Aristotle's childhood and youth
The philosopher and writer Aristotle, as well as the orator Demosthenes, who was born and died in the same year, constitute the classical period of Greek literature.
Aristotle, the scientist who systematized all the results of Greek thinking and knowledge, was born in 384 BC in Stageiros (Stageiros or Stageira), a Greek colony on the Macedonian-Chalcidian coast, between Athos and the mouth of the Strymon. Due to his origins from Stagira, Aristotle is often called "Stagirite". His father, Nicomachus, was a physician and belonged to the Asclepiad family, which traced its descent from Nicomachus, son of Machaon and grandson of Asclepius, mythical hero medical art. His mother, Festida or Thestiada, came from Chalkis on the island of Euboea. Aristotle had a brother, Arimnest, and a sister, Arimnest. Thus, Aristotle, although born outside of Greece, was purely Greek origin and received a purely Greek upbringing. His father, who was also engaged in literature in the field of natural sciences and medicine, was a court physician and friend of the Macedonian king Amyntas II, and together with his family, probably soon after the birth of Aristotle, moved from Stagira to Pella, the Macedonian capital. Thus, Aristotle, while still a boy, became involved in a certain relationship with the Macedonian court, which had an important influence on his future fate; King Philip, the second son of Amyntas, was two years younger than Aristotle, and, of course, met him in his earliest youth. His father's studies in the natural sciences and medicine probably also attracted the attention of the inquisitive boy to these subjects, and gave him the opportunity to acquire a lot of knowledge in this field.
Aristotle. Sculpture by Lysippos
Aristotle lost his father and mother early, before he was 17 years old; His guardian was a certain Proxenus from Atarneus in Mysia, who moved to Stagira. In his house, Aristotle was received with love and received a good upbringing; throughout his life he retained a grateful memory of the Proxenus family, subsequently adopted his son Nicanor and married him to his daughter Pythias.
Aristotle's arrival in Athens and his studies at Plato's Academy
In 367, when he was 17 years old, Aristotle went to Athens to complete his science education and especially to study philosophy. He really wanted to listen to lessons, but at that time he did not find him in Athens, since he then went to Sicily for the second time, and returned only in 365. During these years, before his acquaintance with Plato, Aristotle, as they say, squandered all his father's property with a wasteful life and finally, out of need, decided to become a mercenary; but since military service was disgusting to him, he began to earn his living by preparing and selling medicinal products. When Plato opened his school again, Aristotle, as they say, first listened to him secretly, and then soon completely changed his character. However, all of these are completely incredible stories, the source of which lies in the false news reported in one of the letters of Epicurus, which was refuted in antiquity.
Aristotle and Plato. Sculptor Lucca della Robbia
Aristotle remained in Athens for 20 years, and when Plato returned from Sicily, he became his zealous student. Only after Plato's death did he leave Athens (348). You can read about his relationship with Plato in the biography of Plato, from which it is clear that the stories about the hostile actions that Aristotle allowed himself regarding Plato belong, in all likelihood, to the realm of fictitious legends about rivalry and enmity between ancient philosophical schools. Of course, between these two philosophers, so dissimilar in the direction of their minds, disagreements could sometimes arise; of course, Plato, seeing that the most distinguished of his students was deviating from the fundamental principles of his philosophy and was following a new, independent path, could bitterly note: “Aristotle pushed us away from himself, like a foal from its mother”; but their mutual relations nevertheless always remained completely worthy of both of them and were not devoid of respect on the one hand, and gratitude on the other. Plato recognized Aristotle as the most gifted of his students, calling him the “mind” (νοϋς) of his school and “reader” for his tireless diligence.
On the other hand, Aristotle, in one place of his “Ethics” dedicated to Nicomachus (I, 4), citing evidence against Plato’s teaching about ideas, gives excellent evidence of his friendship and respect for the great teacher. He says: “Perhaps it would be better to pose the question in general and determine how much this research can be called doubtful due to the fact that people with whom we are on friendly terms have introduced the doctrine of ideas. However, it is better and more necessary for the salvation of truth to leave personal relationships aside, especially if we want to be philosophers (friends of wisdom). For, although both sides are on friendly terms, duty still commands us to honor the truth.” Aristotle did not found a philosophical school during his teacher's lifetime; on the contrary, at this time he acted as a teacher of rhetoric, which he taught in connection with philosophy and in a spirit opposed to the method of Isocratic eloquence. They say that he often repeated, parodying a verse in one tragedy: “It would be shameful to remain silent and give the floor to Isocrates" (Αίσχρόν σιωπάν, Ίσοκράτη δέάν λέγειν).
Aristotle's teacher, Plato
Stay with Hermias
Around the time of Plato's death (348), Aristotle is said to have been Athenian ambassador at the court of the Macedonian king Philip. At that time, the city of Olynthus, allied with Athens, was captured by Philip and, together with other 32 Hellenic cities in Chalkidiki, including Stagira, the birthplace of Aristotle, was destroyed to the ground; the inhabitants of these cities, who did not have time to escape, were sold into slavery. Probably, the Athenians, wanting to ease the fate of their northern friends, petitioned the winner for them, and chose for this Aristotle, who had connections with the Macedonian court and enjoyed the favor of the king, and therefore could achieve something in favor of the unfortunate. When Aristotle returned from this trip, Plato had already died, and the head academic school became his nephew Speusippus. Perhaps this was the reason that Aristotle left Athens and, accompanied by Xenocrates, one of Plato’s outstanding students, went to Mysia, to Atarnaeus, to their mutual friend Hermias. However, other reasons apparently prompted him to make this decision. It may very well be that Aristotle, who was not Athenian citizen, but was only a metec, at a time when Philip was so hostile to the Athenians and their friends, and when Aristotle himself could do nothing to alleviate the fate of the Chalcidian cities, he was suspected by the Athenians as a friend of the Macedonian court, which brought enmity upon him and slander, as a result of which he recognized the need to change his place of residence.
Hermias was a slave and then a freedman of a certain Eubulus from the city of Assa, a rich money changer, who, under Persian rule, became the tyrant of the region of Assa and Atarneus. While Hermias lived in Athens and listened to Plato and Aristotle, he became a friend of Aristotle and Xenocrates. When he returned to Assus, Eubulus took him as his co-ruler; then Eubulus took part in the movement of tyrants of Asia Minor cities who rebelled against Persian rule and was killed, and Hermias became his successor in management; It was then that he called upon Aristotle and Xenocrates. They lived in Atarney for three years in close friendly relations with this noble man. Aristotle even became related to Hermias by marrying his niece or sister Pythias, who was also Hermias's adopted daughter. The happy cohabitation of friends did not last long, however. Hermias, following the example of Eubulus, declared himself independent of the Persian king; but the Rhodian Mentor, the Persian commander and satrap of lower Asia, under the guise of friendly negotiations, lured him to himself and took him prisoner, and then sent him to King Artaxerxes Ochus, who ordered him to be crucified. Aristotle himself, apparently, trusted the friendly assurances of this deceitful man and advised his friend to go on a date with Mentor. However, Aristotle and Xenocrates managed to get rid of Mentor’s persecution; they fled to Mytilene (345 BC). In honor of his beloved and highly respected friend, whose life ended so sadly, Aristotle erected a statue at Delphi and wrote the following inscription on it:
“Contrary to all rights, despising the heavenly law, he was once killed by a barbarian, the king of the Persian archers, defeating him not in an open field, not with a spear in a fair fight, but by the cunning and cunning of a treacherous man.”
