the wood, the teeth of the saw are set apart, that is, they are bent in different directions and sharpened. To do this, the master needs a vice, pliers and a triangular file with a fine notch. Usually saws go on sale with set teeth, but it is possible that you will have to perform this operation yourself, so we will dwell in more detail on its description. First, using a wooden spacer, secure the blade in a vice and, using pliers, begin to carefully move the tops of the teeth alternately in one direction or the other (Fig. 36, a), but not more than half the thickness of the blade.
Rice. 36. Preparing the saw for work: a – teeth set; b – sharpening.
A wider spread will only cause damage, as the cut will be too wide and uneven. It is also necessary to ensure that the spread of all teeth is the same, otherwise not all teeth will participate in the sawing process, but only the most bent ones, and it will be difficult to work with such a saw. The set teeth must be within the spacer, so the position of the blade is changed from time to time.
The saw is sharpened with a triangular file. The blade is clamped in a vice and moved as the teeth are sharpened. There are two types of sharpening - oblique and straight. If the saw is intended for mixed longitudinal-transverse sawing and its teeth have the shape of a right triangle, a simpler straight sharpening is used, during which the file is held perpendicular to the blade (Fig. 36, b). Inserting it one by one into each gap between the teeth, with light pressure, move along their edges in the direction away from you. In this case, the edges of the file should fit tightly to the edges. The reverse movement is performed by lifting the file so that it does not touch the saw. You shouldn’t run a file over the same place for a long time; it’s enough to go over each tooth three times, and when you sharpen it again, once will be enough.
Preparation of a planing tool includes sharpening the knife and correctly installing it in the block. For sharpening you will need a fine-grained abrasive stone and a whetstone. Let's look at the sharpening sequence using the example of a plane knife.
First, the knife is sharpened on a block fixed in a wooden frame or recess on the work table. In this case, the lower beveled edge of the knife (chamfer) is passed along the stone. The knife is held with the right hand, and with the left hand it is pressed with a movement away from you (Fig. 37, a, b).
Rice. 37. Sharpening a plane: a – position of the knife when sharpening; b – chamfer position; c – deburring.
It is necessary to ensure that when moving the knife along the block, the chamfer is adjacent to the stone with its entire plane. The angle of inclination of the knife cannot be changed, otherwise the chamfer will become humpbacked, its width will be unequal, as a result of which such a knife will be planed poorly. Of course, keeping it at the same angle is not easy due to the sliding on the stone. The necessary dexterity, as in any other matter, is acquired through training.
To ensure that no traces of metal dust remain on the stone, when sharpening the block is periodically wiped with a wet cloth.
The bevel of the knife is moved along the stone until a burr appears along the entire length of the blade, which can be easily felt with your fingers. After this, the knife is placed flat with its front edge on the block (Fig. 37, c) and moved along the block with straight or circular movements with light pressure, as a result of which the burr disappears from the front edge and protrudes on the chamfer. The knife is turned over again and the burr is removed from the chamfer. If it appears on the front edge again, repeat all the work. Each time the hangnail decreases. The final step should be to remove it from the chamfer.
After removing the burr, the sharpened blade is edited on a whetstone, which is pre-moistened with water. Using circular movements, they first move it along the chamfer, then along the front edge of the knife, and again along the chamfer.
During sharpening, periodically check with a square whether the cutting edge of the knife is skewed (Fig. 38, a).
Rice. 38. Correction of the cutting edge: a – checking for correctness; b – elimination of distortion; c – rounding of ends.
Even the slightest distortion is unacceptable. Its presence greatly complicates the planing process: the chips are crushed and clog the gap between the knife and the block, from where they have to be constantly cleaned out.
The cause of the distortion may be a manufacturing defect, as well as sharpening with the knife in the wrong position. In any case, the defect must be eliminated. To do this, first grind off the higher part of the edge, and then level the rest of it (Fig. 38, b). When grinding, the knife is tilted in the direction opposite to the one on which the misalignment occurred, and during the alignment process it is moved strictly perpendicular to the cutting edge.
