Empirical and theoretical knowledge. Methods and essence of the empirical level of knowledge

Basic methods of scientific knowledge

The concept of method means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality. This is a system of principles, techniques, rules, requirements that must be followed in the process of cognition. Mastery of methods means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice. empirical natural history ecosystem

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually divided according to the degree of their generality, i.e., according to the breadth of applicability in the process scientific research.

1. General (or universal) methods, i.e. general philosophical. These methods characterize human thinking in general and are applicable in all spheres of human cognitive activity.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical.

The dialectical method is a method that studies the developing, changing reality. It recognizes the concreteness of truth and presupposes an accurate account of all the conditions in which the object of knowledge is located.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering the world as it is at the moment, i.e. without development.

2. General scientific methods characterize the course of knowledge in all sciences, that is, they have a very wide, interdisciplinary range of application.

There are two types of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the study of really existing, sensory objects. Only at this level of research do we deal with direct human interaction with the natural or social objects being studied. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, and graphs.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and “mental operations”. An object at this level of scientific knowledge can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. However, living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate aspect of the cognitive process. At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed by processing the data of empirical consciousness.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. Besides theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs) with which the empirical level of research deals.

3. Private scientific methods, i.e. methods are applicable only within the framework of individual sciences or the study of a specific phenomenon. Particular scientific methods may contain observations, measurements, inductive or deductive inferences, etc. Thus, specific scientific methods are not divorced from general scientific ones. They are closely related to them and include the specific application of general scientific cognitive techniques for studying a specific area of the objective world. At the same time, particular scientific methods are also connected with the general, dialectical method.

Knowledge begins with observation. Observation is a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on such human sensory abilities as sensation, perception, and representation. This is the original method empirical knowledge, allowing you to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

- purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the stated research problem, and the observer’s attention should be fixed only on phenomena related to this task);
- systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);
- activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience, using various technical means of observation).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. With the help of description, sensory information is translated into the language of concepts, signs, diagrams, drawings, graphs and numbers, thereby taking a form convenient for further, rational processing. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct (properties, aspects of an object are reflected, perceived by human senses), and indirect (carried out using certain technical means).

Experiment

An experiment is an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of a researcher on the object being studied to identify and study certain aspects, properties, connections. In this case, the experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions studying it, interfering with natural history processes. Science experiment presupposes the presence of a clearly formulated research goal. The experiment is based on some initial theoretical principles and requires a certain level of development of the technical means of cognition necessary for its implementation. And finally, it must be carried out by people who are sufficiently qualified.

There are several types of experiments:

1) laboratory, 2) natural, 3) research (make it possible to discover new, unknown properties in an object), 4) testing (serve to test and confirm certain theoretical constructs),
5) isolating, 6) qualitative (they only allow one to identify the effect of certain factors on the phenomenon being studied), 7) quantitative (they establish precise quantitative dependencies), etc.

Measurement and comparison

Scientific experiments and observations usually involve making a variety of measurements. Measurement is a process that involves determining the quantitative values of certain properties, aspects of the object or phenomenon under study using special technical devices.

The measurement operation is based on comparison. To make a comparison, you need to determine the units of measurement. Measurements are divided into static and dynamic. Static measurements include the measurement of body sizes, constant pressure, etc. Examples of dynamic measurements are the measurement of vibration, pulsating pressure, etc.

Methods of theoretical knowledge

Abstraction consists of mental abstraction from some less significant properties, aspects, features of the object being studied while simultaneously highlighting and forming one or more essential aspects, properties, features of this object. The result obtained during the abstraction process is called abstraction. Moving from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, theoretical, the researcher gets the opportunity to better understand the object being studied and reveal its essence.

Idealization. Thought experiment

Idealization is the mental introduction certain changes into the object being studied in accordance with the objectives of the research. As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, or features of objects may be excluded from consideration. Thus, a widespread idealization in mechanics is material point implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient when describing the movement of a wide variety of material objects from atoms and molecules to planets solar system. When idealized, an object can be endowed with some special properties that are not realizable in reality. It is advisable to use idealization in cases where it is necessary to exclude certain properties of an object that obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it. A complex object is presented in a “purified” form, which makes it easier to study.

A thought experiment involves operating with an idealized object, which consists in the mental selection of certain positions and situations that make it possible to detect some important features of the object under study. Any real experiment, before being carried out in practice, is first carried out by the researcher mentally in the process of thinking and planning.