An even more important monument than this statue was erected by Aristotle to his friend in the following poem, which Athenaeus calls a paean:
"Oh valor, a wonderful reward for mortals
For an honest life and for work!
Our native Hellas is proud of you,
And people will forever be called glorious,
Who will die bravely, fearlessly.
You lead to an immortal goal; can't compare
With you there is nothing that Zeus gives us:
Neither nobility, nor gold, nor earthly goods,
Not a dream, blessed messenger of heaven.
The warrior strives for you with all his soul,
Hercules endured and suffered for you
And the sons of Leda are the young Dioscuri.
We went, burning with love for you,
Into the dark house of Aida Ajax and Achilles,
And for your sake, citizen of Atarnea,
My Hermias, wonderful life ruined it.
Therefore they will magnify him in song
Beautiful Muses of Hellas;
For loyalty to friends, for love and torment
He deserves the highest award."
Aristotle - teacher and educator of Alexander the Great
Two years after the fall of Hermias, in 343, Aristotle (who was already 41 years old at the time) was invited by King Philip to educate and educate his son, the famous Alexander. They say that Philip, as soon as his son was born, wrote the following letter to Aristotle: “Know that a son has been born to me. I warmly thank the gods, but not so much for his birth, but for the fact that he was born during your lifetime; since I hope that he, having been raised by you, will be fully worthy of us and the king’s rank.” The authenticity of this letter, however, is subject to doubt, since in 356, when Alexander was born, Aristotle was only 28 years old, and he had not yet achieved such fame that the king could write him a letter filled with such praise. However, Philip, who knew Aristotle from a young age, could already at that time be convinced of his excellent talents. Alexander was 13 years old when Aristotle became his tutor. Until then, his upbringing was in charge of Leonid, a relative of Olympias, Alexander’s mother, a strict and cruel man; His main teacher was an Acarnanian named Lysimachus, a limited man, but beloved for his flattery; he always called Alexander Achilles, Philip Peleus, and himself Phoenicus. Philip realized that these people could not be good teachers and leaders of his son, and therefore entrusted his education to the most famous philosopher of his time; he did not have to repent of this choice. Under the leadership of Aristotle, the brave and strong spirit of the royal boy began to develop rapidly; the philosopher moderated the ardor and passion of his soul and aroused in him serious thoughts and noble aspirations, teaching him to despise ordinary everyday pleasures and to have in mind only one high goal - the desire to fill the world with the glory of his great exploits. One of the important educational tools was the study of Greek poetry, especially the Iliad, which became Alexander’s favorite book. Aristotle made a special edition of the Iliad for his pet; one can guess that it was this publication that Alexander subsequently carried with him on all his campaigns, in the rich casket of the Persian king, which he received after the Battle of Issus. In addition, Aristotle introduced Alexander to various branches of Greek science and to the methods of philosophical speculation; he taught him rhetoric, ethics and politics and instilled in him a love of studying the natural sciences. Alexander’s penchant for medicine, which he practiced practically, caring for his sick friends during campaigns, Plutarch also attributes it to the influence of Aristotle - and, of course, rightly so. Sincere and lasting friendships arose between teacher and student, which cooled somewhat only in last years the lives of both of them. Alexander loved and respected his great teacher, and, according to legend, he often said that he owed his father only his life, and his teacher a life completely worthy of a man.
At first, Aristotle studied with the young king's son in the Macedonian capital of Pella; Subsequently, Philip appointed Nymphaeion for them to stay, near the Macedonian city of Mieza, which was also called Strymonion; The inhabitants of Miesa, even in the time of Plutarch, showed the cool halls of Aristotle with stone benches. Several of his young friends studied with Alexander, among whom, perhaps, was Callisthenes of Olynthos, Aristotle’s nephew. At this time, Philip treated Aristotle extremely favorably. For him he again built his hometown of Stagira. previously destroyed by the Macedonians, and returned to the citizens of this city who fled or were sold into slavery their property and rights. For the newly built city, Aristotle drew up new laws, but did not receive any gratitude from his fellow citizens for this, since, instead of forming a city community, they preferred to live scatteredly, in separate villages. Aristotle was generously given allowances for natural science research and studies. Aristotle stayed in Macedonia for eight years, until 335; but, apparently, only the first three years were spent on the upbringing and systematic training of Alexander, since Philip, undertaking a campaign against Byzantium, entrusted his 16-year-old son with the position of governor, so Alexander was busy with the grandfathers of the reign and the war against the indignant Medians . But even at this time, of course, there was no complete interruption from carrying him to his beloved teacher.
Aristotle founded the Peripatetic school
Shortly before Alexander set out on a campaign against the Persian kingdom, in 335, Aristotle again returned from Macedonia to Athens, where he lived for 13 years, teaching philosophy and rhetoric. The school of Plato, which was then headed by Xenocrates, had its tenure at the Academy; Aristotle chose the Lyceum for his stay, a gymnasium in the eastern part of the city, near the temple of Apollo of Lycia, built by Peisistratus and expanded by Pericles; The Lyceum got its name from this temple. The extensive courtyard of the temple in former times served mainly for infantry and cavalry exercises; Subsequently, a gymnasium was established there, which was decorated by the orator Lycurgus, an older contemporary of Aristotle. It was here that Aristotle began to gather students around him, and usually taught, not sitting, but walking back and forth along the alley arranged in the gymnasium (περίπατος, περιπατεϊν), as a result of which both he himself and his students and followers received the name “peripatetics” ”, and his philosophical school was called “peripatetic”. Regarding his method of teaching, Gellius (N.A. XX, 5) says: “Aristotle, as they say, had two methods of lecturing and scientific teaching. One method he called exoteric(έξωτερικός, external, intended for a large public), and the other - acroamatic(άκροαματικός). Exoteric lessons were those aimed at exercising rhetoric, developing wit in speech, and mastering civil and state laws; acroamatic were those lessons in which a deeper and more fundamental philosophy was set forth and the purpose of which was to explain natural phenomena and dialectical debates. Aristotle devoted the morning hours to these acroamatic lessons at the Lyceum, and admitted to these lessons only those students whose mental development, scientific training, zeal and desire for knowledge were previously known to him. Exoteric lectures and exercises took place in the same Lyceum in the evenings, and all young people, without exception, were allowed to participate in them. The philosopher called these classes evening school, and those – morning school (δειλινός περίπατος and έωθινός περίπατος). Acroamatic teaching was also called esoteric(έσωτερικός), “internal”, i.e. related to deeper philosophical studies, and epoptic(έποπτικός), “secret”. Lectures were usually a coherent, sequential presentation of the subject, rather than dialogues. External order during classes was supervised by a special overseer, whom Aristotle, following the example of Xenocrates, appointed for 10 days. Like the Academicians, the Peripatetics also, from time to time, organized shared dinners, for which the teacher compiled certain rules; among other things, it was prescribed that no one should come to the table covered in dust or without first taking a bath.