If there is a significant misalignment, the knife must be resharpened on a coarse-grained stone, on which the chamfer grinds off faster than on a fine-grained stone. This stone is used for the initial sharpening of a knife, carried out after purchasing a plane, and in case of damage or severe dullness of the blade. Sharpening (grinding) on such a stone turns out to be rough, so after the first burr appears, they move on to sharpening on a block.
A novice craftsman should take into account one more subtlety: before inserting a sharpened knife into the block, it is necessary to round the ends of the cutting edge, grinding down the corners a little (Fig. 38, c). If this is not done, sharp corners will leave grooves on the surface being planed that are difficult to remove.
So, sharpening is done. Now the knife can be installed in the block. The most important thing in this case is to correctly release the cutting edge of the knife. It is inserted into the slot of the block and lightly pressed with a wedge in a wooden block or a screw in a metal one. Then the plane is raised to eye level with the sole up and the release of the knife is adjusted so that the cutting edge is strictly parallel to the sole and protrudes literally tenths of a millimeter (when viewed in the light, the blade is barely noticeable and seems like a thin, even thread). After this, with light blows of a hammer, secure the wedge or tighten the clamping screw until it stops.
When the blade is released too far, the knife cuts deeply into the wood and removes thick chips, which get stuck in the gap between the knife and the block and prevent the plane from moving forward.
When installing a double knife, you must ensure that the chip breaker pad does not reach the cutting edge by approximately 2 mm. In order to disassemble the plane, lightly hit the rear end of the wooden block with a hammer. If the block is metal, just unscrew the clamping screw.
After mastering the sequence of preparing the plane for operation, you can begin setting up the sherhebel, the knife of which, during the sharpening process, must be constantly turned in one direction or the other so that at any moment it can be moved in the direction of the radius of curvature of the cutting edge, due to which sharpening the entire blade. The Scherhebel knife should protrude from the block in the form of a narrow tongue, so its cutting edge is extended by 1–1.5 mm.
Chisels and chisels are sharpened in the same way as a plane knife.
Working successfully with power tools requires some skill. Their preparation must be carried out with special care. For example, using an electric planer whose blades are positioned or sharpened incorrectly leads to irreparable damage to the workpiece, and the high speed and feed of an electric drill can cause the wood to catch fire. Therefore, it is recommended to first check the correct settings of the power tool on an unnecessary piece of wood, and then move on to performing the main work.
Workplace
When performing carpentry and carpentry work, it is necessary to equip the workplace as carefully as possible. The better the work is organized, the easier it is to process the wood and make the intended thing out of it. First of all, it is necessary to equip a work table, select and arrange working tools on shelves, distribute solid wood by type, so that you always know what is where and do not waste expensive time finding the right part or tool.
A workplace is considered properly organized if the work is performed with high quality with the least amount of physical effort and time.
The basis of the workplace is the workbench. It is necessary to perform all basic operations with wood - marking, sawing, planing, assembly. A workbench will help you make both the simplest and the most complex things, assemble and repair structures, process boards up to 3 m long.
The carpentry workbench (Fig. 39, a) includes a lid and a bench. The cover consists of a 60-70mm thick bench board, a front vise (front clamping screw) with backing board, a rear vise with clamping box (rear clamping box) and a tray on which tools are placed during operation.
Rice. 39. Carpentry workbench (a) and workbench board with removable vice (b): 1 – workbench board; 2 – front vice; 3 – rear vice with box; 4 – tray; 5 – wedge stop; 6 – subsurface; 7 – nests.
The bench board and clamping box are equipped with through holes into which wedge stops, adjustable in height, are inserted, designed to secure the workpiece in a horizontal position. Between the fixed stop on the board and the movable stop on the box, you can fasten a part of any length. The front vice is used to clamp the workpiece in both a vertical and horizontal position, while the rear vice is used only in a vertical position.
In the underbench you can place a cabinet for storing tools and materials.
It is, of course, more convenient to work on a real carpentry workbench. However, it is not always possible to find a place to place it. In this case, use an ordinary table, naturally old, on which a thick workbench board (Fig. 39, b) 200–250 mm wide is placed. The bench board is installed at a convenient height, using base supports (underbench).
