Introduction
1.2 Basic theories of memory
Conclusions on Chapter 1
Conclusions on Chapter 2
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
Primary school age is the pinnacle of childhood. The child retains many childish qualities - frivolity, naivety, looking up at the adult. But he is already beginning to lose his childish spontaneity in behavior; he has a different logic of thinking. The leading activity of children of primary school age is educational activity. Learning is a meaningful activity for a child. At school, he acquires not only new knowledge and skills, but also a certain social status. The interests, values of the child, and his entire way of life change.
Relevance of the work.Today there is a problem of developing the memory of younger schoolchildren because... memory is the most important defining characteristic of the mental life of an individual. No actual action is mentally outside the process of memory, because the course of any, even the most elementary, obligatory mental act presupposes the retention of each given element for “coupling” with subsequent ones.
Memory is one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult.
The development of memory is influenced by other processes and personality traits: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which has exclusively important for the memory efficiency of a developing child.
Object of study:memory of children of primary school age.
Subject of study:Features of memory development in younger schoolchildren.
Goal of the work:identify characteristics memory development in children of primary school age.
Job objectives:
1. Study the problem of memory in psychological and pedagogical literature.
Analyze the main theories of memory.
Consider the features of the development and formation of memory in children of primary school age in the learning process.
Conduct a pilot study children's memoryprimary school age.
Research hypothesis:We assume that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of upbringing and training. Memory indicators in younger schoolchildren studying in classes with in-depth study higher than the memory indicators of younger schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education.
Research methods:analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, observation, experiment, statistical method.
Theoretical basis research:works by B.G. Ananyeva, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, P.I. Zinchenko, A.N. Leontyeva, A.R. Luria, S.L. Rubinshteina, N.A. Rybnikova, A.A. Smirnova, B.M. Teplova and others.
Empirical basis of the study:This study was carried out in secondary school No. 57 in Moscow. The study sample consisted of 20 junior schoolchildren aged 9-10 years.
Work structure.The course work consists of a table of contents, an introduction, two chapters, conclusions for each chapter, a conclusion and a list of references.
memory junior school age
1. Theoretical basis memory research in junior school age
1.1 The problem of memory in psychological and pedagogical literature
Memory- one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult.
At the same time, the development of memory is influenced by other processes and personality traits: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the effectiveness of the memory of a developing child (B.G. Ananyev, P.P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, L. V. Zankov, P. I. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, S. L. Rubinshtein, N. A. Rybnikov, A. A. Smirnov, B.M. Teplov and their students).
Over the years, domestic psychologists have received interesting factual material on the development of meaningful memorization in children, as well as on teaching them certain complex techniques (semantic correlation, classification, semantic grouping of coherent text, visual modeling), which to one degree or another contribute to increasing memory productivity.
All psychologists emphasize the active principle in children’s memory processes, the leading role of semantic processing of information:
memory can be controlled already at a relatively early stage of ontogenesis;
Memory can be developed depending on the use of certain means.
However, the features of the development of the imagination of children of different ages in the process of forming cultural memory, as shown by the analysis of domestic and foreign studies, have not yet been the subject of special research.
When working with children on the development of memory, perception and retelling of literary texts, experts recommend using such a special methodological technique as posing individual questions or a group of questions in the form of a plan, which, first of all, activates the mental and mnemonic activity of schoolchildren (A.M. Borodich , R.I. Gabova, L.R. Golubeva, A.P. Ivanenko, N.A. Orlanova, F.A. Sokhin, L.P. Fedorenko, etc.).
Experts have proven that drawing up a plan, or semantic grouping, is one of effective techniques, providing a high degree of comprehension of a coherent text.
Two books by M.S. are devoted to memory problems. Rogovina: the first was published in 1966 by the publishing house " graduate School" entitled " Philosophical problems theory of memory", the second (a significantly revised version of the first) - in 1976 in the same publishing house under the title "Problems of the theory of memory".
As noted by M.S. Rogovin, for a superficial glance, memory is something simple and understandable. It is assumed that any impression leaves behind some trace that persists for a more or less long time. This is the essence of memory.
At the physiological level, this process is interpreted as definite change at work nerve cells under the influence of previous stimuli. A similar view of M.S. Rogovin designates this as a thesis about the naturalness (self-evidence) of memory. But what is self-evident upon closer examination turns out to be something incomprehensible. And all further analysis convincingly confirms the validity of this statement.
The first fundamental conclusion arising from the scientific analysis of the essence of memory is that we are dealing with a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It turns out that memory should be understood not as a single ability to preserve and reproduce previously occurring impressions, but as a set of mechanisms various kinds. For example, individual differences in this area they concern not only the speed and strength of memorization, but also the comparative ease of perception and retention certain material, as well as preferences given to one or another method of learning. The same is evidenced by the diverse manifestations of memory disorders - amnesia. This implies the fundamental possibility of dividing this complex phenomenon on a variety of grounds.
Memory is distinguished between motor and sensory, figurative and verbal, mechanical and logical. If we consider memory as a process, then we can distinguish individual aspects of this process - fixation, preservation, forgetting, reproduction. Memorization itself can be involuntary or voluntary, short-term or long-term. Reproduction can be direct (immediate) or indirect (mediated by associations). In turn, direct reproduction can be the result of repeated perception (recognition) or arise spontaneously (reminiscence). Thus, memory turns out to be a mental function, very complex in its structure. In addition, it is intimately connected with other cognitive processes (perception, attention, thinking, speech) and with the general mental organization and orientation of the individual.
An essential aspect of studying the problem of memory is the study of those brain mechanisms that ensure the preservation of past impressions. Throughout the 20th century, many studies of this kind were conducted in both animals and humans. They show that, firstly, there is no brain “memory center”. Disturbances in this function are observed with damage to various brain structures, but the extent of the lesion is more significant than its specific location. Facts of this kind are in good agreement with the conclusion of psychologists that memory is not a separate ability; it is closely connected with other parties cognitive activity.
Secondly, it has been proven that with the help electrical stimulation Certain parts of the cerebral cortex (temporal lobes of the dominant hemisphere) can artificially evoke visual and auditory images of the past, which W. Penfield called “flashes of experience.”
Modern neurophysiology has put forward interesting hypotheses regarding possible mechanisms for fixing memory traces. However, so far not a single specific question about the “traces” of memory - their localization, structure, strength, methods of updating, etc. - there are no unified and firmly substantiated ideas. Despite the exceptionally sophisticated research carried out, there is still much more unknown and incomprehensible in this area than what has been clearly proven. Having stated that modern neurophysiology, while reporting some interesting facts regarding the functioning of the brain mechanisms for processing information about the external world, does not bring us too close to understanding the essence of memory as a cognitive process, M.S. Rogovin returns to psychological aspect Problems. Here he distinguishes between analytical and synthetic approaches. The first is an attempt to identify the main elements of memory, and the second is aimed at determining the place of this cognitive process in the general structure of a person’s mental life.
Old psychology called associations as the basic elements of memory, i.e. connections between individual representations. Indeed, our memory is largely built on connections. The laws of associations were first derived by Aristotle, who saw their cause in the existence of similarities and differences between objects and grouped them according to the predominant sensory modality. Later, to external associations (based on similarity and contrast, as well as coincidence in time and space), internal associations (based on generic relationships and cause-and-effect relationships) were added. Associations of the first type form the basis of sensory memory, associations of the second type form the basis of the memory of ideas.
Associationism, which until the 19th century was the main direction of philosophical psychology, largely determined the development of modern experimental psychology. The pioneer of the experimental study of memory, G. Ebbinghaus, used the principle of associations to explain the speed of learning by heart and forgetting what has been learned. The same principle formed the basis of explanatory schemes that were used by behaviorists (stimulus-response connections) and physiologists of the school of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlova (conditioned reflex). Although associationism as a universal concept was later mercilessly criticized by representatives of other directions, for example Gestalt psychology, the prominent role of associations in the organization of the human psyche is beyond doubt. Behind habitual forms of behavior, behind acts of speech formalized according to the laws of language and logic, special scientific analysis reveals a powerful layer of associations - mental formations that serve as raw material and a dynamic background for them.
If associations are those elementary structures that form the “foundation” of memory, then it itself is included in the general structure of the psyche, which is usually designated by the concept of “personality.” The synthetic approach pays attention precisely to the second aspect, which is no less important for understanding the nature of human memory than studying the process of forming associations. For example, W. Wundt believed that associations as such are directed by apperception, i.e. an act of will that puts them in a certain relationship to each other. Representatives of the Wurzburg school noted the importance of such intentional moments as “intention,” “concentration,” and “motive” for organizing associative processes. Gestaltists pointed to the role of structuring material for its successful memorization.
In the same vein, the concept of F. Bartlett developed, for whom the memory of an adult is the result collaboration sense organs, constructive imagination and constructive thought. Each memory is included in a broader scheme, due to which it ceases to be a simple copy of the original impression, but necessarily includes an element of generalization based on past experience.
Memories are not so much a reproduction as a reconstruction of the past. Figuratively speaking, Bartlett “builds a bridge” from memory to imagination. The difference here, in his opinion, is only in the degree of transformation source material.
Another point that was outlined in Bartlett’s concept, but was developed in more detail in the works of French (P. Janet, L. Levy-Bruhl, M. Halbwachs) and domestic (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev) psychologists, this is an indication of the role social factors in the process of memorization.
Upon closer analysis, the development of human memory turns out to be closely related to the emergence of abstract-logical thinking and the use of special mnemonic means (artificial signs). Sign systems (in particular, writing) act as a means of mastering one’s own behavior, which is a turning point in the history of the spiritual development of mankind.
Besides, social life sets some framework (coordinate system), within which only the counting of events in the life of each individual is possible. Therefore, any memory of a particular event contains, in addition to an image localized in a certain place and time, those general ideas that reflect our personal experience or the experience of our immediate social environment.
This is the essence and specificity of human memory. According to the correct remark of P. Janet, only with the use of language does real memory arise, for only then does the possibility of description arise, that is, the transformation of the absent into the present.
A systematic consideration of various views on the nature and mechanisms of memory is given by M.S. Rogovin to the formulation of the principles of a structural-level concept designed to integrate diverse facts related to the functioning of this complex cognitive complex.
This entire structure is the result of a long phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, during which historically newer formations seem to be built on top of older ones, incorporating them into themselves and qualitatively rebuilding them.
For example, voluntary memorization necessarily presupposes a special organization of one’s own activity (division of material, distribution of repetitions), aimed at memorizing some content for the purpose of its subsequent reproduction. In this sense, it differs significantly from involuntary memorization, which is a kind of by-product of any activity.
Voluntary memorization does not at all cancel the involuntary, but only organizes and directs it in a special way. Verbal-logical memory, compared to figurative memory, turns out to be a more effective (in terms of subsequent storage) way of encoding information that was initially given in visual form. Language and other sign systems in this sense can be considered as ready-made products(tools) of memorization.
The structural-level concept of the psyche itself is not an invention of M.S. Rogovina. Its foundations were laid by the outstanding English neurologist H. Jackson and his student G. Head.
Developing evolutionary ideas C. Darwin and G. Spencer, Jackson considered the functions of the central nervous system as a result of gradual complication, rising to a higher level. In case of pathology occurs reverse process, which Jackson calls dissociation. Jackson's theory at one time found a wide response in French psychology. Its influence is especially noticeable in the works of T. Ribot and P. Janet.
In particular, Ribot, in the famous book “Memory in its normal and diseased state,” formulates the so-called law of the reverse development of this function, according to which genetically later formations - verbal-logical memory and the ability of voluntary memorization and recollection - suffer first. Impressions of the distant past and motor skills (memory-habit) turn out to be quite stable in this regard.
This applies to the entire historical development of human cognition, and to the individual development of memory in childhood. On lower levels functioning, memorization is carried out under the influence of external factors and is based on the natural ability of every living organism to record biologically significant or frequently repeated impressions.