Aristotle and his students. On the left are Alexander the Great and Demetrius of Phalerum, on the right are Theophrastus and Strato. Fresco by E. Lebeditsky and K. Rahl
During Aristotle's stay in Athens, when he, in all likelihood, wrote most of his works, his wife Pythias died, leaving him a small daughter of the same name. Probably, the spouses lived in love and harmony, since Aristotle subsequently made an annual sacrifice in honor of the deceased, and in his will he asked that his wife’s ashes also be transported to where he would be buried, because she herself wanted this. After the death of Pythias, her former slave, Herpyllida from Stagira, became the mistress of the house, and from her Aristotle had a son, Nicomachus. As can be seen from Aristotle’s will, he was very grateful to this slave for the care with which she looked after him, and asked to take care of her after his death.
Aristotle's nephew Callisthenes
Tsar Alexander, while in Asia, continued friendly relations with his teacher and very generously helped the tireless scientist in his studies in the natural sciences. There is a story, probably exaggerated, that Alexander gave Aristotle 800 talents (about one and a half million Russian pre-revolutionary rubles) for scientific studies, and that, wanting to know the nature of animals, he commissioned Aristotle to write zoology and placed at his disposal several thousand people in Greece and in throughout Asia, who were engaged in hunting, fowling and fishing and raised menageries, herds, beekeepers, live fish cages and poultry houses so that Aristotle could see all living creatures. Callisthenes, nephew and student of Aristotle, who accompanied Alexander to Asia and, in addition to history and philosophy, was also involved in the natural sciences, compiled collections for his uncle and, by the way, sent him from Babylon for his astronomical studies astronomical observations Chaldeans, compiled 1900 years before Alexander.
The Callisthenes we mentioned later served as the reason for a quarrel between the great philosopher and the great king. On the recommendation of Aristotle, Alexander took him with him to Asia so that he could describe his life and exploits, and out of respect for his uncle treated him favorably. But Callisthenes was an arrogant, ambitious and extremely petty man, and thinking that Alexander did not distinguish him in accordance with his merits and merits, he withdrew from him with displeasure and began to present himself as a republican and praise the good old days. He often insulted Alexander with his rudeness and deliberately refused to bow to the king, who demanded this from the Greeks and Macedonians around him, wanting to elevate himself above the Asians with this external difference. Callisthenes' displeasure finally intensified to such an extent that he took part in a conspiracy drawn up against the life of Alexander by noble Macedonian youths who served under the king (327). The conspiracy was discovered, noble youths were executed; Callisthenes, who did not take a direct part in this matter, was put in chains awaiting trial. During the campaigns, he was carried in an iron cage, in which he died in India, without waiting for the verdict - he died, probably, as a result of ill-treatment. According to other news, he was hanged shortly after the discovery of the conspiracy.
Aristotle, knowing the character of his nephew, advised him either to speak with the king as rarely as possible, or to speak as politely as possible, and, having received news of his relationship with Alexander, predicted his unhappy fate to him in a Homeric verse:
“You, impudent one, will die an early death for such speeches.”
They say that upon learning of the death of this careless man, he said that his nephew was a very efficient man in words, but he had no intelligence. However, although he did not approve of his nephew's behavior, he seems to have been angry with Alexander for his cruel punishment; on the other hand, Alexander, due to his anger at Callisthenes, was dissatisfied with Aristotle. Plutarch, in his biography of Alexander, reports an excerpt from his letter to Antipater, which speaks of this conspiracy: “The Macedonians stoned the young people, and I will punish the sophist (Callisthenes), as well as those who sent him to me, and those who received him in their cities of traitors who fled from me.” Plutarch notes that in this letter Alexander alludes specifically to Aristotle. Plutarch's next account also reveals Alexander's discontent against Aristotle. In 323, people appeared in Babylon to complain to Alexander about Antipater, who had been left as governor in Europe, and Antipater sent his son Cassander there to protect him. When, during interrogation, Cassander wanted to say something against his father’s accusers, Alexander did not let him speak and said: “What are you going to say? Would people, not offended by anything, decide to go on such a long journey just to slander? “Yes,” answered Cassander, this is precisely what serves as a sign of their evil intentions, that they came here where there is no exculpatory evidence against them.” Alexander laughed and said: “These are the famous hooks of the Aristotelian school, which can be used both for and against the case. But woe to you if it is discovered that you have done these people even the slightest injustice.” Plutarch says that Alexander did not allow himself hostile actions against Aristotle, and that there was no open gap between them; but the former close, friendly relations were already broken.
Rumors about Aristotle's participation in the assassination of Alexander the Great
Six years after Alexander's death, malicious slander appeared; they began to say that the king was poisoned at the instigation of Antipater, that his eldest son Iolaus, who was the king’s cupbearer, gave him poison. They said that Aristotle also took part in this crime, fearing Alexander and wanting to avenge the death of his nephew. The poisoning agent was allegedly poisonous water from the source of Styx in Arcadia, and Aristotle allegedly ordered that this poisonous liquid be stored in a donkey’s hoof, since any vessel made of another material would be destroyed by it. Already from the fabulous content of this story it is clear that this is nothing more than a stupid fabrication; but Alexander’s mother, Olympias, who mortally hated Antipater and his family and for whom this fable may have been composed, eagerly seized on this rumor in order to pour out her anger on Antipater’s family and his followers. Antipater and Aristotle had already died at this time and thus escaped her vengeance.