In order to correctly determine the height of the workbench board, you need to come close to the workbench and rest your palms on it. If you don’t have to bend your elbows or, conversely, bend over to reach the board, then the height is chosen correctly.
The surface of the table can last for many years if it is made of thick hardwood boards and covered with drying oil. The base supports for the workbench are made from soft coniferous wood, such as pine or spruce. For ease of use, when clamps are needed, they are installed at the edges of the table. A transverse clamp holds the boards along their length, a longitudinal clamp holds the boards along their width. Most often, metal surfaces are used in clamps, less often wooden ones. To clamp the workpieces, you can purchase a bench vise with jaws 60–80 mm wide and attach them to the workbench.
On the working surface itself, small and shallow nests are made for installing stops made of wood or metal. Wedge stops are installed in the nests of the bench board. An additional board is secured to the back of the bench board, and then reinforced with an additional board of the same size to create a tray where the tools can be stored. Attach the bench board to the table using clamps. This design can be disassembled if necessary.
For convenience, several drawers for tools and storage of workpieces can be made under the workbench between the supports.
Shelves and racks for storing tools and materials are installed near the work area. Moreover, each tool is given a special place, which allows you to quickly find it and prevents damage to one tool by another. The workplace should be well lit and have an electrical outlet for connecting power tools.
Now there are a few operating requirements. First of all, the workbench must be secured to the floor so that when you lean on it during work, it will not tip over in any case. It is necessary to ensure that the bench board always remains level and smooth. When the first irregularities occur, it is necessary to clean the surface and cover it with a layer of drying oil. In order not to be afraid of cutting a bench board every time, you need to select a special board that is suitable in size on which to cut the wood.
When using paints and chemicals, care must be taken to ensure ventilation. To store toxic and flammable substances, choose a ventilated room inaccessible to children.
A few words about safety
It is easy to injure yourself if you mishandle even a simple saw or hammer. Therefore, before you pick up the tool, you need to read the operating instructions, which are included in the box, and only then start working. Even if there is no such instruction, this does not mean that you can not follow basic safety rules.
The very first of them states that only tools in good condition are suitable for work, that is, the handle must be intact and without cracks, fit comfortably in the hand, the blade must be free of rust stains, and the cutting blade must be sharp. In addition, if you use a saw, check that its teeth are correctly set and sharpened. The most dangerous of all hand tools is the dull saw. Using such a saw at work, you can not only cut your hands deeply, but also introduce an infection into the wound. And this can happen in the following way.
With a dull saw it is rarely possible to make a notch on the surface of the wood: it often breaks to the right, then to the left, and when pressed, it bends almost in half. As a result, the saw may get on your fingers or break, and its fragments may fly into your eyes. And what can we say if you have a power saw or electric planer in your hands?
The second is the rule for working with the tool. It is necessary to make movements correctly, and not in a way that is convenient, because the result can be disastrous.
For example, you need to direct all movements of the cutting tool away from you. Otherwise, the blade may slip and hurt your fingers.
Particular care must be taken when working with electric tools. It is imperative to check not only the cutting ability of the tool, but also the electrical wiring, since if a short circuit occurs without light, you can accidentally stumble upon a bare wire. As for the room, it should be dry with low humidity. If the air in the room is humid and you will be working with power tools, it is better to wear rubber shoes with thick soles.
When working with wood, you may need chemicals: varnishes, solvents, stains, paints, etc. And poisoning with chemicals and burns can be very dangerous, so when working with them you must be careful: ventilate the room, use rubber gloves (especially when when working with glue), avoid contact with eyes, use safety glasses.
When working with wood, you need to choose a suit made of durable, fairly thick material with a large number of pockets and pockets, which would not allow small sawdust to pass through and would allow you to keep the little things necessary for work with you.
Types of joinery and carpentry work
When starting to actually process wood, you need to learn several techniques for working with it: hewing, cutting, sawing, drilling, chiseling, planing, grinding and sanding. To perform each of these jobs you will need a certain set of tools and knowledge.