At the level of voluntary and conscious regulation of activity, memorization takes the form of purposeful memorization. At the same time, the main tool for organizing one’s own behavior becomes inner speech. So, it is the structural-level concept that seems most adequate for revealing the nature of memory.
1.2 Basic theories of memory
IN last years There is a rapid growth in the number of scientific works devoted to the general theory of memory. The systemic unity and convention of distinguishing between memory, information and sign systems became obvious, which determined new requirements for their study.
retrospectively,
In modern research, memory is acquiring an increasingly greater ontological status and is associated, first of all, with relevantsystem processes, which themselves may not look like memory in the usual sense for us.
Memory is increasingly seen as relevant and continuous processes self-reproduction and self-translation of systems,for outside of these processes, memory does not exist, just like these processes themselves, due to the dynamic and information-based nature of biological and social systems.
Close relationship between sign systems and memory for a long time was missed, but their joint study within the framework of interdisciplinary research also showed the insufficiency of common “autonomous” approaches to the study of signs and sign systems. Just like memory Various types sign systems are mainly considered “statically”, as objective means of replacing some autonomous objective or semantic content that exist relatively independently of the activities of subjects. Biological and social systems preserve and transmit themselves through their actual functioning, through “living semiosis”, conditioning and conditioned by memory. In this regard, these processes must be considered both as determined by memory and sign systems, and as defining and implementing them in such a way that the sign, information and actual system processes become distinguishable only conditionally.
Systems research memory and the awareness of the need to create a general theory of memory were induced not only by its biological research, but also by the “boom” in the study of social (cultural, collective, historical) memory, which occurred and is happening in the 1990s and early 2000s.
Work in the field of social memory has shown that its simple understanding as a material imprint(s) or a system of material carriers of information relating to the past is not enough. Social memory must be considered as a process both from the side of its creation and from the side of its transmission, reproduction and actual functioning in the form of the social system itself.
The study of social memory has largely been conducted independently of biological research, but in recent years more and more more work, which combine biological and social concepts memory within one, as a rule, evolutionary theory.
On modern stage The theory and methodology of interdisciplinary memory research is still under active development. In the process of solving this problem, it is necessary to avoid various forms reductionism, including the consideration of biological and social systems as systems based only on memory.
At the same time, the working concept of “memory” allows us to identify new aspects of research complex systems, therefore, as a preliminary result, it is necessary to emphasize the following:
At least two inheritance systems can be considered as objects of systemic and interdisciplinary memory research: biological and social. These systems need to be studied not only as conditions that ensure the reproduction and adaptation of biological and social systems to the environment on the basis past experience,but also as their foundations and forms actual existence.
2. The considered studies of the nature of memory and its evolution show that memory, being a systemic process, exists both at the individual and supra-individual levels.
3. Often in research, information, sign systems and actual processes are considered as autonomous (hypostatized) realities, as, for example, in the statement “knowledge is transmitted by tradition.” or "language contains information.".
Association is understood as a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another.E. Müller built a kind of hierarchical system in which categorical representations were under the control of some higher level, which makes decisions about inhibition or activation of associative connections. E. Muller's student A. Jost later described two general laws dynamics of memory trace strength. According to the first of them, “of two associations of equal strength, but of different ages the older one is forgotten more slowly. The second law relates to the learning of material: the increase in the strength of a trace caused by new memorization is inversely proportional to the initial strength of the trace."
Another associative memory model was proposed by J. Anderson and G. Bower. Their theory is analyzed in the monograph by E.I. Goroshko "Integrative model of free associative experiment."
J. Anderson and G. Bower believe that words can be mutually associated only if the corresponding concepts are included in propositions encoded in memory. At the same time, human long-term memory is a huge network of intersecting propositional trees, each of which includes a certain set of memory nodes with labeled connections.
In his study "On Memory", conducting experiments on memorizing series of nonsense syllables, he derived general rule the emergence and disintegration of associations: “If any mental formations have ever filled consciousness simultaneously or in close succession, then subsequently the repetition of some members of this experience will cause ideas of the remaining members, even if their original causes are absent.
This is due to two reasons:
) in any mental phenomenon of a waking person there is nothing that would be completely and completely conscious, since there is always something unconscious in it; at the same time, there is never something completely unconscious in it, since at least some moments are always partially conscious;
) until now in psychic phenomena components have not yet been identified about which one could confidently say that this component is associated only with consciousness, but this one is associated only with the unconscious. These reasons do not allow us to study consciousness and the unconscious separately.
1.3 Features of the development and formation of memory of children of primary school age in the learning process
From the moment a child enters school, it begins to mediate the entire system of his relations, and one of its paradoxes is the following: being social in its meaning, content and form, this system is at the same time implemented purely individually, and its products are products of individual assimilation. In progress educational activities the child masters the knowledge and skills developed by humanity. The main focus during this period of a child’s life is educational activity, and its success largely depends on the level of development various types children's memory.
The works of many researchers (Galperin P.Ya., Kolominsky Y.P., Nemov E.S., Panko E.A., Smirnov A.A., Stolyarenko L.D., etc.) are devoted to the issues of memory development in younger schoolchildren. formation in theoretical and applied aspects.
Under the influence of learning, younger schoolchildren undergo a restructuring of all their cognitive processes and acquire new qualities. Children are included in new activities and systems interpersonal relationships, requiring them to have new psychological qualities. From the first days of education, a child needs to maintain increased attention for a long time, be sufficiently diligent, perceive and remember well everything that the teacher says.
The main new development of primary school age is abstract verbal-logical and reasoning thinking, the emergence of which significantly rearranges other cognitive processes of children; Thus, memory at this age becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking. Thanks to such thinking, memory and perception, children are subsequently able to successfully master truly scientific concepts and operate with them.
Investigating involuntary memorization, P.I. Zinchenko found that the productivity of involuntary memorization increases if the task offered to the child involves not just passive perception, but active orientation in the material, performing mental operations. In addition to involuntary memorization, an important new formation appears in the child’s psyche - children master mnemonic activity itself, and they develop voluntary memory.
Increasing voluntary memory in children can be achieved through targeted memorization using special techniques; effectiveness depends on:
· From the goals of memorization (how firmly, for how long a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass the exam, then soon after the exam much will be forgotten; if the goal is to learn for a long time, for the future professional activity, then the information is little forgotten;
· From learning techniques. Methods of learning are:
mechanical verbatim repetition - mechanical memory works, a lot of effort and time are spent, and the results are poor. Rote memory is memory based on repeating material without comprehending it;
logical retelling, which includes logical comprehension of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher, better than mechanical memory;
figurative memorization techniques (translation of information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. Figurative memory happens different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;
mnemonic memorization techniques (special techniques to facilitate memorization).
In studies of the memory of children 3-7 years old, Z.M. Istomina identified three mnemonic levels of her development:
· the first level is characterized by the lack of identification of the purpose of memorization or recall;
· the second - the presence of a given goal, but without the use of any methods aimed at its implementation,
· the third is the presence of a goal to remember or recall and the use of mnemonic methods to achieve this.
Students in initial period learning have the second and, to a greater extent, the third level of memory development, while they can identify the mnemonic goal quite well.
This occurs when the child is faced with conditions that require him to actively memorize and recall. Memorization must be motivated by something, and the mnemonic activity itself must lead to the achievement of a result that is significant for the child.
There is a dependence of the identification of a mnemonic goal on the nature of the activity performed by the child. It turned out that the most favorable conditions in order to realize the mnemonic goal and form memorization and recollection, they arise in such life circumstances in which the child must carry out the instructions of an adult in play activities.
The main indicator of the development of a child’s voluntary memory is not only his ability to accept or independently set a mnemonic task, but also to monitor its implementation, i.e. exercise self-control. In this case, the essence of self-control lies in a person’s ability to correlate and compare the result obtained in the process of performing any activity with a given sample in order to timely correct errors and further prevent them.
For younger schoolchildren, there are the following levels of children’s self-control, depending on the completeness of self-report:
the first level is characterized by the fact that they could not exercise self-control at all;
for the second level, it is characteristic that during the second viewing of the pictures they gave an account of only some elements of the series reproduced the first time;
The third level of self-control development is characterized by simultaneous completion of self-report and a mnemonic task.
In general, the possibilities of self-control in the process of memorization in primary school age increase significantly, and most children of this age successfully use self-control both when memorizing visual and verbal material.
Self-control, being integral part educational activity, appearing in a visually effective form, stimulates children’s mastery of the logical method of memorization and mnemonic activity. By forming this ability in the process of mnemonic activity, the teacher helps the child develop not only memory, but also voluntary behavior in general.
A particular difficulty for 6-7 year old children starting to study at school is self-regulation of behavior. The child must sit still during class, not talk, not walk around the classroom, and not run around the school during breaks. In other situations, on the contrary, he is required to demonstrate unusual, rather complex and subtle motor activity, as, for example, when learning to draw and write.
It is believed that a child who has crossed the threshold of school for the first time is characterized by mechanical memory, the ability to remember only by association. At the same time, they refer to the child’s amazing ability to meaninglessly reproduce some obscure text. Indeed, mechanical memorization is highly developed in children of this age. However, young children have access not only to mechanical memorization, but also to logical elements. This type of memory usually manifests itself when remembering content that is understandable to children.
Conducted by A.A. Smirnov’s comparative studies of memory in children of primary and secondary school age led to the following conclusions:
from 6 to 14 years of age, children actively develop mechanical memory for logically unrelated units of information;
Contrary to the popular belief that there is an advantage in memorizing meaningful material that increases with age, an inverse relationship is actually found: the older a student gets, the less advantage he has in memorizing meaningful material over meaningless material. This is probably due to the fact that memory exercise under the influence of intensive learning based on memorization leads to a simultaneous improvement of all types of memory in a child and, above all, those that are relatively simple and not associated with complex ones. mental work.
The memory of children of primary school age is quite good, and this primarily concerns mechanical memory, which progresses quite quickly over the first three to four years of school. Indirect, logical memory is somewhat behind in its development, since in most cases the child, being busy with learning, work, play and communication, makes do with mechanical memory.
A six-year-old child often replaces unfamiliar words with more familiar ones, arbitrarily changes the sequence of events in a fairy tale without violating the basic logic of the presentation, and may omit details or add something of his own. This arbitrariness largely depends on his attitude towards the heroes of the work. With a positive attitude, many “bad” things associated with the hero are forgotten by them, but details are introduced that enhance positive sides. The opposite picture is observed with a negative attitude towards the hero.
Training plays a major role in the development of children's logical memory. The performance of children who were trained in how to organize logical connections is 1.5 times higher than that of children who were not taught these mnemonic techniques.
In the course of special training, children may well master such logical memorization techniques as semantic correlation and semantic grouping, and successfully use them for cosmic purposes.
It is advisable to carry out such training in two stages: comes first the formation of semantic correlation and semantic grouping as mental actions, on the second - the ability to apply these actions in the course of mnemonic activity is formed.
When teaching the mnemonic action of classification, success is achieved if its formation is carried out in accordance with the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions by P.Ya. Galperina:
Practical action stage. Here children use material and practical actions - they learn to arrange pictures into groups.
Speech action stage. After preliminary familiarization with the pictures, the child must tell which of them can be attributed to one or another group.
Stage of mental action. At this stage, the distribution of pictures into groups is carried out by the child in his mind, then he names the groups.
When children have already learned to identify certain groups in the presented material (for example, animals, dishes, clothes, etc.), assign each picture to a specific group or general picture, select individual elements, then they move on to developing the ability to use grouping for memorization purposes.
Thus, a teacher working with children must take into account the possibilities of different types of memory of his pupils and develop them. Accordingly, the teacher must know the methods of developing various types of memory in younger schoolchildren and apply them individually, depending on the level of their development in the child.