Departure from Athens to Chalkis and death of Aristotle
And in the last years of his life, Aristotle was still considered by the Greeks to be a friend of Alexander and a supporter of the Macedonian party. Therefore, when, after the death of Alexander (323), the Greeks under the leadership of the Athenians rebelled and began the Lamian War to overthrow the Macedonian yoke, Aristotle's position in Athens became unsafe. A scientist who had distanced himself from worldly worries could not be accused of anything politically; therefore he was attacked from the other side: he was brought to trial on charges of irreligion. The accusation was based on the opinions expressed by him in some of his writings and - what is especially remarkable - on the fact that in the paean we cited above, Aristotle gave divine honors to Hermia. The representatives of the prosecution at the trial were Eurymedon, a priest Eleusinian Mysteries, and a certain Demophilus. Although Aristotle never spoke out against popular religion in his writings and knew that he could not be accused of atheism and irreligion, he did not trust the Athenians and their biased court and fled (at the end of 323 or at the beginning of 322) to Chalkis, on the island Euboea, where his mother's relatives lived and where he could be sure of protection from Macedonia. He wrote to his friend Antipater that he did not want to stay in Athens, where, as in Homer’s gardens of Alcinous, “figs on figs” (σύκον έπί σύκφ) ripened - an allusion to the dangerous Athenian sycophants (lit. “index of figs”).
Aristotle probably continued his teaching activities in Chalkis, where he had a house and garden. But a year later he died - in the summer of 322, a year after the death of Alexander and shortly before the death of the orator Demosthenes. He died of chronic catarrh of the stomach, in the 63rd year of his life. The legend that he drank poison is simply a fable that contradicts his view of suicide. At a later time, another fable appeared that he decided to commit suicide because he could not solve the question of the cause of sea currents in Euripus, between Euboea and the mainland, or that out of despair that he could not explain this phenomenon, he threw himself into Euripus.
The inhabitants of Stagira, according to legend, carried Aristotle's body to their city, and honored their great fellow citizen as a hero. They established an annual festival in his honor, Aristotle, where they offered sacrifices to him on an altar placed on his grave, and named one month after him. They say that Philip and Olympias placed his statue next to theirs; but it is unknown where exactly it was. Alexander erected a statue of him in Athens, the inscription of which is still preserved. Pausanias saw one statue of Aristotle in Olympia. At Delphi, the philosopher was also given certain honors unknown to us; but then they were stopped, perhaps precisely at the time when he was accused of atheism in Athens. On this occasion, he wrote to Antipater: “Regarding the honors given to me at Delphi, which I have now lost, I think that I am not particularly upset about it, I cannot help but be upset at all.”
Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum
Aristotle appointed his successor in teaching shortly before his death, in Athens or Chalkis. According to Gellius (N.A. XIII, 5), this happened as follows: “The philosopher Aristotle, being about 62 years old, began to be exposed to illness and had already lost hope for long life. Then a crowd of his students came to him, who began to urgently ask him to choose a successor for himself, whom, after his death, they could consider a worthy leader in their scientific studies. But at that time there were many excellent young men in his school href= You are leading to an immortal goal; can't comparewidth: 350px; margin-top: 30px; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 30px; margin-left: auto; border: 1px solid black; padding: 5px;/aey, of which two, Theophrastus and Eudemus, were especially outstanding in their talent and knowledge, one from the island of Lesbos, and the other from Rhodes. Aristotle replied that he would fulfill their desire when he found it convenient. Some time later, when the same young people gathered to him and asked him to appoint a teacher for them, he said that the wine he was now drinking was harmful to his health, that it was too tart, and therefore he should get someone else wine, Rhodian or Lesbian. At the same time, he asked the students to get him both, and he would drink the one he liked best. The wines were delivered. Aristotle first demanded the Rhodian wine and, having tasted it, said: “Indeed, a strong and pleasant wine.” Then he tasted the Lesbian and said: “Both wines are extremely good, but the Lesbian is still more pleasant.” After this, no one doubted that with this allegorical image Aristotle was choosing not wine, but a successor to himself. This was Theophrastus of Lesbos, who became, after the death of Aristotle, the head of the Peripatetic school.
Theophrastus (Theophrastus). Antique bust
Aristotle's Testament
Along with Plato's will, Diogenes Laertius also preserved Aristotle's will. Here it is: “Let’s hope for the best; but if anything happens to Aristotle, then these are his orders. The executor of the will in general and in detail must be Antipater. Until Nicanor (the son of Proxenus, Aristotle's former guardian) takes upon himself this, in addition to Aristomenes, Timarchus and others, Theophrastus, if he so desires and if it is possible for him, must, as guardian, take care of my children and Herpyllidas and what remains after me property. And when my daughter (Pythias) grows up, she must marry Nicanor. If my daughter dies - which should not happen and will not happen - before marriage or after marriage, but childless, then Nikanor is given the authority to manage the upbringing of my son and everything else at his own discretion. Nicanor must take care of both my daughter and my son Nicomachus, like a father and brother. If Nikanor dies - which will not happen - before marriage with my daughter, or after marriage, but without children, then all orders made by him must be valid. If Theophrastus then wishes to take my daughter into his house, then the same orders as were made regarding Nicanor are valid regarding him; otherwise, the guardians should consult with Antipater and, regarding my daughter and my son, act as they consider best. The guardians and Nicanor should also, in remembrance of me, take care of Herpyllida, since she took diligent care of me; if she wishes to marry again, then let her pay attention to the fact that her choice is not unworthy of us. In addition to what was given to her before, she should be given one talent of silver from my property, and - if she wishes - I should give her three girls and the maid who now belongs to her, and the young slave Pyrrheus. And if she wishes to live in Chalkis, then she should be given the house in the garden, but if in Stagira, then my father’s house. The guardians must supply the dwelling she has chosen for herself with such utensils as they find suitable and sufficient for Herpyllida.” Then several male and female slaves are released and an order is made that none of the minor servants should be sold, but that upon reaching adulthood they should be set free. There should be statues of Nicanor and his parents, which he should commission; a ready-made statue of Arimnest, Aristotle's brother, should also be erected as a monument to him, for he died childless. The statue of Demeter that Aristotle inherited from his mother should be placed in Nemea or in some other place. The ashes of his wife Pythias should be buried in the same crypt with him. Nikanor, having recovered from a dangerous illness, must place in Stagira the gifts that Aristotle promised to bring to the gods for his recovery, namely, two stone statues, each 4 cubits high, to the savior Zeus and the savior Athena.
Aristotle's daughter Pythias, mentioned in the will, subsequently married Nicanor and after his death she married two more times; she had a son, Aristotle. Aristotle's son Nicomachus was raised by Theophrastus and, as they say, was killed in war in his youth.
Aristotle's character and appearance
Aristotle was a man of noble character; but his numerous literary and political opponents tried with all their might to denigrate him. They represented him as an inveterate intriguer, and a seeker of sensual pleasures, and a flatterer, and a dish-licker for Alexander the Great, etc. They interpreted many things, in which there was nothing reprehensible, as a sign of weakness of character. Thus, from the fact that in the property left behind by Aristotle a lot of tableware and kitchen utensils were found, which, of course, could be found in any comfortable house, they concluded about his love of luxury and gastronomic pleasures. He had a catarrh of the stomach, and as a result he sometimes put compresses with warm oil on his stomach, or bathed in warm oil; his enemies explained this by his effeminacy, and added that after that he still sold this oil.