Wood cutting
Used only when processing ridges, plates and quarters. The main tool of work is an axe. Before starting to hew the log, it is freed from the bark, laid on a scaffold and the hew lines are marked with a cord. On the side of the log that is to be processed, cuts are made at a distance of 400–500 mm to the depth of the part of the log being trimmed. After this, they begin to chop wood chips and cut through the log, strictly adhering to the marking lines (Fig. 40).
Rice. 40. Basic techniques for cutting wood.
The ax is directed from the top to the base in a circle around the trunk. In this case, the ax blade should not penetrate deep into the bark layer, so as not to damage the wood itself. As work progresses, protruding knots should also be cut off along with the bark in order to best prepare the wood for subsequent processing.
Sawing wood
We will not touch on a type of sawing that requires the use of special equipment from woodworking enterprises.
Depending on how thick the solid wood is, choose one or another saw. And the sawing technique used during work depends on how the workpiece is secured on the workbench. If you fix the workpiece horizontally on a workbench, and at the same time place the saw perpendicular to the part itself, then this technique is called horizontal. In this case, the cutting site should extend slightly beyond the surface of the workbench so that it is impossible to damage the work board during work, and the procedure will be much more convenient.
The peculiarity of cross-cutting is that it does not pass along the fibers, but across them. At the same time, the likelihood of spalling increases both from the part left and from the part being sawed off.
If the chipping occurs on the piece being sawn off, then you can easily remove the excess wood from the desired part. But if the chipping occurs exactly where it is necessary to have a flat, smooth surface, then you will have to either restore the wood or cut out a new part.
A thin hacksaw with a “mouse” tooth will help you avoid such troubles.
When cutting, make several movements with the hacksaw blade along the already marked line, thereby strengthening the blade in the solid wood. During further work, only correct the movements of the hacksaw if its blade tries to get around a knot or difficult area. There should be no physical effort when sawing correctly: only a slight, even pressure on the hacksaw during smooth movements will ensure an even cut.
It is best to position the workpiece so that the piece to be sawn is on the left side. When you finish sawing, your free left hand will make it easier to hold the unwanted piece and prevent it from falling on your feet. All movements when cutting out a part are made in a sweeping manner, that is, completely moving the hacksaw blade along the cut.
You can cut along the workpiece (Fig. 41, a) and across it (Fig. 41, b), along the fibers and across, at an angle.
Rice. 41. Sawing the workpiece: a – along the grain; b – across the fibers.
You can use a sawing box - shtoslada (or miter box), in the walls of which cuts are made at an angle of 30, 45, 60 and 90° (Fig. 42).
Rice. 42. Sawing using a saw box.
The board is placed in the saw box with its end facing the cut line and pressed against one of the sides. The main thing is that you need to cut with a sharp, well-set saw, evenly and freely, without making sudden movements, not too hard, but firmly pressing the saw blade to the bottom of the cut. At the very end of the cut, the piece being cut should be held with your hand so that it does not break off under its own weight.
A wide saw is needed for sawing boards and bars. The teeth of such a saw are sharpened obliquely and made in the shape of a triangle. The teeth of a narrow hacksaw should be set apart. This saw is used for sawing planks and shalevki.
Using the example of working with an IE-5107 electric saw, we will consider in detail the process of longitudinal sawing of boards more than 50 mm thick. To do this, it is better to use the saw in a stationary mode, secured to the sawing table (Fig. 43).
Rice. 43. Scheme of processing lumber with an electric saw on a stationary machine: 1 – rack boards; 2 – lying down; 3 – diagonal fights; 4, 6 – inclined and horizontal tables; 5 – electric saw; 7 – portable electric switch; 8 – horizontal shield; 9 – cutting saw blade; 10 – clamp; 11 – processed board in a flat position; 12 – guide ruler; 13 – processed board in edge position.