Conclusions on Chapter 1
. Memory- one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult. At the same time, the development of memory is influenced by other processes and personality traits: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the effectiveness of the memory of a developing child.
The works of domestic researchers have shown that the development of memory man is walking in the direction from direct memorization to indirect memorization, based on the use of auxiliary means (mainly language).
2. In recent years, there has been a rapid growth in the number of scientific works devoted to the general theory of memory. The systemic unity and convention of distinguishing between memory, information and sign systems became obvious, which determined new requirements for their study.
The emergence and development of ideas of a general theory of memory only in recent years is due to the fact that memory for a long time was understood mainly psychologically or historically and was considered only retrospectively,as a kind of “imprint”, “trace” of the past, or as a set of sign systems that store information about past events in the present time.
For the first time, ideas regarding the storage, reproduction and forgetting of information were tested in the associative theory of memory. Key principle The principle of association became an explanation for the dynamics of memory processes.
According to the associative theory, forgetting learned material is explained by the disintegration of associations. The most significant contribution to the study of forgetting within the framework of associative theory was made by G. Ebbinghaus.
The identification of the unconscious in the psyche began since the time of Leibniz, and the beginning of quantitative registration of human reactions to unconscious stimuli, which is the basis scientific research unconscious are associated with the work of Gershuni and his collaborators.
There are still no scientifically based answers to the questions: what is the unconscious, does unconscious memory exist, what properties of objects is it formed from, how and where is it formed and functions, how does it differ from conscious memory.
3. The works of many researchers (Galperin P.Ya., Kolominsky Y.P., Nemov E.S., Panko E.A., Smirnov A.A., Stolyarenko L.D., etc.) are devoted to the issues of memory development in younger schoolchildren. formation in theoretical and applied aspects.
In a child of primary school age (6-7 years old), the involuntary type of memory predominates, in which there is no consciously set goal. During this period, the dependence of memorizing material on such features as emotional appeal, brightness, sound, intermittency of action, movement, contrast, etc. remains. If the objects that the child encounters are named, then he remembers them better, which indicates the essential role of the word.
In addition to involuntary memorization, an important new formation appears in the child’s psyche - children master mnemonic activity itself, and they develop voluntary memory.
2. Experimental study of memory in primary school age
2.1 Organization and research methods
Secondary school No. 57 in Moscow became the experimental base. The study involved 10 junior schoolchildren from a class with in-depth study of the Russian languageAnd literature(first group) and 10 junior schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education (second group).
The goal and objectives determined the course of the study, which was carried out in several stages:
First stage - theoretical analysis literature on the topic under study.
Second phase - preparatory stage. At this stage, a sample was formed and diagnostic tools were selected for the purpose of studying memory in primary schoolchildren.
The third stage is experimental. This stage included an experimental study of students of the first and second groups using the 10-word, “Memory for images”, “Memory for meaning” methods.
The fourth stage is analytical. It is associated with the analysis and processing of the results obtained.
To study memory, we used the “Memory for Images” technique, designed to study figurative memory (Appendix). The essence of the technique is that the subject is exposed to a table with 16 images for 20 seconds. The images must be memorized and reproduced on the form within 1 minute. The child needs to draw or write down (express verbally) those images that he remembers. Test results are assessed based on the number of correct images reproduced. The technique is used in groups and individually. The norm is 6 correct answers or more.
Also, the “10 words” technique was used to diagnose memory. It is used to diagnose verbal short-term memory. The children were read 10 words with an interval of 4-5 seconds between words. After a ten-second break, students write down the words that they remember. The results were assessed using the formula: C=a/10, where C is memory, a is the number of words correctly reproduced. For children 8 - 9 years old, the normative indicator is 6 words.
And also for diagnosing memory, the “Semantic Memory” technique was used, based on understanding (Appendix). In the process of semantic memorization, mnemonic supports are created. The connections used for memorization are not independent, but auxiliary in nature; they serve as a means of helping to remember something. The most effective will be mnemonic supports that reflect the main ideas of any material. Diagnostics takes place in 2 stages. At stage 1, pairs of words that have a semantic connection are read. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the subjects write down the second. If the second word is written correctly, then put “+”, and incorrectly “-”. At stage 2, pairs of words that do not have a semantic connection are read out.
The results are processed as follows:
Volume of logical memory Volume of mechanical memory Number of words of stage 1 (a1) Number of remembered words (b1) Logical memory coefficient Number of words of stage 2 (a2) Number of remembered words (b2) Logical memory coefficient С2=b2/a2С1=b1 /a1
Thus, the norm for logical memory for children 8-9 years old is 10 words out of 15, and mechanical memory - 7 words out of 15.
2.2 Research results and their analysis
The results of memory research in primary schoolchildren are presented in tables.
Table 1
Indicators of verbal short-term memory using the “10 words” method in primary schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
Groups 10 words Average score U - criterion First group 8.90* Second group 5.3
Note:
<0,01
<0,05
Rice. 1. Average indicators of verbal short-term memory using the “10 words” method in primary schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
According to the data presented in Table 1, the average indicators of verbal short-term memory using the “10 words” method among schoolchildren of the second group are lower than the indicators of schoolchildren of the first group.
table 2
Average indicators of figurative memory using the “Memory for Images” method in schoolchildren of the experimental and control groups.
Groups Memory for images Average score U - criterion First group 132 * Second group 8.4
Note:
* significant differences are noted at p<0,01
** significant differences were noted at p<0,05
Rice. 2. Average indicators of figurative memory according to the “Memory for Images” method in schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
According to the data presented in Table 2, the average indicators of figurative memory according to the “Memory for Images” method among schoolchildren of the second group are lower than the indicators of schoolchildren of the first group.
Table 3
Average indicators of semantic memory according to the “Semantic Memory” method among schoolchildren of the first and second groups (stage 1).
Groups Methodology "Semantic Memory" Stage 1 Average score U - criterion First group 12.20 * Second group 7.5
Note:
* significant differences are noted at p<0,01
** significant differences were noted at p<0,05
Rice. 3.
According to the data presented in Table 3, the average indicators of logical memory according to the “Semantic Memory” method among schoolchildren of the second group are lower than the indicators of schoolchildren of the first group.
Table 4
Average indicators of semantic memory according to the “Semantic Memory” method in schoolchildren of the experimental and control groups (stage 2).
Groups Methodology "Semantic Memory" Stage 2 Average score U - criterion First group 5.56 * Second group 3.1
Note:
* significant differences are noted at p<0,01
** significant differences were noted at p<0,05
Rice. 4. Average indicators of semantic memory according to the “Semantic Memory” method among schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
According to the data given in Table 4, the average indicators of mechanical memory according to the “Semantic Memory” method among schoolchildren of the second group (traditional form of education) are lower than the indicators of schoolchildren of the first group (class with in-depth study of the Russian language and literature), which is evidence of the hypothesis put forward and confirms her.
Conclusions on Chapter 2
Thus, the hypothesis that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of upbringing and training was confirmed.
The memory indicators of junior schoolchildren studying in a class with in-depth study of the Russian language and literature are higher than the memory indicators of junior schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education.
Memory, being the basis of the entire learning process, is formed and changes throughout a person’s life. Under favorable social conditions, the memory of mentally healthy children has positive dynamics.
Children without mental retardation took part in this study. But children in the second group (traditional form of education) have significantly lower memory scores.
This indicates that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of upbringing and training.
The social and mental conditions of raising children are associated with the development of cognitive functions.
To increase memory levels in children, it is necessary to regularly conduct correctional and developmental classes.
Conclusion
Memory is the basis for the successful educational and work activities of every person. To actively use memory, it is necessary to teach the child to manage the mechanisms and processes of memory.
During the learning process, the child himself learns to use his memory, but correctional and developmental classes can improve certain types and mechanisms of memory necessary in everyday life.
In the process of the child’s general development, memory activity becomes more and more manageable.
With the development of voluntary memory, the child’s possibilities for independent, varied activities expand and his increasingly active involvement in various types of communication with adults and peers.
The activity of memory and imagination varies depending on the motives that prompt the child to make effort: memorizing and recalling perceived material, creating a new drawing, composing or retelling.
Imitative and involuntary activity turns into creative activity, which the child learns to control, subordinating it to the accepted task.
Speaking about children's memory, we can say that with the development of the child, memory acquires a selective character, i.e. The child remembers what is interesting to him better and for a longer period of time, and uses this material in his activities.
Memory is characterized by its plasticity and constant development. Psychologists say that a child’s memory is better than that of an adult.
Practice shows that children, although they remember material easily, reproduce it randomly, since they do not yet know how to extract the necessary information under certain conditions. But with age, the child learns to use his memory and even use various techniques for memorization.
Bibliography
1.Aseev V.G. Age-related psychology. - M.: Academy Publishing House, 1994. - 320 p.
2.Vygotsky L.S. Psychology. - M.: EKSMO-Press Publishing House, 2000. - 1008 p.
.Vygotsky L.S. Memory and its development in childhood. - M.: Vlados, 1999. - 234 p.
.Gamezo M.V. Age and educational psychology / M.V. Gamezo, E.A. Petrova. - M.: Publishing House Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2004. - 512 p.
.Children's practical psychology. /Ed. Bogdana N.N. - Vladivostok: VGUES Publishing House, 2003. - 116 p.
.Zenkovsky V.V. Psychology of childhood. - Ekaterinburg: Business Book Publishing House, 1995, - 346 p.
.Krysko V.G. Psychology and pedagogy. - M.: Vlados, 2001. - 378 p.
.Mukhina V.S. Developmental psychology: phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence. - M.: Academy Publishing House, 2000. - 456 p.
.Nikitina T.B. How to develop a good memory. - M.: AST-PRESS, 2006. - 320 p.
.Obukhova L. Child psychology: Theories, facts, problems. - M.: Academy Publishing House, 1995. - 360 p.
.Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg Publishing House, 2002. - 720 p.
.Smirnov A.A. Age and individual differences in memory. - M.: APN, 1999. - 221 p.
.Smirnova E.O. Child psychology: From birth to seven years. - M.: School - press, 1997. - 383 p.
.Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 1997. - 736 p.
.Kholodnaya M.A. General questions of psychology. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg Publishing House, 2002. - 272 p.
Application
Memory for images technique.
Instructions: "You will be presented with a table with images. Your task is to within 20 seconds. remember as many images as possible. After 20 sec. The table will be removed, and you must draw or write down (express verbally) those images that you remember.”
Test results are assessed based on the number of correct images reproduced. The norm is 6 or more.
Stimulus material:
Methodology "Semantic memory"
Stage one.
Instructions: " Guys, now I’ll read you a couple of words, your task is to try to remember them. Listen very carefully. After I finish reading the pairs of words, I will read only the first word a second time, and you need to remember and write down the second word."
The psychologist reads out pairs of words for memorization. Children try to remember them in pairs. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the children try to remember and write down the second. You need to read the words slowly.
Doll-play
Chicken and egg
Scissors-cut
Hay horse
Book-teach
Butterfly
Brush-teeth
Pioneer drum
Snow winter
Rooster crow
Ink-tead
Milk cow
Steam locomotive=go
Pear compote
Lamp-evening.
Second phase.
Instructions: " Guys, now I will read you another 10 pairs of words again, try to remember the second word of each pair in the same way. Be careful!"
Just as in the first case, pairs of words are read slowly, and then only the first word of each pair.
Beetle chair
Feather-water
Error glasses
Bell-memory
Father Dove
Lake tram
Comb-wind
Boiler boots
Mother Castle
Sheep Match
Terka-sea
Sled-factory
Firefish
Poplar jelly.
After the experiment, the number of remembered words for each series is compared, and the subjects answer the questions: “Why were the words from the second experiment remembered worse? Did you try to establish a connection between the words?”