Aristotle, head of the statue by Lysippos
Aristotle generally had a weak body; but despite that, he worked with extreme diligence. They say that in the evening, during classes, he took a copper ball in his hand, then that if he fell asleep, the ball would fall into the basin under him and with this knock would wake him up. He is depicted as short, with thin legs, bald, with small eyes and mocking features; but this image is, of course, maliciously exaggerated. He spoke very quickly and whispered a little, so he mixed the “r” with the “l”. He dressed very carefully, wore elegant shoes, shone, as they say, with many rings and carefully trimmed his hair and beard, which aroused Plato’s displeasure. Among the images of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity, the most remarkable is the statue (in a sitting position) in the palazzo Spada, in Rome.
The fate of Aristotle's works after his death
Aristotle's rich library, as well as his works, went to Theophrastus - either by order of Aristotle himself, or by the will of the early deceased Nicanor, to whom Aristotle in his will gave the right to dispose of his property. According to the story of Strabo (b. 608 s.) and Plutarch (Sulla, 26), Aristotle’s works had a remarkable fate. Theophrastus bequeathed the library to Neleus of Skepsis, a student of Aristotle and Theophrastus, and he took it to Skepsis and bequeathed it to his descendants, uneducated people who simply dumped the books in boxes and locked them. Noticing how zealously the kings of Pergamum (to whom Skepsis belonged) were looking for books for their library, they hid Aristotle's works in an underground cellar. Subsequently, the descendants of this family sold the books of Aristotle and Theophrastus, spoiled by dampness and worms, for a lot of money to Appellikon of Teos, a contemporary of Mithridates the Great. This Appellicon, more a lover of books than a philosopher, made an attempt to fill in the missing passages in the damaged books; but since he made incorrect lists, his publication was replete with errors. The oldest Peripatetics after Theophrastus, Strabo continues, had no works of Aristotle at all, with the exception of a few and mostly exoteric ones; therefore they could not philosophize systematically, but only expounded general provisions. With the appearance of the Appellikon edition, the later Peripatetics were, of course, able to philosophize in the spirit of Aristotle better than the earlier ones; but, due to many errors in the publication, they were forced to redo and add a lot. Immediately after the death of Appellicon, Sulla, the conqueror of Athens, took his library and sent it to Rome. Here the grammarian Tyrannion, an admirer of Aristotle, began to study the manuscripts, having gained access to them through the courtesy of the librarian. At the same time, some booksellers, who had bad copyists and did not check the lists with the originals, published incorrectly copied copies. Athenaeus reports that King Ptolemy Philadelphus bought his entire library from Neleus and transported it to Alexandria; but in order to eliminate the contradiction with previous news, we must assume that the Egyptian king bought Neleus' library with the exception of the manuscripts of Aristotle and Theophrastus. However, no matter how we feel about Strabo’s story, the latest research confirms the fact that most of Aristotle’s works were known to scientists even before the publication of Appellikon, and that, therefore, the information reported by Strabo is incorrect or exaggerated in this regard. Of the very numerous works of Aristotle, only a fourth part has survived to this day.
Plato taught that outside the sensory world there is a special world of ideas; his great student Aristotle recognized that the idea, as the essence of a phenomenon, must be contained in itself, and therefore denied the existence of a one-sided, independent world of ideas, saying that truth should be sought in the phenomena themselves. Thus, the field of philosophy became the field of empirical research; Aristotle, with his extremely insightful mind, comprehensive erudition and amazing diligence, subjected all areas of knowledge to philosophical study; he expanded Greek science and made it deeper and more systematic through thorough speculative research and extensive and precise application of experience. Therefore, he is not only a scientist who moved philosophy forward, but also the creator of many new branches of science. So, by the way, he was the founder of grammar, logic and scientific rhetoric; he was the first to create the theory of poetry and the philosophy of art, and produced many remarkable things in certain branches of natural science, especially in zoology and comparative anatomy.
Aristotle wrote some of his works, following the example of Plato, in a dialogical form; but only minor fragments of them have reached us. In them, Aristotle differs from his teacher in that the main actor it is not Socrates who appears in the conversation, but Aristotle himself; his conversations were not distinguished by the dramatic liveliness and fascination that we see in Plato. These dialogues, written by Aristotle, probably in his youth, treat mostly popular subjects and were intended for readers who, not wanting to delve particularly deeply into philosophy, saw in studying it a means of supplementing their general education. In most of his writings, namely, in all the main scientific works that were intended for a more limited circle of readers and listeners, he preferred a consistent, strictly scientific presentation, which was more consistent with his spirit and his view of philosophy. Some works that have come down to us with the name of Aristotle are considered fraudulent; others, obviously, were not intended for the public - these are simply collections of notes or unfinished, unfinished sketches, or, finally, notebooks of his students. In addition to the paean and epigram in honor of Hermias that we reported above, the ancients attributed several more poems to Aristotle; but the so-called “Peplos” is a collection that has come down to us of a fairly significant number of individual couplets in honor of greek heroes, especially Homeric, most scientists recognized as not belonging to the philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle's syllable acquires sublimity and strength only in places, only where some lofty thought is expressed; usually he is dry and devoid of artistic treatment. But Aristotle remains credited with the fact that he was the first to develop a strictly scientific language.
Most people live simple and unremarkable lives. After their death, they leave practically nothing behind them, and the memory of them quickly fades. But there are also those whose name is remembered for centuries, or even millennia. Even if some people do not know about the contribution of these individuals to world history, but their names are forever preserved in it. One of these people was Alexander the Great. The biography of this outstanding commander is still full of gaps, but scientists have done a lot of work to reliably reproduce the story of his life.
Alexander the Great - briefly about the deeds and life of the great king
Alexander was the son of the Macedonian king Philip II. His father tried to give him the best and raise a reasonable, but at the same time decisive and unshakable person in his actions, in order to keep in submission all the peoples that he would have to govern in the event of the death of Philip II. And so it happened. After his father died, Alexander, with the support of the army, was elected as the next king. The first thing he did when he became ruler was to brutally deal with all claimants to the throne in order to guarantee his safety. After this, he suppressed the rebellion of the rebel Greek city-states and defeated the armies of nomadic tribes that threatened Macedonia. Despite such a young age, twenty-year-old Alexander gathered a significant army and went to the East. Within ten years, many peoples of Asia and Africa submitted to him. A sharp mind, prudence, ruthlessness, stubbornness, courage, bravery - these qualities of Alexander the Great gave him the opportunity to rise above everyone else. The kings were afraid to see his army near the borders of their possessions, and the enslaved peoples meekly obeyed the invincible commander. The empire of Alexander the Great was the largest state formation of the time, spanning three continents.