The shield for the top of the table is assembled from boards 40 mm thick and 130 mm wide. A gap is left between the outer boards so that the saw blade can exit through it onto the surface of the shield. Below the shield, under the table, there are two tables for installing the electric saw in one of the positions: one is horizontal, the other is inclined. A horizontal table is located at the end part, an inclined table is located in the middle of a large table. The base plate of the electric saw is placed in the same plane with the top of the horizontal boards of the table, then the output of the disk above the table surface will be maximum.
The boards are cut according to a guide ruler or according to markings. If you need to cut the wane of an unedged board, then do it one mark at a time. The board should move forward evenly. In this case, it is necessary to ensure that the vertical plane of the saw blade coincides with the imaginary vertical plane of the cut passing through the marking line, otherwise the saw may fail.
In order to select a quarter in the sheathing boards, place the saw in the middle part of the table and make two mutually perpendicular cuts in the board. The saw is installed in the lower part of the table, and its disk is aligned with the gap in the boards of the table panel. Then the saw is moved up the table and fixed in a position where the disk protrudes above the table surface to the desired height.
To select a quarter in boards 40 mm thick, extend the saw blade 22 mm, that is, half the thickness of the board plus 2 mm. Before starting work, check whether the side surface of the saw blade touches the boards of the table board; To do this, simply turn the disk by hand. After this, the saw is fixed on the table, and a guide ruler 350–400 mm long is attached to the workbench board, for which a block with a cross section of 40 x 40 mm is used. The ruler is placed to the right in the direction of travel from the protruding part of the disk at a distance of 20 mm from its axis.
Before work, you need to check that the saw is installed correctly. To do this, place the board on its edge, bring its end to the disk and at the same time press its side edge against the guide ruler.
Having positioned the saw teeth along the axis of the board, turn on the electric saw and, pressing the board against the guide ruler, evenly feed it forward until it is sawn along its entire length. After this, the board is turned 90°, laid flat and again, pressing the board against the ruler, a second cut is made at a right angle to the first. When the second cut is completed, a strip with a cross section of 19 x 20 mm is separated from the board. In the same way, select a quarter on the opposite side of the board.
Marking, sawing and planing hard fibreboards
The decision to highlight issues of working with fiberboard in a separate chapter is not accidental. Fiberboards are used in flooring and making furniture with your own hands, so the skills of working with such boards can be useful for both carpenters and carpenters.
The cause of most mistakes made in the manufacture of furniture parts from slabs and in the installation of floors from them is incorrect marking, so this operation should be taken very seriously.
Before marking, the slab is carefully inspected and it is decided which edges should be sawed off, and also determine which side will be the front and which the back. To obtain one or another flat part, it is often sufficient to saw off two outer strips from the slab - longitudinal and transverse, so that, if possible, the largest defects remain on them. However, in any case, markings are made along the entire contour, otherwise this operation will have to be performed again before planing.
Marking, the sequence of which is shown in Fig. 44, a, is performed first on the front surface.
Rice. 44. Marking the slab for sawing (a) and transferring the markings: b – from the front face to the edge; c – from the edge to the back surface.
The first mark is carried out along a ruler along the longitudinal edge, which is not sawed off. It is done at such a distance from the edge that all traces of crumbled areas remain outside this line. Typically this removal does not exceed 3 mm. Then, using a square, two transverse marks are drawn at right angles to the longitudinal side, starting from the unsawed edge. After this, the contour is closed with a second longitudinal line. All dimensions of the part are set aside without allowances, exactly according to the design.
The marks are drawn along the wood with a pencil. Remember the rule: before taking risks, you need to check the correctness of the set aside dimensions and the accuracy of the right angle. If its value is more or less than 90°, the parts will not fit one another during assembly.
From the front side of the workpiece, the markings are transferred to the back side using a square, as shown in Fig. 44, b, c.
In order to achieve full compliance of the marks, both end points are first transferred to the back side, and then they are connected using a ruler using a mark. You cannot limit yourself to marking one front side, since during sawing the saw can become skewed and move beyond the risk, which is especially often observed among novice craftsmen. In the absence of control markings on the reverse side, it becomes impossible to check the correctness of the cut. As a result, the part ends up being narrowed or shortened, and a new one has to be made.