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[Enter text]
Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution of higher professional education
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafieva
Institute of Special Pedagogy
Rabstract
Subject:Diagnostics and memory correction of younger schoolchildren
Krasnoyarsk 2008
Introduction
Definition of Memory
Essence and development of the process
Types of memory and their features
Age-related characteristics of memory in younger schoolchildren
Methods for diagnosing the memory of younger schoolchildren
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The physiological basis of memory is the formation of temporary nerve connections that can be restored and updated in the future under the influence of various stimuli.
Representatives of various sciences are currently engaged in memory research: psychology, biology, medicine, genetics, cybernetics and a number of others. Each of these sciences has its own questions, due to which they address the problems of memory, their own memory system and, accordingly, their own theories of memory. But all these sciences, taken together, expand our knowledge about human memory, complement each other, and allow us to look deeper into this, one of the most important and mysterious phenomena of human psychology.
Actually, psychological teachings about memory are much older than its medical, genetic, biochemical and cybernetic research. One of the first psychological theories of memory, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day, was the associative theory. It arose in the 17th century, was actively developed in the 18th-19th centuries, and was mainly distributed and recognized in England and Germany.
In Russian psychology, the direction in the study of memory associated with the general psychological theory of activity has received predominant development. In the context of this theory, memory acts as a special type of psychological activity, including a system of theoretical and practical actions subordinated to the solution of a mnemonic task - remembering, preserving and reproducing various information. Here, the composition of mnemonic actions and operations is carefully used, the dependence of memory productivity on the place in the structure of the goal and means of memorization, the comparative productivity of voluntary and involuntary memorization depending on the organization of mnemonic activity. (D.N. Leontiev, P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov).
Definition of Memory
Memory is a form of reflection of reality, consisting in consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience. Thanks to memory, a person assimilates social experience and accumulates his own, individual, and also acquires and uses knowledge, intelligence, skills and impressions about the world around him. Among the many abilities with which every normal person is endowed, one of the most important functions is the ability to consolidate, preserve and reproduce one’s experiences. This ability constitutes the function of memory.
Memory is the most important cognitive function. It creates opportunities for learning and development. Memory underlies the formation of speech, thinking, emotional reactions, motor skills, and creative processes. The processes of memorization, preservation and reproduction are distinguished, including recognition, recollection, and recollection itself. There are voluntary and involuntary memory, direct and indirect, short-term and long-term. Special types of memory: motor (memory-habit), emotional or affective (memory of “feelings”), figurative and verbal-logical.
The impressions that a person receives about the world around him leave a certain trace, preservation, consolidation, and, if necessary and possible, reproduction. These processes are memory.
Essence and development of the process
The development of memory in general depends on the person, on the sphere of his activity and directly on the normal functioning and development of other “cognitive” processes. By working on one or another process, a person, without thinking, develops and trains memory.
There are quantitative and qualitative memory.
The characteristics of quantitative memory include: speed, strength, duration, accuracy and storage capacity.
Qualitative differences concern both the dominance of certain types of memory - visual, auditory, emotional, motor and others, as well as their functioning. For most people, motor memory dominates.
The memory process is closely related to personality characteristics, emotional mood, interests and needs. Also, human memory is closely related to physical condition and personal feelings. This has been proven in cases of painful memory impairment.
Human memory is not constant; it changes throughout life. Since childhood, the process of memory development occurs in several directions. Initially, affective (emotional) and mechanical (motor) memory begins to operate, which is gradually supplemented and replaced by logical and figurative ones. Further, direct memorization turns into indirect, associated with the active and conscious use of various mnemotechnical techniques and means for memorization and reproduction. Then, involuntary memorization, which dominates in childhood, turns into voluntary in an adult.
Types of memory and their features
Since memory is included in all the diversity of human life and activity, the forms of its manifestation are extremely diverse. The division of memory into types should be determined, first of all, by the characteristics of the activity itself in which the processes of memorization and reproduction are carried out. This is also true for those cases when one or another type of memory appears in a person as a feature of his mental make-up. After all, before a certain mental property manifests itself in activity, it is formed in it.
There are several bases for classifying the types of human memory. One of them is the division of memory according to the time of storage of the material, the other according to the analyzer that predominates in the processes of memorizing, storing and reproducing the material. In the first case, there are: instantaneous, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic memory. In the second case, they talk about motor, visual, auditory, olfactory, emotional and other types of memory. Let us consider and give a brief definition of the main types of memory mentioned above.
Instant, or iconic, memory is associated with the retention of a point and the complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the senses. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Instantaneous memory is the complete residual impression that arises from the immediate perception of stimuli. This is a memory-image.
Short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, about 20. Memory is called operational memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The storage period of information in this memory is determined by the task faced by a person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After this, information may disappear from RAM. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of information storage and its properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.
Long-term memory is a memory that can store information for an almost unlimited period of time. Information that has entered the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as necessary without loss. Moreover, repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory. The latter presupposes the ability of a person, at any necessary moment, to recall what was once remembered by him. When using long-term memory, remembering often requires thinking and willpower, so its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.
Genetic memory can be defined as one in which information is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. The main biological mechanism for storing information in such memory is, apparently, mutations and associated changes in gene structures. Human genetic memory is the only one that we cannot influence through training and education.
Visual memory is associated with the storage and reproduction of visual images. It is extremely important for people of all professions. Good visual memory is often possessed by people with eidic perception, who are able to “see” the perceived picture in their imagination for quite a long time after it has ceased to affect the senses. In this regard, this type of memory presupposes the development of a person’s ability to imagine. In particular, the process of memorizing and reproducing material is based on it: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, remembers and reproduces more easily.
Auditory memory is a good memory and accurate reproduction of a variety of sounds. A special type of speech memory is verbal-logical, which is closely related to word, thought and logic. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that a person who has it can quickly and accurately remember the meaning of events, the logic of reasoning or any evidence, the meaning of the text being read. He can convey this meaning in his own words, and quite accurately.
Motor memory is the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of a variety of complex movements. It participates in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports, skills and abilities. Improving human manual movements is directly related to this type of memory.
Emotional memory is memory for experiences. It is involved in all types of memory, but is especially evident in human relationships. Emotional memory is expressed in remembering and reproducing feelings. It is an important condition for human motor growth. The significance of emotional memory is that it increases the richness and variety of emotional life. The source of feelings is not only the present, but also the past.
Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory. Their role mainly comes down to satisfying biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the body. Based on the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorizing and reproducing material, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary. In the first case, they mean such memorization and reproduction that occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of the person, without setting a special mnemonic task. In the second case, such a task is necessarily present, and the process of memorization or reproduction itself requires volitional efforts.
Depending on the time of storage of the material, short-term and long-term memory are distinguished.
Short-term memory is characterized by its limited capacity. In short-term memory, an incomplete, but only a generalized image of what is perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a preliminary conscious intention to memorize, but with an intention to subsequently reproduce the material. Short-term memory is characterized by such an indicator as volume; on average it is equal to 5 to 9 units of information. Short-term memory is associated with the so-called actual human consciousness. From instant memory, it receives only that information that is recognized, correlates with the current interests and needs of a person, and attracts his increased attention.
Long-term memory is characterized by long-term retention of material after repeated repetition and reproduction. Short-term memory is characterized by very brief retention after a single very short perception and immediate reproduction (for the first few seconds after perceiving the material).
The concept of operative memory refers to mnemonic processes that serve actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person. In working memory, a “working mixture” is formed from materials coming from both short-term and long-term memory. As long as this material functions, it remains under the control of RAM.
The criteria adopted as the basis for dividing memory into types (by the nature of mental activity - figurative and verbal-logical, by the nature of the goals of the activity - voluntary and involuntary, by the duration of consolidation and retention of material - short-term, long-term and operational) are associated with various aspects of human activity , appearing in it not separately, but in organic unity.
Age-related characteristics of memoryjunior schoolchildren
Initially, the younger schoolchild better remembers visual material: objects that surround the child and with which he acts, images of objects and people. The duration of memorization of such material is much longer than memorization of verbal material. The development of various types of memory is also given attention in all classes with the child. A problem child, like his normally developing peer, has a preferential development of certain types of memory and varying degrees of their involvement in one or another activity. The teacher and parent need to be an attentive observer in order to see the predominant types of memory and, taking this into account, include in the child’s activities those tasks that are first built on the leading type of memory, and then develop its other types.
Work on memory development allows the child to form and consolidate fairly adequate images of perception of objects in the surrounding reality. It is these multimodal images of perception that then become the basis for the formation of generalized and more flexible ideas about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
If we talk about the regularity of verbal material, then throughout the younger age children remember words denoting the names of objects (concrete material) better than words denoting abstract concepts (abstract material). Students retain in memory such specific material that is consolidated in memory based on visual examples and is significant in understanding what is being remembered. They remember worse the specific material that is not supported by a visual image (geographical names not associated with a geographical map, descriptions) and is not significant in assimilating what is remembered.
Abstract material - also: abstract material is remembered that is a generalization of a number of facts (the relationship between certain geographical phenomena). And, conversely, students have difficulty remembering abstract material if it is not revealed through specific material (for example, definitions of concepts if they are not supported by examples).
The basis of logical memory is the use of mental processes as a support, a means of memorization. Such memory is based on understanding. The process of developing logical memory in younger schoolchildren must be specially organized, since the overwhelming majority of children of this age do not independently use methods of semantic processing of material and, for the purpose of memorization, resort to the proven means of mechanical memorization.
The concrete-figurative nature of the memory of younger schoolchildren is also manifested in the fact that children cope even with such difficult memorization techniques as correlation, dividing text into parts, if they rely on clarity and illustrations.
For younger schoolchildren, the mental action of generalization is quite sufficient, that is, identifying some common features of various objects. Children of this age easily master classification.
Involuntary memorization continues to play a significant role in the accumulation of experience in younger schoolchildren, especially in conditions of their active activity.
At this age, visual-figurative memory is of primary importance. This feature of younger schoolchildren is determined by the uniqueness of other mental processes, especially thinking. Children of this age begin to acquire the ability to think logically, establish cause-and-effect relationships and relationships between objects and phenomena, but can only do this in relation to specific, figuratively represented connections. Their thinking is characterized as concrete-figurative, which determines the need for a clear organization of the transfer of material through direct experience.
The visual-figurative nature of memory and the orientation towards the exact assimilation of what is assumed by the teacher leads to such a feature of memory as literalness (literal reproduction of what is remembered). The literalness of the memory of younger schoolchildren is manifested in the reproduction of texts.
Literal memorization enriches the child’s active vocabulary: develops literary-formatted speech, helps master scientific concepts. By the third grade, the child has “his own words” when reproducing the material. The literal reproduction of material is an indicator of the arbitrariness of memory. But, being a positive characteristic of memory, the literalness of memorization already by the end of primary school begins to impede the creative development of memory and, as a consequence of this, impede the child’s mental development. Therefore, starting from the first grade, along with taking into account this feature of memory, one should teach the child to logically remember the material, teach him to highlight the main thing.
Methodikidiagnostics of memory of younger schoolchildren
memory junior school student diagnostics
Methodology. Assessment of auditory working memory
To the child at intervals of 1 second. The following four sets of words are read in turn:
Month carpet fork school
Wood glass sofa man
Jump dust joke sleep
Yellow heavy bold red
Doll book coat notebook
Bag apple phone flower
After listening to each set of words, the subject, approximately 5 seconds after finishing reading the set, begins to slowly read the next set of 36 words with intervals of 5 seconds between individual words:
Glass, school, fork, button, carpet, month, chair,
man, sofa, cow, TV, tree, bird,
sleep, brave, joke, red, swan, picture,
heavy, swim, ball, yellow, house, jump,
notebook, coat, book, flower, phone, apple,
doll, bag, horse, lie down, elephant.