Childhood and early years
How did you spend your childhood, what kind of upbringing did young Alexander the Great receive? The biography of the king is full of secrets and questions to which historians have not yet been able to give a definite answer. But first things first.
Alexander was born into the family of the Macedonian ruler Philip II, who was from the ancient Argead family, and his wife Olympias. He was born in 356 BC. e. in the city of Pella (at that time it was the capital of Macedonia). Scientists argue about exact date Alexander's birth, some of whom talk about July, while others prefer October.
Since childhood, Alexander was interested in Greek culture and literature. In addition, he showed interest in mathematics and music. As a teenager, Aristotle himself became his mentor, thanks to whom Alexander fell in love with the Iliad and always carried it with him. But above all, the young man proved himself to be a talented strategist and ruler. At the age of 16, due to the absence of his father, he temporarily ruled Macedonia, while managing to repel the attack of barbarian tribes on the northern borders of the state. When Philip II returned to the country, he decided to take another woman named Cleopatra as his wife. Angry at such a betrayal of his mother, Alexander often quarreled with his father, so he had to leave with Olympias to Epirus. Soon Philip forgave his son and allowed him to return back.
New king of Macedonia
The life of Alexander the Great was filled with the struggle for power and maintaining it in his own hands. It all started in 336 BC. e. after the assassination of Philip II, when it was time to choose a new king. Alexander gained the support of the army and was eventually recognized as the new ruler of Macedonia. In order not to repeat the fate of his father and to protect the throne from other contenders, he brutally deals with everyone who could pose a threat to him. Even his cousin Aminta and the little son of Cleopatra and Philip.
By that time, Macedonia was the most powerful and dominant state among the Greek city-states within the Corinthian League. Hearing about the death of Philip II, the Greeks wanted to get rid of the influence of the Macedonians. But Alexander quickly dispelled their dreams and, using force, forced them to submit to the new king. In 335, a campaign was organized against the barbarian tribes threatening the northern regions of the country. The army of Alexander the Great quickly dealt with the enemies and ended this threat forever.
At this time they rebelled and rebelled against the power of the new king of Thebes. But after a short siege of the city, Alexander managed to overcome the resistance and suppress the rebellion. This time he was not so lenient and almost completely destroyed Thebes, executing thousands of citizens.
Alexander the Great and the East. Conquest of Asia Minor
Philip II also wanted to take revenge on Persia for past defeats. For this purpose, a large and well-trained army was created, capable of posing a serious threat to the Persians. After his death, Alexander the Great took up this matter. The history of the conquest of the East began in 334 BC. e., when Alexander's 50,000-strong army crossed to Asia Minor, settling in the city of Abydos.
He was opposed by an equally large Persian army, the basis of which was united formations under the command of the satraps of the western borders and Greek mercenaries. The decisive battle took place in the spring on the eastern bank of the Grannik River, where Alexander’s troops destroyed enemy formations with a swift blow. After this victory, the cities of Asia Minor fell one after another under the onslaught of the Greeks. Only in Miletus and Halicarnassus did they encounter resistance, but even these cities were eventually captured. Wanting to take revenge on the invaders, Darius III gathered a large army and set out on a campaign against Alexander. They met near the city of Issus in November 333 BC. e., where the Greeks showed excellent preparation and defeated the Persians, forcing Darius to flee. These battles of Alexander the Great became a turning point in the conquest of Persia. After them, the Macedonians were able to subjugate the territories of the huge empire almost unhindered.
Conquest of Syria, Phenicia and the campaign against Egypt
After a crushing victory over the Persian army, Alexander continued his victorious campaign to the South, subjugating the territories adjacent to the Mediterranean coast to his power. His army encountered virtually no resistance and quickly subjugated the cities of Syria and Phenicia. Only the inhabitants of Tire, which was located on an island and was an impregnable fortress, were able to give a serious rebuff to the invaders. But after a seven-month siege, the city’s defenders had to surrender it. These conquests of Alexander the Great were of great strategic importance, as they made it possible to cut off the Persian fleet from its main supply bases and protect themselves in the event of an attack from the sea.
At this time, Darius III twice tried to negotiate with the Macedonian commander, offering him money and lands, but Alexander was adamant and rejected both offers, wanting to become the sole ruler of all Persian lands.
In the autumn of 332 BC. e. Greek and Macedonian armies entered Egyptian territory. The inhabitants of the country greeted them as liberators from the hated Persian power, which Alexander the Great was pleasantly impressed with. The biography of the king was replenished with new titles - pharaoh and son of the god Amon, which were assigned to him by the Egyptian priests.
The death of Darius III and the complete defeat of the Persian state
After the successful conquest of Egypt, Alexander did not rest for long; already in July 331 BC. e. his army crossed the Euphrates River and moved towards Media. These were to be the decisive battles of Alexander the Great, in which the winner would gain power over all Persian lands. But Darius learned about the plans of the Macedonian commander and came out to meet him at the head of a huge army. Having crossed the Tigris River, the Greeks met the Persian army on a vast plain near Gaugamela. But, as in previous battles, the Macedonian army won, and Darius left his army in the midst of the battle.
Having learned about the flight of the Persian king, the inhabitants of Babylon and Susa submitted to Alexander without resistance.
Having placed his satraps here, the Macedonian commander continued the offensive, pushing back the remnants of the Persian troops. In 330 BC. e. They approached Persepolis, which was held by troops of the Persian satrap Ariobarzanes. After a fierce struggle, the city surrendered to the onslaught of the Macedonians. As was the case with all places that voluntarily did not submit to Alexander's authority, it was burned to the ground. But the commander did not want to stop there and went in pursuit of Darius, whom he overtook in Parthia, but already dead. As it turned out, he was betrayed and killed by one of his subordinates named Bess.
Advancement into Central Asia
The life of Alexander the Great has now changed radically. Although he was a big fan of Greek culture and the system of government, the permissiveness and luxury with which the Persian rulers lived conquered him. He considered himself the rightful king of the Persian lands and wanted everyone to treat him like a god. Those who tried to criticize his actions were immediately executed. He did not even spare his friends and loyal comrades.
But the matter was not over yet, because the eastern provinces, having learned about the death of Darius, did not want to obey the new ruler. Therefore, Alexander in 329 BC. e. again set out on a campaign - to Central Asia. In three years he managed to finally break the resistance. Bactria and Sogdiana offered him the greatest resistance, but they also fell before the might of the Macedonian army. This was the end of the story describing the conquests of Alexander the Great in Persia, the population of which completely submitted to his power, recognizing the commander as the King of Asia.