1. Empirical level of scientific knowledge.

Sensual and rational are the main level components of any knowledge, not only scientific. However, in the course of the historical development of knowledge, levels are identified and formalized that are significantly different from the simple distinction between the sensory and the rational, although they have the rational and the sensory as their basis. Such levels of cognition and knowledge, especially in relation to developed science, are the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical level of knowledge, science, is a level that is associated with the acquisition of knowledge through special procedures of observation and experiment, which is then subjected to a certain rational processing and recorded using a certain, often artificial, language. Data from observation and experiment, as the main scientific forms of direct research into the phenomena of reality, then act as the empirical basis from which theoretical research proceeds. Observations and experiments now take place in all sciences, including the social and human sciences.

The main form of knowledge at the empirical level is a fact, a scientific fact, factual knowledge, which is the result of primary processing and systematization of observational and experimental data. The basis of modern empirical knowledge is the facts of everyday consciousness and the facts of science. In this case, facts must be understood not as statements about something, not as certain units of “expression” of knowledge, but as special elements of knowledge itself.

2. Theoretical level of research. The nature of scientific concepts.

The theoretical level of knowledge and science is associated with the fact that an object is represented on it from the side of its connections and patterns, obtained not only and not so much in experience, during observations and experiments, but already in the course of an autonomous thought process, through the use and construction of special abstractions , as well as arbitrary constructions of reason and reason as hypothetical elements with the help of which the space of comprehension of the essence of the phenomena of reality is filled.

In the field of theoretical knowledge, constructions (idealizations) appear in which knowledge can go far beyond the limits of sensory experience, observational and experimental data, and even come into sharp contradiction with direct sensory data.

The contradictions between the theoretical and empirical levels of knowledge have an objective dialectical nature; in themselves they do not refute either empirical or theoretical positions. The decision in favor of one or the other depends only on the progress of further research and verification of their results in practice, in particular, by means of the observations and experiments themselves, applied on the basis of new theoretical concepts. In this case, the most important role is played by such a form of knowledge and cognition as a hypothesis.

3. The formation of scientific theory and the growth of theoretical knowledge.

The following scientific historical types of knowledge are known.

1. Early scientific type knowledge.

This type of knowledge opens the era of systematic development of scientific knowledge. In it, on the one hand, traces of the natural philosophical and scholastic types of knowledge that preceded it are still clearly visible, and on the other, the emergence of fundamentally new elements that sharply contrast scientific types of knowledge with pre-scientific ones. Most often, this boundary of this type of knowledge, separating it from previous ones, is drawn at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries.

The early scientific type of knowledge is associated, first of all, with a new quality of knowledge. The main type of knowledge is experimental knowledge, factual knowledge. This created normal conditions for the development of theoretical knowledge - scientific theoretical knowledge.

2. Classical stage of cognition.

It took place from the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. From this stage, science develops as a continuous disciplinary and at the same time professional tradition, critically regulating all its internal processes. Here a theory appears in the full sense of the word - I. Newton's theory of mechanics, which for almost two centuries remained the only scientific theory with which all the theoretical elements of natural science, and social cognition as well, were correlated.

The most significant changes, compared to early science, occurred in the field of knowledge. Knowledge becomes theoretical in the modern sense of the word, or almost modern, which was a huge step in overcoming the traditional gap between theoretical problems and the empirical approach.

3. Modern scientific type of knowledge.

This type science continues to dominate today, at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. In modern science, the quality of objects of knowledge has radically changed. The integrity of the object, the subjects of individual sciences, and the subject of scientific knowledge itself was finally revealed. Fundamental changes are taking place in the means modern science. Its empirical level takes on a completely different form; observation and experiment have become almost completely controlled by theoretical (advanced) knowledge, on the other hand, by knowledge about the observed.

Cultures are also called forms of social consciousness. Each of these forms has its own subject, distinguished from the general conglomerate of culture, and its own specific way of functioning. Philosophy enters a person’s life very early, long before the very first, elementary idea about it, inspired by chance meetings and acquaintances, is formed. Philosophy is being introduced into our...

Nowadays, it is also a regulatory methodological principle of the biological sciences, which sets ways for them to introduce their ideal objects, explanatory schemes and research methods, and at the same time a new paradigm of culture, which allows us to comprehend the relationship of humanity with nature, the unity of natural science and humanities knowledge. The co-evolutionary strategy sets new prospects for the organization of knowledge...