The need to mark the back surface is also due to another reason. When sawing, chipping and chipping may occur on the back side of the slab. To avoid this, the mark on the back is made deep, for which purpose an awl is drawn along the marking line several times, each time increasing the pressure.
The process of sawing slabs has one very important feature. It is necessary to cut not at the risk, but at a distance of about 2 mm parallel to it, leaving a small allowance for subsequent planing of the edge. It is impossible to do without such an allowance, because even with careful work with a saw, the edge will still not turn out as even and smooth as when planing. If several parts need to be cut from a large slab, not one, but two marks are drawn along their boundaries, located parallel and spaced approximately 5 mm from one another. You should cut in the middle between the risks. Some of the material in the gap will go into the cut, and the rest will go into allowances.
The slab is usually sawn first longitudinally and then transversely. To prevent the slab from shifting during operation, it is secured, and the simplest way is the following: sit on the slab, pushing the cutting area beyond the edge of the table or stool.
First, make a shallow cut with a light, short movement of the saw towards you. To prevent the saw from slipping off the cut, its blade is directed along the left thumb or nail bent at the joint (Fig. 45, a).
Rice. 45. Sawing a slab: a – sawed down; b – sawing.
Only after this can you start sawing at full arm span with light pressure while moving the hacksaw away from you. In this case, the saw is gradually installed almost perpendicular to the surface of the slab (Fig. 45, b).
You should not increase the pressure on the saw. This will only make work more difficult and increase the likelihood of misalignment. They saw slowly, trying to adhere to a single rhythm. During operation, it is recommended to periodically turn the slab over and check the location of the cut relative to the mark.
To avoid distortions, the slab is sawed in small sections, alternately from the front and back sides, but in this case it is recommended to cut deep grooves on both sides.
If the length of the cut is large, they cut in one direction until the middle, and then the slab is turned 180° and moved towards the cut made. Particular care must be taken where the cuts are connected, because the slab may break off. Slabs whose length does not exceed 300 mm do not need to be cut in two directions; but in order to prevent breakage, sawing is completed with slow movements, while holding the part being sawn off with your left hand.
When sawing the slab, local chipping of the facing layer occurs, but this is not a problem, since it does not extend beyond the marking line, and the remaining strip with damaged facing will be removed during the planing process, which aligns and makes all edges smooth. Before this operation, the plate is fixed in a vertical position. This cannot be done using a vice alone, so for fairly large slabs, an additional stand with a variable support height is required (Fig. 46, a), which is a stand with oblique notches mounted on a crosspiece. A slider moves along this rack, fixed at the level of any notch using a wire clamp.
Rice. 46. Stand for supporting the slab during planing (a) and securing the slab being processed (b): 1 – stand; 2 – cross; 3 – slider; 4 – bracket; 5 – vice; 6 – plate.
To make such a stand, you will need: a block of wood for the stand and slider, boards for the crosspiece, a piece of wire with a diameter of 3–4 mm for the bracket, nails for knocking together the crosspiece and attaching the stand to it. The supporting shoulders and notches on the stand are cut out with a hacksaw. The wire bracket is bent in a vice and inserted on both sides into holes punched in the slide with a nail. The fastening of the slab being processed is shown in Fig. 46, b: one side of it is clamped in a vice, and the other is supported on a slider installed at the required height, which is determined by the elevation of the processed edge above the floor level, convenient for planing. Usually it is 900–1000 mm.
The edges are planed without special markings, since this operation was carried out at the very beginning of processing, and after correctly sawing, the marking marks should remain clearly visible and untouched. First, one of the longitudinal edges is planed, then both transverse and the second longitudinal. Planing can be done from both ends or from one. In the first case, in order not to chip off the far corner of the slab, in the direction in which the plane is moving, the edge is processed to the middle from one end, and then, turning the slab 180°, from the opposite end. When planing in one direction, at the far end, at the level of the marking mark, a deep notch (notch) is first made, using a knife or chisel for this purpose.
End of introductory fragment.