Trek to India
The conquered territories were not enough for Alexander, and in 327 BC. e. he organized another campaign - to India. Having entered the territory of the country and crossed the Indus River, the Macedonians approached the possessions of King Taxila, who submitted to the King of Asia, replenishing the ranks of his army with his people and war elephants. The Indian ruler hoped for Alexander's help in the fight against another king named Porus. The commander kept his word, and in June 326 a great battle took place on the banks of the Gadispa River, which ended in favor of the Macedonians. But Alexander left Porus alive and even allowed him to rule his lands, as before. On the sites of the battles, he founded the cities of Nicaea and Bucephala. But at the end of the summer, the rapid advance stopped near the Hyphasis River, when the army, exhausted from endless battles, refused to go further. Alexander had no choice but to turn south. Having reached the Indian Ocean, he divided the army into two parts, half of which sailed back on ships, and the rest, together with Alexander, advanced overland. But this was a big mistake for the commander, because their path ran through hot deserts, in which part of the army died. The life of Alexander the Great was in danger after he was seriously wounded in one of the battles with local tribes.
The last years of life and the results of the actions of the great commander
Returning to Persia, Alexander saw that many satraps had rebelled and decided to create their own powers. But with the return of the commander, their plans collapsed, and all those who disobeyed faced execution. After the massacre, the King of Asia began strengthening the internal situation in the country and preparing for new campaigns. But his plans were not destined to come true. June 13, 323 BC e. Alexander dies of malaria at the age of 32. After his death, the commanders divided among themselves all the lands of the huge state.
This is how one of the greatest commanders, Alexander the Great, passed away. The biography of this person is filled with so many bright events that sometimes you wonder - is it possible? to an ordinary person? The young man with extraordinary ease subjugated entire nations who worshiped him as a god. The cities he founded have survived to this day, recalling the deeds of the commander. And although the empire of Alexander the Great fell apart immediately after his death, at that time it was the largest and most powerful state, which stretched from the Danube to the Indus.
Dates of Alexander the Great's campaigns and places of the most famous battles
- 334-300 BC e. - conquest of Asia Minor.
- May 334 BC e. - a battle on the banks of the Grannik River, victory in which made it possible for Alexander to easily subjugate the cities of Asia Minor.
- November 333 BC e. - a battle near the city of Issus, as a result of which Darius fled from the battlefield, and the Persian army was completely defeated.
- January-July 332 BC e. - the siege of the impregnable city of Tire, after the capture of which the Persian army found itself cut off from the sea.
- Autumn 332 BC e. - July 331 BC e. - annexation of Egyptian lands.
- October 331 BC e. - battle on the plains near Gaugemal, where the Macedonian army was again victorious, and Darius III was forced to flee.
- 329-327 BC e. - campaign in Central Asia, conquest of Bactria and Sogdiana.
- 327-324 BC e. - trip to India.
- June 326 BC e. - battle with the troops of King Porus near the Gadis River.
The great commander Alexander the Great (Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας), born in 356 BC. His father was King Philip II of Macedonia, his mother was Alexandra, the daughter of the Epirus king Myrtala (after the wedding, Philip gave her the name Olympias).
The birth of Alexander was accompanied by good omens; on this day Philip received good news: his army captured Potidaea (Ποτίδαια), his horses won the Olympic Games.
Childhood and young age of Alexander the Great
Alexander's first mentor was his mother's relative Leonidas, who was strict and adhered to a Spartan upbringing. When Alexander was 13 years old, the philosopher Aristotle became his teacher. He taught young Alexander ethics, rhetoric, politics, physics, metaphysics, medicine, geography, and the art of government.
The student especially loved Homer’s Iliad, which Aristotle commented on for him. Great impression Alexander was influenced by tragedies, music and lyric poetry, in particular the poetry of Pindar (Πινδάρου). Later, when he burned Thebes, he gave the command not to touch the house of this great poet.
His father was involved in military training with Alexander. Philip gave Alexander a chance to organize his first campaign against the Thracians, whom he defeated and, filled with pride, founded his first military colony on their land, named Alexandroupolis after himself.
Alexander, together with his father, took part in the battle against the Thebans and Athenians in Chaeronea (Χαιρώνεια, 338 BC), where his father entrusted him with command of the cavalry. Eighteen-year-old Alexander coped with his task brilliantly.
Then his father sent him as an ambassador to Athens, while transferring the ashes of the Athenians who died in the battle. This was the first and last time when Alexander visited Athens.
Military victories brought great satisfaction to both the young man and his father. But not everything went so smoothly in their family; Alexander was deeply worried about the separation of his parents. Philip fell in love with another woman and brought her to live in the house; Alexander’s mother had no choice but to return to her homeland, Epirus.
Alexander king of Macedonia (336 BC)
Alexander was only 20 years old when his father was killed, at the age of 46. Shortly before his death, Philip conquered all of Greece, uniting the individual Greek city-states and planning to send troops to conquer Persia.
The young Tsar Alexander had to quickly make a decision to ensure peace and security within the state, since the opponents, who learned about the death of his father, had already begun to prepare an uprising, and the Greek cities considered it an opportunity to throw off Macedonian rule. Alexander did not hesitate for a minute; he began to act with lightning speed in all directions. After the subjugation of Greece was completed within the state and on the northern borders of Macedonia by the defeat of the rebel Thebes, Alexander began to prepare a campaign against Persia.
Alexander's campaign in Asia
In the spring of 334 BC, preparations began for a campaign in Asia. Alexander's army consisted of 32,000 infantry and 5,000 horsemen. The army consisted not only of Macedonians, there were Thessalians, Paeonians, Thracians, Illyrians, Cretans and Greeks born in Asia Minor. And all this huge mechanism is controlled by young Alexander, he, as the supreme commander in chief, directs the military operations, applying wise tactics that led to the largest military result of ancient times.
Alexander's first assistants were general Parmenionas (Παρμενίωνας), his son Philotas (Φιλώτας), commander and friend Craterus (Κρατερός), he was also surrounded by devoted guards and faithful advisers.
He met the first Persian resistance on the banks of the Granike River (Γρανικού). In a battle personally controlled by Alexander himself, although there was a danger of being killed, Alexander's army won its first victory over the Persians.
Gordian knot
Now that the path to Asia was open, the young army commander-in-chief decided to get to the bottom of the “confusing matter.” In the spring of 333 BC. Alexander arrived in the city of Gordium (ancient capital of Phrygia), here in ancient temple there was a famous knot with which, according to legend, the fate of Asia was connected. Whoever unties the knot will dominate all of Asia. Alexander did not think long about solving this problem and with one swing of his sword, the knot was cut. Thus, he showed that with the sword he would conquer Asia. The priests of the temple enthusiastically said: “He is the one who will conquer the world!”
Crossing the Taurus Mountains and the mountain river Kidno (Κύδνο), Alexander fell into cold water, became very ill, but his personal doctor Philip saved him. In the autumn of the same year, the army of Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor.