This set of 36 words contains in random order the listening words from all four listening sets, indicated by Roman numerals above. To better identify them, they are underlined in different ways, with each set of 6 words corresponding to a different way of underlining. Thus, words from the first small set are underlined with a solid single line, words from the second set with a solid double line, words from the third set with a dotted single line, and words from the fourth set with a double dotted line.
The child must auditorily detect in a long set those words that have just been presented to him in the corresponding small set, confirming the identification of the found word with the statement “yes”, and its absence with the statement “no”. The child is given 5 seconds to search for each word in a large set. If during this time he could not identify it, then the experimenter reads out the next words and so on.
Evaluation of results
The indicator of operational auditory memory is defined as the quotient of dividing the average time spent on identifying 6 words in a large set (for this, the total time the child worked on the task is divided by 4) by the average number of errors made plus one. Errors are considered to be all words that are indicated incorrectly, or words that the child could not find in the allotted time, i.e. missed it.
Comment. This technique does not have standardized indicators, so conclusions about the level of development of a child’s memory cannot be made on its basis. Indicators using this technique can only be compared in different children and in the same children when they are re-examined, making relative conclusions about how the memory of one child differs from the memory of another child, or about what changes have occurred in the memory of a given child over time .
Methodology. Determination of the volume of short-term visual memory
The child is alternately offered each of the following two drawings (Fig. 48 A, B). After presenting each part of the drawing, he receives a stencil frame (Fig. 49 A, B) with a request to draw on it all the lines that he saw and remembered on each part of the drawing. 48. Based on the results of two experiments, the average number of lines that he reproduced correctly from memory is established.
A line is considered correctly reproduced if its length and orientation do not differ significantly from the length and orientation of the corresponding line in the original drawing (the deviation of the beginning and end is no more than one cell, while maintaining the angle of its inclination).
The resulting indicator, equal to the number of correctly reproduced lines, is considered as the volume of visual memory.
Conclusion
In psychology, memory is considered as a component of general and special abilities. In a factor analysis of numerous cognitive functions, it is identified as a primary mental activity.
Memory underlies human abilities and is a condition for learning, acquiring knowledge, and developing skills. Without memory, normal functioning of either the individual or society is impossible.
Memory is part of the structure of intelligence. Memory is a necessary condition for the accumulation of a fund of knowledge and “intellectual skills.”
Memory, like all psychological processes, has age-related and individual characteristics.
Currently, there is no unified theory of memory in science. Therefore, the study of the functioning of memory in the learning process remains one of the main problems of psychology.
Bibliography
1. Large explanatory psychological dictionary. Compiled by A.A. Robber. M.-2000
2. B.S. Volkova Psychology of junior schoolchildren. Moscow, 2002.
3. Gruzdeva O.V. Children's practical psychology. - Krasnoyarsk: RIO GOU KSPU named after. V.P. Astafieva, 2004
4. I.V. Dubrovina Psychocorrection and developmental work with children. Moscow 2001.
5. I.V. Dubrovina Practical psychology of education. Moscow 1998.
6. Magazines “Primary School”, No. 4 1994
7. Psychology of childhood. Textbook. Ed. A.A. Reana - St. Petersburg: “Prime-EURO-ZNAK”, 2003.
8. S.L. Rubinstein Fundamentals of general psychology. - Peter, 2003.
9. Personality theory. L. Kjell. D. Wigler. - St. Petersburg. 2004
10. Yakovleva E.L. Diagnosis and correction of attention and memory of schoolchildren. Markova A.K., Yakovleva E.L. Diagnosis and correction of mental development in school and preschool age. - Petrozavodsk, 1992.
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Memory from a psychologist's point of view. Development and improvement of memory. General idea of memory. Basic memory processes. Remembering, saving, reproducing, forgetting. Physiological basis of memory. Motor, figurative, emotional memory.
MEMORY DIAGNOSTICS METHODS
Human memory is diverse. All its types and features are difficult to evaluate at the same time, especially if not only memory is diagnosed, but also other psychological characteristics of a person. In this regard, in practical psychodiagnostics of memory we have to limit ourselves to only some of its types. In our case, among them are recognition, reproduction and memorization, in particular the volume of short-term visual and auditory memory (vision and hearing are the main human senses), as well as the dynamics of the learning process. The methods described below are intended for psychodiagnostics of these characteristics of human memory.
When working with students, you need to know the following types of memory and their indicators:
1. Short-term visual and auditory, including their volume and ability to retain information in the corresponding types of RAM. Without good short-term and operational visual and auditory memory, any information perceived through the main senses - educational, work, social and others - will not enter long-term memory and be stored there for a long time.
2. Indirect memory, which is characterized by the presence and independent, proactive use by the child of various means of memorizing, storing and reproducing information.
3. It is also important to evaluate correctly and accuratelydynamic features of the process of memorization and recall, including such indicators as the dynamism of learning and its productivity, the number of repetitions necessary for error-free recall of a certain set of pieces of information.
Let's consider ways to determine all these types and indicators of memory in order, but first we will make the following remark, which must be taken into account in the process of psychodiagnostics of memory.
The memory of a child of primary school age, like his attention, should be assessed not as a whole, but differentially, according to individual indicators, and for each of them it is necessary to make an independent conclusion about the child’s memory. As for the general conclusions about the state of the child’s mnemonic processes, they have a conditional meaning and only generally characterize the degree to which his memory is developed.
If most of the individual indicators related to particular types of memory are relatively high, and the rest are at an average level, then this does not allow us to judge with sufficient confidence that the child’s memory is good or average. Those types of memory that were not studied in this case may turn out to be different and just those that are important in certain types of activities. So it would be more correct if, in drawing conclusions about the state of a child’s memory, we rely more on private indicators.
Method 1. “Recognize the shapes”(Appendix No. 1)
This technique is for recognition. This type of memory appears and develops in children one of the first in ontogenesis. The development of other types of memory, including memorization, preservation and reproduction, significantly depends on the development of this type.
In the method, children are offered pictures depicted on rice. 1 , accompanied by the following instructions:
“You have 5 pictures in front of you, arranged in rows. The picture on the left is separated from the others by a double vertical line and looks like one of the four pictures arranged in a row to the right of it. It is necessary to find and point to a similar picture as quickly as possible.”
First, as a test, the child is asked to solve this problem on the pictures shown in the row numbered 0, then, after the experimenter is convinced that the child understood everything correctly, they are given the opportunity to solve this problem on the pictures numbered 1 to 10.
The experiment is carried out until the child solves all 10 problems, but no more than 1.5 minutes, even if the child has not completed all the problems by this time.
Evaluation of results
10 points - the child completed all the tasks in less than 45 seconds.
8-9 points - the child completed all the tasks in 45 to 50 seconds.
6-7 points - the child completed all the proposed tasks within a period of time from 50 to 60 seconds.
4-5 points - the child completed all the tasks in 60 to 70 seconds.
2-3 points - the child solved all the problems in 70 to 80 seconds.
0-1 point - the child solved all the problems, spending more than 80 seconds on it.
Conclusions about the level of development
10 points - very high.
8-9 points - high.
4-7 points - average.
2-3 points - low.
0-1 point - very low.
Method 2. “Remember the pictures”(Appendix No. 2)
This technique is intended to determine the volume of short-term visual memory. Children receive pictures presented on the screen as incentives. rice. 2 A . They are given instructions approximately as follows:
“There are nine different figures in this picture. Try to remember them and then recognize them in another picture ( rice. 2 B ), which I will show you now. On it, in addition to the nine previously shown images, there are six more that you have not seen before. Try to recognize and show in the second picture only those images that you saw in the first picture.”
Exposure time of the stimulus picture ( rice. 2 A ) is 30 sec. After this, this picture is removed from the child’s field of vision and instead he is shown a second picture - rice. 2 B . The experiment continues until the child recognizes all the images, but no longer than 1.5 minutes.
Evaluation of results
10 points - the child recognized it in the picture 2 B all nine images shown to him in the picture 2 A , spending less than 45 seconds.
8-9 points - the child recognized it in the picture 2 B 7-8 images in 45 to 55 seconds.
6-7 points - the child recognized 5-6 images in a time from 55 to 65 seconds.
4-5 points - the child recognized 3-4 images in a time from 65 to 75 seconds.
2-Zpoints - the child recognized 1-2 images in a time from 75 to 85 seconds.
0-1 point - the child did not recognize in the picture 2 B no images for 90 seconds or more.
Conclusions about the level of development
10 points - very high.
8-9 points - high.
4-7 points - average.
2-3 points - low.
0-1 point - very low.
Method 3. “Remember the numbers”(Appendix No. 3.4)
This technique is designed to determine the volume of a child’s short-term auditory memory. In the assignment, the child receives instructions with the following content:
“Now I will tell you the numbers, and you repeat them after me immediately after I say the word “repeat”.”
Next, the experimenter sequentially reads to the child from top to bottom a series of numbers presented in Fig. 3 A , with an interval of 1 second between numbers. After listening to each series, the child must repeat it after the experimenter. This continues until the child makes a mistake.
If an error is made, then the experimenter repeats the adjacent row of numbers on the right (Fig. 3 B ) and consisting of the same number of digits as the one in which the error was made, and asks the child to reproduce it. If a child twice makes a mistake in reproducing a series of numbers of the same length, then this part of the psychodiagnostic experiment ends, the length of the previous row is noted, which was reproduced at least once completely and accurately, and they proceed to reading out the series of numbers following in the opposite order - descending ( rice. 4 A, B).
Finally, the volume of the child’s short-term auditory memory is determined, which is numerically equal to half the sum of the maximum number of digits in a series correctly reproduced by the child in the first and second attempts.
Evaluation of results
10 points - the child correctly reproduced an average of 9 digits.
8-9 points - the child accurately reproduced an average of 7-8 digits.
6-7 points - the child was able to accurately reproduce an average of 5-6 digits.
4-5 points - the child reproduced 4 digits on average.
2-3 points - the child reproduced 3 digits on average.
0-1 point - the child on average reproduced from 0 to 2 digits.
Conclusions about the level of development
10 points - very high.
8-9 points - high.
4-7 points - average.
2-3 points - low.
0-1 point - very low.
Method 4. “Learn words”(Appendix No. 5)
Using this technique, the dynamics of the learning process are determined. The child receives a task in several attempts to learn by heart and accurately reproduce a series consisting of 12 words: tree, doll, fork, flower, telephone, glass, bird, coat, light bulb, picture, person, book.
Memorizing a series is done like this. After each listening session, the child tries to reproduce the entire series. The experimenter notes the number of words that the child remembered and named correctly during this attempt, and reads out the same series again. And so on six times in a row until the results of playing the series in six attempts are obtained.
The results of learning a number of words are presented on a graph ( rice. 5 ), where the horizontal line indicates the child’s successive attempts to reproduce the series, and the vertical line indicates the number of words correctly reproduced by him in each attempt.
Evaluation of results
10 points - the child remembered and accurately reproduced all 12 words in 6 or fewer attempts.
8-9 points - the child remembered and accurately reproduced 10-11 words in 6 attempts.
6-7 points - the child remembered and accurately reproduced 8-9 words in 6 attempts.
4-5 points - the child remembered and accurately reproduced 6-7 words in 6 attempts.
2-3 points - the child remembered and accurately reproduced 4-5 words in 6 attempts.
0-1 point - the child remembered and accurately reproduced no more than 3 words in 6 attempts.
Conclusions about the level of development
10 points - very high.
8-9 points - high.
4-7 points - average.
2-3 points - low.
0-1 point - very low.
Method 5. Determining the volume of short-term visual memory
(Appendices No. 6, 7)
The child is alternately offered each of the following two drawings ( rice. 6 A, B ). After presenting each part of the drawing, A and B, the child receives a stencil frame ( rice. 7 A, B)
asking him to draw on it all the lines that he saw and remembered on each part rice. 6. Based on the results of two experiments, the average number of lines that he reproduced correctly from memory is established.