And they guide each other. Any preponderance towards one of them inevitably leads to degeneration. An uncultured life is barbarism; lifeless culture - Byzantinism." 2. Analysis of the relationship between history and culture In the old days, especially in ancient era, conditions public life changed slowly. Therefore, history was presented to people as a kaleidoscope of repeating events. From the century...

But if in medieval philosophy consciousness was by definition mystical, then in modern times all mystical-religious content is eliminated from its content. 6. Violence and non-violence in the history of culture. Representatives of ethical philosophy believe that a person is neither good nor evil. Human nature is such that a person is equally capable of good and evil. As part of this...

Theoretical methods of cognition are what is commonly called “cold reason.” A mind skilled in theoretical research. Why is that? Remember the famous phrase of Sherlock Holmes: “And from here on, please speak in as much detail as possible!” At the stage of this phrase and the subsequent story of Helen Stoner, the famous detective initiates the preliminary stage - sensory (empirical) knowledge.

By the way, this episode gives us the basis for comparing two degrees of knowledge: only primary (empirical) and primary together with secondary (theoretical). Conan Doyle does this through the images of his two main characters.

How does retired military doctor Watson react to the girl’s story? He gets fixated on the emotional stage, having decided in advance that the story of the unfortunate stepdaughter is caused by her unmotivated suspicion of her stepfather.

Two stages of the method of cognition

Helen Holmes listens to her speech in a completely different way. He first perceives verbal information by ear. However, the empirical information obtained in this way is not the final product for him; he needs it as raw material for subsequent intellectual processing.

Skillfully using theoretical methods of cognition to process every bit of information received (not one of which escaped his attention), the classic literary character seeks to resolve the mystery of the crime. Moreover, he applies theoretical methods with brilliance, with analytical sophistication that fascinates readers. With their help, internal hidden connections are found and the patterns that resolve the situation are determined.

What is the nature of theoretical methods of cognition

We deliberately turned to literary example. With his help, we hope our story began not impersonally.

It should be recognized that science at its modern level has become the main driving force of progress precisely thanks to its “toolkit” - research methods. All of them, as we have already mentioned, are divided into two large groups: empirical and theoretical. A common feature Both groups have a stated goal - true knowledge. They differ in their approach to knowledge. At the same time, scientists practicing empirical methods are called practitioners, and theoretical ones are called theorists.

Let us also note that often the results of empirical and theoretical studies do not coincide with each other. This is the reason for the existence of two groups of methods.

Empirical (from Greek word“empirios” - observation) are characterized by purposeful, organized perception, specific task research and subject area. In them, scientists use optimal forms of recording results.

The theoretical level of cognition is characterized by the processing of empirical information using data formalization techniques and specific information processing techniques.

For a scientist practicing theoretical methods of cognition, the ability to use creatively, as a tool in demand by the optimal method, is of paramount importance.

Empirical and theoretical methods have common generic characteristics:

the fundamental role of various forms of thinking: concepts, theories, laws;
for any of the theoretical methods, the source of primary information is empirical knowledge;
in the future, the obtained data is subject to analytical processing using a special conceptual apparatus, information processing technology provided for them;
The goal for which theoretical methods of cognition are used is the synthesis of inferences and conclusions, the development of concepts and judgments as a result of which new knowledge is born.

Thus, at the primary stage of the process, the scientist receives sensory information using methods of empirical cognition:

observation (passive, non-interventional monitoring of phenomena and processes);
experiment (fixation of the process under artificially specified initial conditions);
measurements (determining the ratio of the determined parameter to a generally accepted standard);
comparison (associative perception of one process compared to another).

Theory as a result of knowledge

What kind of feedback coordinates the methods of theoretical and empirical levels of cognition? Feedback when testing the truth of theories. At the theoretical stage, based on the received sensory information, the key problem is formulated. To resolve it, hypotheses are drawn up. The most optimal and well-developed ones develop into theories.

The reliability of a theory is checked by its compliance with objective facts (data of sensory cognition) and scientific facts (reliable knowledge, verified many times before for truth.) For such adequacy, the selection of an optimal theoretical method of cognition is important. It is he who must ensure maximum compliance of the fragment being studied with objective reality and the analytical presentation of its results.

Concepts of method and theory. Their commonalities and differences

Properly chosen methods provide the “moment of truth” in knowledge: the development of a hypothesis into a theory. Having been updated, general scientific methods of theoretical knowledge are filled with the necessary facts precisely in the developed theory of knowledge, becoming its integral part.