The second battle with the Persian army took place near the city of Isso (Ισσό), in Cilicia (333 BC). The Macedonian army defeated the Persians, Darius fled, leaving his mother, wife and children in the camp. The Macedonians took them prisoner and treated them with respect.
After these battles, Alexander heads south, capturing Phenicia, Palestine and Egypt. There he left the army and, with a small guard, went into the desert to visit the oracle of Amun-Zeus. At the sanctuary he was greeted with great honors and addressed as “the son of Zeus,” which further increased his self-confidence. Returning to Egypt, he began to prepare an army for new battles.
End of the Persian State and Darius (331 BC)
With 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry, Alexander crossed the Tigris River and moved to Gaugamela (Γαυγάμηλα), where, according to information, Darius was waiting for him with a huge army. Once again the courage of the Macedonians and Alexander's strategy triumphed. The large Persian army is defeated and flees. The Persian Empire is at an end.
Death of Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great took his last breath in Babylon in 323 BC. According to the ancient historian Diodorus, it all started when Alexander drank a lot of undiluted wine at a night feast and soon after fell ill. Returning to his place, he developed a high temperature, severe pain, nausea and severe muscle weakness began in his body, and after 12 days a paralytic state set in: he could neither speak nor move. At the age of only 32, Alexander died.
For centuries, the death of Alexander the Great has been the focus of attention, with much discussion, discussion, legends, and controversial historical records associated with this.
Many historians are inclined to believe that illness was the cause of death, others insist on murder. But the true cause of death has not yet been investigated and remains a mystery.
Alexander the Great is one of the main characters. Most of us know the name of this great commander from childhood.
Feature films are made about him, books are written about him, and his exploits are real legends. Our hero was born in 356 BC. He was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia.
Parents paid Special attention education of his son, among the teachers was Aristotle himself. The boy loved medicine, philosophy and literature. Alexander was ambitious, indifferent to material values and dreamed of campaigns and exploits.
In 336 BC, Philip was killed in a conspiracy. Who will take the throne? There were several applicants. But the Macedonian army, which knew the courage of young Alexander in battle, supported him.
Having ascended the throne, he first dealt with the conspirators and other contenders. Meanwhile, in Greece, which was dependent on Macedonia, an uprising broke out. Ancient city Thebes refused to obey Alexander. The army quickly brought the city into submission. The city's defenders were massacred and its inhabitants enslaved. The cruelty and strength of the Macedonian weapons brought Greece to obedience.
Having dealt with internal affairs, the future Great Commander decided to move on to conquest. His gaze turned to Persia, where Darius III ruled. Alexander had to command a united army of Macedonians, Greek states (except Sparta), and Thracians.
From 334 BC to 332 BC the allied army completely captured Syria and Egypt, while almost completely defeating the enemy troops. On October 1, 331 BC, the famous battle of Gaugamela took place. The Persian army was defeated, Darius fled from the battlefield in the middle of the battle, when its outcome was not decided.
Stunning views of Babylon and Susa opened up before Alexander the Great. The capital opened its doors to the king of Asia, and the local nobility, who no longer trusted Darius, switched to Macedonian service. For some time, Alexander was actively involved in the internal affairs of the conquered power. Communicating with the Persians not as a conquered people, but on an equal basis. But soon the time came for new campaigns. Alexander the Great did not like peaceful life.
Only during the war did he feel comfortable. Now the commander’s path lay in Central Asia, where, on the territory of present-day Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, he fought with local tribes, depriving them of statehood. In 326 BC. Alexander the Great tried his luck in India. The campaign started well, the local tribes became dependent on the Greeks. But then the army rebelled, tired from campaigns and having not seen home and family for a long time. I had to turn back.
In 323 BC. Alexander became seriously ill and died. Alexander the Great was an amazing person. During his life he founded more than 70 cities. Most of them were named Alexandria, in his honor. The largest such city was founded at the mouth of the Nile River and was destined to become a major trading center. The horse's name was Bucephalus. This horse lived for 30 years and faithfully served his master. During a campaign in India, the horse was killed. A city of the same name was founded in his honor.
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), king of Macedonia (from 336 BC).
Born in July 356 BC. e. Son of King Philip II, who subjugated most of Greece to Macedonia. He was raised by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. He sought to nurture from his ward an ideal monarch, the future ruler of Greece. Aristotle's ideas had a great influence on Alexander's policies. He came to power during the turmoil caused by the murder of his father by conspiratorial Macedonian aristocrats. Within two years (336-334 BC), Alexander managed to restore the shaky power of the Macedonians in Greece and defeat the barbaric Thracian tribes that threatened Macedonia from the north.
Having united almost all of Hellas under his rule, Alexander carried out his father’s plan - he made a campaign against the Persian state, a long-time enemy of the Greek states. In this campaign, Alexander’s exceptional military leadership talent was fully demonstrated, bringing him the glory of the greatest conqueror.
In 334 BC. e. Alexander's troops crossed to Asia through the Hellespont Strait and began advancing deeper into Persian possessions. As a result of the battle with the Persians on the Granicus River (334 BC), most of Asia Minor passed into the hands of the Macedonians. In the city of Gordius, Alexander, according to legend, cut the knot tied on the pole of a chariot by the ancient king Gordius; the one who unleashed it was predicted to have power over all of Asia.
At two next year The Macedonians marched victoriously throughout the Middle East, encountering almost no serious resistance. The Egyptian priests were the first to honor Alexander as if he were a deity, recognizing him as a pharaoh and declaring him the son of the god Amun.
In Egypt, Alexander founded a city named after him (Alexandria), the first of such Greco-Macedonian colonies in the East. Invading the central regions of the Persian state, he defeated King Darius III (331 BC) at the Battle of Gaugamela, after which he took Babylon and made it his capital. Ancient capital Persepolis was sacked and burned by Macedonian soldiers. The murder of Darius by the royal confidant, the satrap Bessus, split the Persian nobility. Many Persians went over to the side of Alexander, who declared himself an avenger of the rightful king. Under the banner of revenge, he undertook a campaign against Bessus (Artaxerxes IV) in Central Asia and by 328 BC. e. conquered her.
Then he invaded India, but the war across the Indus River led to the depletion of the army, and in 325 BC. e. he turned towards Babylon. Meanwhile, even after the capture of Babylon, many Macedonians and Greeks began to grumble. They were irritated by the king's desire to rule like the eastern rulers, demands for religious veneration, and rapprochement with local aristocrats and priests. Alexander married a noble Persian Roxana and wanted her son as his heir. He mercilessly dealt with his former comrades - the commander Parmenion, the philosopher Callisthenes and others who condemned him.
June 13, 323 BC e. Alexander died suddenly in Babylon. The huge power collapsed immediately after his death. The campaigns of Alexander the Great marked the beginning of the history of the so-called Hellenistic civilization, which combined Greek and ancient Eastern traditions.