A line is considered correctly reproduced if its length and orientation do not differ significantly from the length and orientation of the corresponding line in the original drawing (the deviation of the beginning and end of the line is no more than one cell, while maintaining the angle of its inclination).
The resulting indicator, equal to the number of correctly reproduced lines, is considered as the volume of visual memory.
Method 6. Assessment of visual operative memory(Appendices No. 8, 9)
This type of memory is characterized by how long a person can store and use in the process of solving a problem the information that is necessary to find the correct solution. The retention time of information in RAM serves as its main indicator. As an additional characteristic of RAM, you can use the number of errors made by the child while solving a problem (meaning errors that are associated with failure to store in memory the information necessary to solve the problem).
The child’s operational visual memory and its indicators can be determined using the following procedure. The child sequentially, for 15 seconds. each, task cards are offered, presented in the form of six differently shaded triangles on rice. 8 . After viewing the next card, it is removed and instead a matrix is offered, including 24 different triangles ( rice. 9 ), among which are the six triangles that the child just saw on a separate card. The task is to find and correctly indicate in the matrix all six triangles depicted on a separate card.
An indicator of the development of visual operative memory is the quotient of the time taken to solve a problem in minutes divided by the number of errors made during the solution process, plus one.
Errors are considered triangles that are incorrectly indicated in the matrix or those that the child could not find for any reason.
In practice, to obtain this indicator proceed as follows. Using all four cards, the number of triangles correctly found on the matrix is determined and their total sum is divided by 4. This will be the average number of correctly indicated triangles. This number is then subtracted from 6, and the result obtained is considered the average number of errors made.
Then the average time the child worked on the task is determined, which in turn is obtained by dividing the total total time the child worked on all four cards by 4.
The end of the child’s time working on finding triangles in the general matrix is determined by the experimenter by asking the child: “Have you already done everything you could?” As soon as the child answers affirmatively to this question and practically stops searching for triangles in the matrix, he is considered to have completed his work. Dividing the average time a child spends searching on a matrix of six triangles by the number of errors made allows us to finally obtain the required indicator.
In order to speed up the process of obtaining information about whether the child found the required triangles in the matrix correctly or incorrectly, it is recommended to use their identification by numbers, which are located in the lower left corner under each of the triangles in the matrix on rice. 9 . So, for example, the first set of six triangles (the set number is indicated by a Roman numeral located below it on rice. 8 ) in the matrix correspond triangles with the following numbers: 1, 3,8,12,14,16; the second set - 2, 7,15,18,19, 21; the third set - 4, 6,10,11,17, 24; the fourth set - 5, 9,13, 20, 22, 23.
Method 7. Assessment of the volume of short-term auditory memory
Assessment of the volume of short-term auditory memory of children of primary school age and children of all subsequent school ages, as well as adults, is carried out using the same technique that was presented and used to solve a similar problem in a complex of standardized psychodiagnostic techniques.
Conclusions about the level of development of visual and auditory memory of primary schoolchildren
Evaluation of results
10 points receives a child who has a short-term memory capacity of 8 or more units. This applies to children aged 10-12 years. Similar quantity points - 10 - received by children aged 6 to 9 years, if their short-term memory capacity is 7-8 units.
At 8 points The volume of short-term memory of a child aged 6 to 9 years is assessed if it is actually equal to 5 or 6 units. Same quantity points - 8 - received by a child aged 10 to 12 years with a short-term memory capacity of 6-7 units.
4 points receives a 6-9 year old child with a short-term memory capacity of 3-4 units. The same number of points evaluates the volume of short-term memory of a child aged 10-12 years, if it is equal to 4-5 units.
2 points is given to a child aged 6-9 years if his short-term memory capacity is 1-2 units. A child aged 10 to 12 years receives the same number of points if his short-term memory capacity is 2-3 units.
0 points The memory of a 6-9 year old child is assessed, having an indicator equal to zero. A 10-12 year old child with short-term memory capacity gets the same points; equal to 0-1 unit.
Method 8. Assessment of operational auditory memory
This type of memory is tested in a manner similar to those previously described. The following four sets of words are read alternately to the child at intervals of 1 second:
I II III IV
month carpet fork school
tree glass sofa person
jump swim joke sleep
yellow heavy bold red
doll book coat notebook
bag apple phone flower
After listening to each set of words, the subject, approximately 5 seconds after finishing reading the set, begins to slowly read the next set of 36 words with intervals of 5 seconds between individual words:
Glass, school, fork, button, carpet, month, chair,
man, sofa , cow, TV, tree, bird,
sleep, dare, joke, red , swan, picture,
heavy, swim, ball, yellow, house, jump,
notebook, coat-book, flower, telephone, apple,
doll, bag , horse, lie, elephant.
This set of 36 words contains in random order the listening words from all four listening sets, indicated by Roman numerals above. To better identify them, they are underlined in different ways, with each set of 6 words corresponding to a different way of underlining. Thus, words from the first small set are underlined with a solid single line, words from the second set with a solid double line, words from the third set with a dotted single line, and, finally, words from the fourth set with a double wavy line.
The child must auditorily detect in the long set those words that were just presented to him in the corresponding small set, confirming the identification of the found word with the statement “yes”, and its absence with the statement “no”. The child is given 5 seconds to search for each word in a large set. If during this time he could not identify it, then the experimenter reads the next word and so on.
Evaluation of results
The indicator of operational auditory memory is defined as the quotient of dividing the average time spent on identifying 6 words in a large set (for this, the total time the child worked on the task is divided by 4) by the average number of errors made plus one. Errors are considered to be all words that are indicated incorrectly, or words that the child could not find in the allotted time, i.e. missed it.
Comment . This technique does not have standardized indicators, therefore conclusions about the level of development of the child’s memory based on it, as well as on the basis of a similar technique for assessing visual working memory, which was described earlier, are not made. Indicators using these methods can only be compared in different children and in the same children when they are re-examined, making relative conclusions about how the memory of one child differs from the memory of another child, or about what changes have occurred in the memory of a given child over time. child.
Method 9. Diagnosis of mediated memory
The materials needed to carry out the technique are a sheet of paper and a pen. Before the examination begins, the child is told the following words:
“Now I will tell you different words and sentences and then pause. During this pause, you will have to draw or write something on a piece of paper that will allow you to remember and then easily recall the words that I said. Try to make drawings or notes as quickly as possible, otherwise we will not have time to complete the entire task. There are quite a lot of words and expressions that need to be remembered.”
The following words and expressions are read to the child one after another:
House. Stick. Tree. Jump high. The sun is shining. Cheerful man. Children play ball. The clock is standing. The boat is floating on the river. The cat eats fish.
After reading each word or phrase to the child, the experimenter pauses for 20 seconds. At this time, the child must have time to draw something on the sheet of paper given to him that will later allow him to remember the necessary words and expressions. If within the allotted time the child did not manage to complete
recording or drawing, then the experimenter interrupts it and reads out the next word or expression.
As soon as the experiment is completed, the psychologist asks the child, using the drawings or notes he made, to remember the words and expressions that were read to him.
Evaluation of results
For each word or phrase correctly reproduced from his own drawing or recording, the child receives 1 point . Correctly reproduced are considered not only those words and phrases that are literally restored from memory, but also those that are conveyed in other words, but exactly in meaning. Approximately correct reproduction is estimated at 0.5 points, and incorrect - 0 points.
The maximum overall score that a child can receive in this technique is
10 points . The child will receive such an assessment when he correctly remembers all words and expressions without exception. Minimum possible score - 0 points . It corresponds to the case if the child could not remember a single word from his drawings and notes or did not make a drawing or note for a single word.
Conclusions about the level of development
10 points - very highly developed indirect auditory memory.
8-9 points - highly developed indirect auditory memory.
4-7 points - moderately developed indirect auditory memory.
2-3 points - poorly developed indirect auditory memory.
0-1 point - poorly developed indirect auditory memory.
Method 10. Characteristics of the dynamic features of the memorization process
The child is offered a series of ten simple words to memorize by repeating this series several times.
After each repetition, the number of words from the series that the child was able to accurately reproduce after this repetition is determined.
For memorization, the child is offered a choice of one of the following sets of words:
1. House, desk, white, good, pear, chalk, strong, cup, candle, table.
2. Cat, pen, blue, bad, apple, floor, weak, fork, lamp, pencil.
3. Doll, spoon, red, car, high, brush, mom, book, chicken.
4. Dog, window, flower, low carpet, envelope, sky, letter, dream.
5. Clock, wind, fish, star, elephant, candy, paper, chair, rope.
Comment . When diagnosing the dynamic features of the memorization process in children studying in different grades of primary school and entering school, different sets of words should be used so that the effect of previous memorization of a series does not affect.
Rice. 10 Dynamic features of the process of learning a number of words
The number of repeated presentations of a series and subsequent attempts to reproduce it in this technique is limited to six. The number of correctly reproduced words is correlated with each reproduction attempt, and the resulting data is presented in the form of a learning graph.
Based on the analysis of the learning curve presented in this graph, the following two indicators of the dynamics of learning are determined:
1. Dynamic learning.
2. Productivity of learning.
The dynamism of the learning process is determined by the nature of the curve. If from repetition to repetition this curve smoothly rises upward (a solid version of the curve on rice. 10 ), then the learning process is considered to be quite dynamic. If the results do not deteriorate from repetition to repetition, remaining at the same level (the dotted version of the curve in Fig. 10), then the learning process is characterized as moderately dynamic. Finally, if from repetition to repetition the results either improve or worsen (the point version of the curve in rice. 10 ), then this indicates a non-dynamic learning process.
Evaluation of results
In accordance with the data obtained on the dynamics of the learning process, the child receives one of three ratings on the following scale:
A fairly dynamic learning process - excellent. The average dynamic learning process is satisfactory. A non-dynamic learning process is unsatisfactory. The productivity of the learning process is assessed differently, in points using the following scale:
10 points - the child was able to remember and accurately reproduce all ten words, spending less than six repetitions, i.e. no more than five.
8-9 points - the child managed to reproduce all 10 words in exactly six repetitions.
6-7 points - after six repetitions of the series, the child managed to correctly reproduce from 7 to 9 words.
4-5 points - after six repetitions of the series, the child was able to correctly reproduce 4-6 words.
2-3 points - for six repetitions of the series, the child managed to correctly remember only 2-3 words.
0-1 point - after six repetitions, the child was able to reproduce only 1 word or did not remember a single one.
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Studying short-term and long-term verbal memory Methodology “Learning 10 words”
One of the most frequently used methods was proposed by A.R. Luria, used for memory, fatigue, attention.
No special equipment is required. However, to a greater extent than when using other methods, silence is necessary: if there is any conversation in the room, it is not advisable to conduct the experiment. Before starting the experiment, the experimenter must write down a number of short (one- and two-syllable) words on one line. choose simple, varied and not having any connection with each other. Typically, each experimenter uses one series of words.
However, it is necessary to use several sets so that children cannot hear them from each other. In this experiment, greater accuracy of pronunciation and consistency of instructions are very important.
The instructions consist of several steps.
First explanation: “Now I will read 10 words. You need to listen carefully. When you finish reading, immediately repeat as much as you remember. You can repeat in any order, the order does not matter. It's clear?"
The lesson takes place individually. The work begins after establishing a trusting relationship with the child. The subject sits at the table opposite the experimenter and begins to complete the task after his verbal instructions: “Now I will show geometric figures (or words) in order and only once.” You need to remember and, at my command, draw (or write) them. You need to complete the task without making mistakes.”
In the protocol, the experimenter records the reproductions, the number of correctly reproduced elements and errors.
Protocol for the study of figurative and verbal-logical short-term memoryThen the number of correctly reproduced elements c, incorrectly reproduced elements m and missing elements n is counted.
The main indicator of memory productivity B is determined by the formula:
The playback time of each element is calculated taking into account the T correction.
Correction for playback time of stimulus material
The indicator of the volume of short-term memory A is calculated by the formula:
A = B + T,
where B is memory productivity; T – time correction, points.
Scientists do not have a clear consensus on the definition of memory. In a broad sense, memory can be called the retention of information about a stimulus after its effect has ceased.
Since none of the existing definitions of memory can be considered sufficient, several formulations that complement each other should be analyzed and combined into a single whole.
According to the definition given in the psychological dictionary, “memory is a system of mnemonic processes that serve to remember, preserve and subsequently reproduce in the form of verbal reports and actions the knowledge that was learned in the subject’s previous experience (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Basic definitions of the concept “memory”
Memory was considered one of the most developed branches of psychology. But further study of the laws of memory in our days has again made it one of the key problems of science. Currently, there is no single and complete theory of memory.
The wide variety of hypothetical concepts and models is due to the intensification of searches undertaken, especially in recent years, by representatives of various sciences. To the two long-standing levels of studying the mechanisms and patterns of memory - psychological and neurophysiological - a third has now been added - biochemical. A cybernetic approach to the study of memory is also being formed.
Psychological theories of memory. The psychological level of studying memory mechanisms is chronologically older than others and is represented in science by a large number of different directions and theories. These theories can be classified and assessed depending on what role they assigned to the subject’s activity in the formation of memory processes and how they viewed the nature of this activity. In most psychological theories of memory, the focus is either on the object itself or on the subject. Hence the inevitable one-sidedness of the concepts under consideration.
The first group of theories constitutes the so-called associative direction. Its central concept - the concept of association - means connection, connection and acts as a mandatory principle of all mental formations. This principle boils down to the following: if certain mental formations arose in consciousness simultaneously or immediately after each other, then an associative connection is formed between them and the reappearance of any of the elements of this connection necessarily evokes in consciousness the representation of all its elements.
Thus, associationism considers the simultaneity of their appearance in consciousness to be a necessary and sufficient basis for the formation of a connection between two impressions. Therefore, the task of a deeper study of the mechanisms of memorization did not arise for associationists, and they limited themselves to characterizing the external conditions necessary for the emergence of “simultaneous impressions.” The whole variety of such conditions was reduced to the following three types: a) spatio-temporal contiguity of the corresponding objects; b) their similarity; c) their difference or opposition.
According to these three types of relations between the phenomena of the external world, three types of associations were distinguished - associations by contiguity, by similarity and contrast. The basis of these types of associations are the three principles of “coupling” of ideas formulated by Aristotle (384-322 BC). The associationists, not without some violence, subsumed all the variety of connections, including cause-and-effect relationships, under these three principles.
The very concept of association was firmly established in psychology, although its content was subsequently significantly rethought and deepened. Memorizing is really connecting something new with what is already in experience. The binding operation becomes quite obvious when we manage to expand the subsequent memory process element by element, i.e. reproduce any material. Based on criticism of associationism in psychology, a number of new theories and concepts of memory arose. Their essence is largely determined by what exactly they criticized in associative psychology, what their attitude to the very concept of association is.
The most decisive criticism of the associative theory of memory was carried out from the position of so-called Gestaltism. The main concept of this new theory - the concept of Gestalt - denotes a holistic organization, a structure that cannot be reduced to the sum of its constituent parts. Thus, Gestaltism opposes, first of all, the principle of synthesis of elements, the principle of the primacy of the whole in relation to its parts, to the elemental approach of associationists to the phenomena of consciousness. In accordance with this, the organization of material is recognized here as the basis for the formation of connections, which determines a similar structure of traces in the brain according to the principle of isomorphism, i.e. similar in form.
A certain organization of material undoubtedly plays a big role in memorization, but its function can only be realized as a result of the subject’s activity. For Gestaltists, the principle of integrity appears as initially given; the laws of Gestalt operate outside and apart from the activity of the subject himself. From this point of view, Gestaltism is essentially on a par with the theory of associationism.
In contrast to associationism and other theories in which consciousness acted as something passive, a number of trends in psychology are characterized by emphasizing the active, active role of consciousness in memory processes. An important role was given to attention, intention, comprehension in memorization and reproduction, etc. However, here too the memory processes were essentially not connected with the activity of the subject and therefore did not receive a correct explanation.
Since activity, consciousness and meaningfulness of memorization were associated only with the highest stages in the development of memory, the same concept of association by contiguity was used in relation to its lower stages. This is how the concept of two types of connections was born: associative and semantic. The theory of two types of memory was also connected with it: mechanical and logical. In modern science, a theory that, as a basic concept, considers the activity of an individual as a factor that determines the formation of all its mental processes, including memory processes, is gaining increasing recognition. According to this concept, the course of the processes of memorization, preservation and reproduction is determined by the place this material occupies in the subject’s activity. The main thesis of this concept can be formulated as follows: the formation of connections between different ideas is determined not by what the memorized material itself is, but primarily by what the subject does with it.
Physiological theories of memory. Physiological theories of memory mechanisms are closely related to the most important provisions of the teachings of I.P. Pavlova on the laws of higher nervous activity. The doctrine of the formation of conditional temporary connections is a theory of the mechanisms of formation of the individual experience of the subject, i.e. the actual theory of “memorization at the physiological level.”
To understand the causality of this act, the concept of reinforcement is of utmost importance. Reinforcement is nothing more than achieving the immediate goal of an individual's action. In other cases, it is a stimulus that motivates an action or corrects it. All characteristics of this connection, and above all the degree of its strength, are determined precisely by the nature of reinforcement as a measure of the vital feasibility of a given action. The corrective function of reinforcement in the implementation of actions is especially fully revealed in the works of PC. Anokhin, who showed the role of reinforcement in regulating the activity of a subject, in closing the reflex ring. Thus, the physiological concept of reinforcement, correlated with the psychological concept of the goal of action, represents the point of merging the physiological and psychological plan for analyzing the mechanisms of the memorization process. This synthesis of concepts, enriching each of them, allows us to assert that, in its main vital function, memory is directed not to the past, but to the future. Consolidating the results of successful actions is a probabilistic prediction of their usefulness for achieving future goals.
More or less directly related to physiological theories is the so-called physical theory of memory. It received the name physical because, according to the ideas of its authors, the passage of any nerve impulse through a certain group of neurons leaves behind, in the true sense of the word, a physical trace. The physical materialization of the trace is expressed in electrical and mechanical changes in synapses. These changes facilitate the secondary passage of the impulse along a familiar path. The theory under consideration is also called the theory of neural models. The process of formation and subsequent activation of neural models constitutes, according to the views of supporters of this theory, a mechanism for remembering, preserving and reproducing what is perceived.
Modern neurophysiological research is characterized by an ever deeper penetration into the mechanisms of fixation and storage of traces at the neural and molecular level. It has been established, for example, that axons extending from nerve cells come into contact either with the dendrites of other cells, or return back to the body of their cell. Persistent circles of reverberating excitation that do not go beyond the boundaries of this system are considered by some researchers to be the physiological substrate of the process of preserving traces. Here the transition of traces from short-term memory to long-term memory occurs. Some researchers believe that these types of memory are based on a single mechanism, others that there are two mechanisms with different characteristics. The final approval is for biochemical studies.
Biochemical theories of memory. The neurophysiological level of studying memory mechanisms at the present stage is increasingly moving closer and often directly merges with the biochemical one. This is confirmed by numerous studies conducted at the junction of these levels. Based on these studies, in particular, a hypothesis arose about the two-stage nature of the memorization process. Its essence is as follows. At the first stage, a short-term electrochemical reaction occurs in the brain, causing reversible physiological changes in cells. The second stage, arising on the basis of the first, is the actual biochemical reaction associated with the formation of new protein substances. The first stage is considered to be the mechanism of short-term memory. The second stage is considered to be the mechanism of long-term memory.
Proponents of chemical theories of memory believe that specific chemical changes occurring in nerve cells under the influence of external stimuli underlie the mechanisms of the processes of fixation, preservation and reproduction of traces. This refers to various rearrangements of protein molecules of neurons: DNA, RNA. In the experiments of the Swedish biochemist Hiden, it was established that irritation of a nerve cell increases the RNA content in it and leaves long-lasting biochemical traces, giving it the ability to resonate to the repeated action of familiar stimuli.
The successes of the latest, in particular biochemical, research provide many reasons for optimistic forecasts regarding the possibilities of managing human memory in the future.
In this regard, it is important to emphasize that, although the processes of human memory are characterized by a very complex interaction at all levels, their determination comes from above, from human activity. The principle at work here is: from the whole to its parts. The use of pharmacological memory catalysts cannot change the essence of the matter.
Of course, the noted structural and chemical changes in brain cells, being a product of previous activity, then become a necessary condition for subsequent, more complex actions, being included in the mechanism of their implementation. Research into memory mechanisms at different levels certainly mutually enriches each other.
Diagnostics of memory of younger schoolchildren.
1. Methodology "Determination of memory type"
Goal: determination of the predominant type of memory.
Equipment: four rows of words written on separate cards; stopwatch.
For memorization by ear
: car, apple, pencil, spring, lamp, forest, rain, flower, pan, parrot.
For memorization during visual perception: airplane, pear, pen, winter, candle, field, lightning, nut, frying pan, duck.
For memorization during motor-auditory perception : steamboat, plum, ruler, summer, lampshade, river, thunder, berry, plate, goose.
For memorization with combined perception: train, cherry, notebook, autumn, floor lamp, clearing, thunderstorm, mushroom, cup, chicken.
Research procedure.
The student is informed that a series of words will be read to him, which he must try to remember and, at the experimenter’s command, write down. The first row of words is read. The interval between words when reading is 3 seconds; The student must write them down after a 10-second break after finishing reading the entire series; then rest for 10 minutes.
Invite the student to silently read the words of the second row, which are displayed for one minute, and write down those that he was able to remember. Rest 10 minutes.
The experimenter reads the words of the third row to the student, and the subject repeats each of them in a whisper and “writes it down” in the air. Then he writes down the remembered words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
The experimenter shows the student the words of the fourth row and reads them to him. The subject repeats each word in a whisper and “writes it down” in the air. Then he writes down the remembered words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
Processing and analysis of results.
A conclusion can be drawn about the predominant type of memory of the subject by calculating the memory type coefficient (C). C = , where a is 10 the number of correctly reproduced words.
The type of memory is determined by which of the rows had greater word recall. The closer the memory type coefficient is to one, the better developed this type of memory is in the subject.
MEMORY TYPE
Quantity is correctreproduced words
Auditory
Visual
Motor/auditory
Combined
2. Methodology "Study of logical and mechanical memory"
Purpose: study of logical and mechanical memory by memorizing two rows of words.
Equipment: two rows of words (in the first row there is a semantic connection between the words, in the second row there is none), stopwatch.
Second row:
doll - play
chicken - egg
scissors - cut
horse - sleigh
book - teacher
butterfly - fly
snow winter
lamp - evening
brush - teeth
cow - milk
beetle - chair
compass - glue
bell - arrow
tit - sister
leika – tram
boots - samovar
match - decanter
hat - bee
fish - fire
saw - scrambled eggs
Research procedure.
The student is informed that pairs of words will be read that he must remember. The experimenter reads to the subject ten pairs of words in the first row (the interval between pairs is five seconds).
After a ten-second break, the left words of the row are read (with an interval of ten seconds), and the subject writes down the remembered words of the right half of the row.
Similar work is carried out with words of the second row.
Processing and analysis of results. The results of the study are recorded in the following table.
Table
The volume of semantic and mechanical memory
Mechanical memory capacity
Number of words in the first row (A)
Number of memorized
spoken words (B)
Semantic memory coefficient C=B/A
Number of words in the second row (A)
Number of memorized
spoken words (B)
Mechanical memory coefficient C=B/A
3.Methodology “Semantic memory”
SERIES A
Pairs of words to remember:
doll - play,
chicken - egg,
scissors - cutting,
horse - hay,
book - teach,
butterfly - fly,
brush - teeth,
drum - pioneer,
snow winter,
rooster - crow
ink - notebook,
cow - milk,
steam locomotive - go,
pear - compote, l
ampa - evening.
Progress of the experiment. The words are read to the subjects. They should try to remember them in pairs. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the subjects write down the second.
When checking, read pairs of words slowly. If the second word is written correctly, then put a “+” sign, if incorrectly or not written down at all, put a “-”.
SERIES B.
Pairs of words to remember:
beetle - chair,
feather - water,
glasses are a mistake
bell - memory,
dove - father,
leika - tram,
comb - wind,
boots - cauldron,
castle - mother,
match - sheep,
grater - sea,
sled - factory,
fish is fire,
poplar - jelly.
Progress of the experiment. The nature of presentation and testing are the same as in series A. After the experiment, the number of remembered words for each series is compared and the subjects answer the questions: “Why were the words of series B remembered worse? Have you tried to establish a connection between the words of the B series?
Processing the results. For each experiment, it is required to count the number of correctly reproduced words and the number of incorrect reproductions. Enter the results into the table:
Logical memory capacity
| Number of words in the first row (a 1 ) | Number of memorized fallen words (b 1 ) | Logical memory ratio | Number of words of the second row (a 2 ) | Number of memorized fallen words (b 2 ) | Mechanical memory coefficient |
||
| WITH 1 = | b 1 | WITH 2 = | b 2 |
||||
| A 1 | A 2 |
||||||
4.Memory for numbers technique
The technique is intended to evaluateshort-term visual memory , its volume and accuracy.
The task is that the subjects are shown for 20 seconds a table with twelve two-digit numbers, which must be remembered and, after the table is removed, written down on a form.
Instructions: “You will be presented with a table with numbers. Your task is to remember as many numbers as possible in 20 seconds. After 20 sec. the table will be removed, and you will have to write down the numbers that you remember.”
Assessment of short-term visual memory was based on the number of correctly reproduced numbers.
The norm for an adult is 7 and above. The technique is convenient for group testing.
5.Methodology “Evaluation of operational visual memory”
The child’s operational visual memory and its indicators can be determined using the following procedure. The child sequentially, for 15 seconds. each, task cards are offered, presented in the form of six differently shaded triangles. After viewing the next card, it is removed and instead a matrix is offered, including 24 different triangles, among which are the six triangles that the child just saw on a separate card. The task is to find and correctly indicate in the matrix all six triangles depicted on a separate card.
Errors are considered triangles that are incorrectly indicated in the matrix or those that the child could not find for any reason.
In practice, to obtain this indicator proceed as follows. Using all four cards, the number of triangles correctly found on the matrix is determined and their total sum is divided by 4. This will be the average number of correctly indicated triangles. This number is then subtracted from 6, and the result obtained is considered the average number of errors made.
Then the average time the child worked on the task is determined, which in turn is obtained by dividing the total total time the child worked on all four cards by 4.
The end of the child’s time working on finding triangles in the general matrix is determined by the experimenter by asking the child: “Have you already done everything you could?” As soon as the child answers affirmatively to this question and practically stops searching for triangles in the matrix, he is considered to have completed his work. Dividing the average time a child spends searching on a matrix of six triangles by the number of errors made allows us to finally obtain the required indicator.
In order to speed up the process of obtaining information about whether the child found the required triangles in the matrix correctly or incorrectly, it is recommended to use their identification by numbers, which are located in the lower left corner under each of the triangles in the matrix. So, for example, the first set of six triangles (the number of the set is indicated by the Roman numeral located below it) in the matrix corresponds to triangles with the following numbers: 1, 8, 12, 14, 16; the second set – 2, 7, 15, 18, 19, 21; third set 4, 6, 10, 11, 17, 24; the fourth set is 5, 9, 13, 20, 22, 23.
Cards with triangles presented to a child in a method for assessing visual operative memory.
Matrix for searching (recognizing) exposed cards with triangles in the method of assessing visual operative memory.
6. Methodology “Evaluation of operational auditory memory”
This type of memory is tested in a manner similar to those previously described. To the child at intervals of 1 second. The following four sets of words are read alternately:
month, tree, jump, yellow, doll, bag
carpet, glass, swim, heavy, book, apple
fork, sofa, joke, brave, coat, telephone
school, person, sleep red, notebook, flower
After listening to each set of words, the subject, approximately 5 seconds after finishing reading the set, begins, slowly, the next set of 36 words with an interval of 5 seconds between individual words:
glass, school, fork, button, carpet, month, chair, man,
sofa, cow, TV, tree, bird, sleep, brave, joke,
red, swan, picture, heavy, swim, ball, yellow, house,
jump, notebook, coat, book, flower, phone, apple, doll,
bag, horse, lie, elephant.
This set of 36 words contains in random order the listening words from all four sets noted above. To better identify them, they are underlined in different ways, and each set of 6 words has its own way of underlining. Thus, words from the first small set are underlined with a solid single line, words from the second set with a solid double line, words from the third set with a dotted pair line, and, finally, words from the fourth set with a double dotted line. The child must auditorily detect in the long set those words that were just presented to him in the corresponding small set. The child is given 5 seconds to search for each word in a large set. If during this time he could not identify it, then the experimenter reads the next word and so on.
Evaluation of results: the indicator of operational auditory memory is determined as the quotient of dividing the average time spent on identifying 6 words in a large set (for this, the total time the child worked on the task is divided by four), by the average number and errors made. Errors are considered to be all words that are indicated incorrectly, or words that the child could not find in the allotted time, i.e. missed it.
7. Study of mediated memorization
Purpose of the study: Determine the influence of a system of aids on the memory of specific concepts.
Material and equipment: sets of test words for memorization, research protocol, paper for recording, pen, stopwatch.
Research procedure . The study consists of two experiments and is carried out with one subject.
Experience No. 1. The task of the first experiment: to determine the memory capacity of the subject when memorizing verbal material that does not provide for a predetermined system of connections.
The experiment uses the classical method of retaining members of a series. The experimental material consists of 20 unrelated simple words consisting of 4-6 letters. The subject is given the task of remembering the words presented and, on command, reproducing them on notepaper. The experimenter must read the words clearly and quickly with pauses of 2 s. After finishing reading in 10 s. the subject is asked to reproduce aloud or write down on paper the remembered words in any order. The experimenter marks in his protocol those words that are reproduced correctly. Erroneously reproduced words are recorded in a note. The study protocol is as follows.
Subject:
Experimenter:
Date of:
Experience time:
Experience 1
№ /n wordsPresented
Reproduced
Note
Verbal report of the subject on memorizing and reproducing words
Experimenter's Observations
...
...
...
20.
Instructions to the subject : “I will read you a series of words, listen to me carefully and try to remember them. When I finish reading the words and say “Speak!”, name the words that you remember in the order in which you remember them. Attention! Let's start !"
Words to remember in experiment 1:
1. Fish
2. Pound
3. Bow
4. Leg
5. Hay
6. Power
7. Fire
8. Jacket
9. Bread
10. Scoop
11. Squirrel
12. Sand
13. Teeth
14. Window
15. Handle
16. Stockings
17. Wolf
18. Factory
19. Lily
20. Pie
At the end of the experiment, the subject gives a verbal report on how he tried to remember the words. This report and the experimenter's observations are recorded in a protocol.
Experience No. 2. The task of the second experiment: to determine the memory capacity of the test subject when memorizing verbal material with a predetermined system of semantic connections.
The experiment uses the method of holding pairs of words. Just as in the first experiment, words consist of 4-6 letters. The test subject is given the task of listening to pairs of words and remembering the second words of each pair. The experimenter's reading interval for pairs of words is 2 s. After the experimenter finished reading the following pairs of words for memorization, after 10 s. he again reads the first words of each pair, and asks the subject to remember the second words of the same pair. In the protocol of the second experiment, correctly reproduced words are noted, and incorrect ones are recorded in a note.
Instructions to the subject : “I will tell you pairs of words. Listen to me carefully and try to remember the second words of each pair. When I finish reading these pairs, I will read the first words again, and you, in response to the named first word, answer with the memorized second word of the same pair. Attention "Get ready to listen and remember!"
Words to remember in experiment 2:
1. Chicken - egg
2. Coffee - cup
3. Table - chair
4. Earth - grass
5. Spoon - fork
6. Key - lock
7. Winter - snow
8. Cow - milk
9. Wine - glass
10. Stove - wood
11. Pen - paper
12. Law - decree
13. Gram - measure
14. Sun - summer
15. Tree - leaf
16. Glasses - newspaper
17. Shoes - shoes
18. Shelf - book
19. Head - hair
At the end of the experiment, the experimenter records in the protocol the verbal report of the subject and his observations about the features of memorizing words.
Processing the results
For each of the two experiments, the number of correctly reproduced words and the number of incorrect reproductions are counted. The data is entered into a summary table:
Words reproduced
Experience 1Experience 2
Right
wrong
Analysis of results. When analyzing the results of memorizing two experiments and comparing quantitative indicators, it is important to pay attention to the verbal reports of the subject and the observations of the experimenter.
If the subject’s memorization in the first experiment was immediate, then its volume will be within the range of 5-9 memorized words. But if he remembered more than 9 words, then he used some kind of mnemonic techniques and managed to come up with a certain system of connections in such a short interval that facilitated reproduction.
8. Methodology “Diagnostics of mediated memory”
The materials needed to carry out the technique are a sheet of paper and a pen. Before the examination begins, the child is told the following words: “Now I will tell you different words and sentences and then pause. During this pause, you will have to draw or write something on a piece of paper that will allow you to remember and then easily recall the words that I said. Try to make drawings or notes as quickly as possible, otherwise we will not have time to complete the entire task. There are quite a lot of words and expressions that need to be remembered.”
The following words and expressions are read to the child one after another:
House. Stick. Tree. Jump high. The sun is shining.
Cheerful man. Children play ball. The clock is standing.
The boat is floating on the river. The cat eats fish.
After reading each word or phrase to the child, the experimenter pauses for 20 seconds. At this time, the child must have time to draw something on the sheet of paper given to him that will later allow him to remember the necessary words and expressions. If the child did not complete the drawing within the allotted time, the experimenter interrupts him and reads out the next word or expression.
As soon as the experiment is completed, the psychologist asks the child, using the drawings or notes he made, to remember the words and expressions that were read to him.
Evaluation of results
For each word or phrase correctly reproduced from his own drawing or recording, the child receives 1 point. Correctly reproduced are considered not only those words and phrases that are literally restored from memory, but also those that are conveyed in other words, but exactly in meaning. Approximately correct reproduction is scored 0.5 points, and incorrect reproduction is scored 0 points. The maximum overall score that a child can receive in this technique is 10 points.
The child will receive such an assessment when he correctly remembers all words and expressions without exception. The minimum possible score is 0 points. It corresponds to the case if the child could not remember a single word from his drawings and notes or did not make a drawing or note for a single word.
Conclusions about the level of development
10 points - indirect auditory memory is very highly developed.
8-9 points - highly developed indirect auditory memory.
4-7 points - moderately developed indirect auditory memory.
2-3 points - poorly developed indirect auditory memory.
point - poorly developed indirect auditory memory.
9. Method “Memory for images”
Designed for learningfigurative memory . The technique is used in professional selection. The essence of the technique is that the subject is exposed to a table with 16 images for 20 seconds. The images must be memorized and reproduced on the form within 1 minute.
Instructions: “You will be presented with a table with images. Your task is to remember as many images as possible in 20 seconds. In 20s. the table will be removed, and you will have to sketch or write down verbally the images that you remember.”
Evaluation of results testing is carried out based on the number of correctly reproduced images.
The norm is 6 correct answers or more.
Table “Memory for images”