If we artificially isolate such a perfectly working method from a ready-made, generally accepted theory, then, having examined it separately, we will find that it has acquired new properties.

On the one hand, it is filled with special knowledge (by incorporating the ideas of the current research), and on the other, it acquires general generic features of relatively homogeneous objects of study. This is precisely what expresses the dialectical relationship between the method and the theory of scientific knowledge.

The commonality of their nature is tested for relevance throughout the entire period of their existence. The first one acquires the function organizational regulation, prescribing to the scientist a formal order of manipulations to achieve the goals of the study. Being used by a scientist, methods of the theoretical level of knowledge take the object of study beyond the existing previous theory.

The difference between method and theory is expressed in the fact that they represent different forms of knowledge of scientific knowledge.

If the second expresses the essence, laws of existence, conditions of development, internal connections of the object under study, then the first orients the researcher, dictating to him “ road map cognition": requirements, principles of subject-transforming and cognitive activity.

It can be said in another way: theoretical methods of scientific knowledge are addressed directly to the researcher, appropriately regulating his thought process, directing the process of obtaining new knowledge in the most rational direction.

Their importance in the development of science led to the creation of its separate branch, which describes the theoretical tools of the researcher, called methodology based on epistemological principles (epistemology - the science of knowledge).

List of theoretical methods of cognition

It is well known that theoretical methods knowledge include the following options:

modeling;
formalization;
analysis;
synthesis;
abstraction;
induction;
deduction;
idealization.

Of course, the qualifications of the scientist are important in the practical effectiveness of each of them. Knowledgeable specialist, having analyzed the main methods of theoretical knowledge, will select the necessary one from their totality. It is he who will play a key role in the effectiveness of cognition itself.

Modeling method example

In March 1945, under the auspices of the Ballistic Laboratory (USAF), the operating principles of the PC were outlined. This was a classic example of scientific knowledge. A group of physicists, reinforced by the famous mathematician John von Neumann, took part in the research. A native of Hungary, he was the principal analyst for this study.

The above-mentioned scientist used the modeling method as a research tool.

Initially, all devices of the future PC - arithmetic-logical, memory, control device, input and output devices - existed verbally, in the form of axioms formulated by Neumann.

Empirical data physical research the mathematician put it in the form of a mathematical model. Subsequently, the researcher studied it, and not its prototype. Having received the result, Neumann “translated” it into the language of physics. By the way, the thought process demonstrated by the Hungarian made a great impression on the physicists themselves, as evidenced by their reviews.

Note that it would be more accurate to give this method the name “modeling and formalization.” It is not enough to create the model itself; it is equally important to formalize the internal connections of the object through a coding language. After all, this is exactly how a computer model should be interpreted.

Today, such computer modeling, which is carried out using special mathematical programs, is quite common. It is widely used in economics, physics, biology, automotive industry, and radio electronics.

Modern computer modeling

The computer simulation method involves the following steps:

definition of the modeled object, formalization of the installation for modeling;
drawing up a plan for computer experiments with the model;
analysis of the results.

There are simulation and analytical modeling. Modeling and formalization are a universal tool.

The simulation displays the functioning of the system when it sequentially performs a huge number of elementary operations. Analytical modeling describes the nature of an object using differential control systems that have a solution that reflects the ideal state of the object.

In addition to mathematics, they also distinguish:

conceptual modeling (through symbols, operations between them, and languages, formal or natural);
physical modeling (object and model - real objects or phenomena);
structural and functional (graphs, diagrams, tables are used as a model).

Abstraction

The abstraction method helps to understand the essence of the issue under study and resolve very complex tasks. It allows you to discard everything unimportant and focus on the fundamental details.

For example, if we turn to kinematics, it becomes obvious that researchers use this particular method. Thus, it was initially identified as primary, straightforward and uniform motion(with such abstraction it was possible to isolate the basic parameters of movement: time, distance, speed.)

This method always involves some generalization.

By the way, the opposite theoretical method of cognition is called concretization. Using it to study changes in speed, the researchers came up with a definition of acceleration.

Analogy

The analogy method is used to formulate fundamentally new ideas by finding analogues of phenomena or objects (in this case, analogues are both ideal and real objects that have an adequate correspondence to the phenomena or objects being studied.)

An example of the effective use of analogy can be well-known discoveries. Charles Darwin, taking as a basis the evolutionary concept of the struggle for the livelihood of the poor with the rich, created evolutionary theory. Niels Bohr, relying on the planetary structure of the Solar system, substantiated the concept of the orbital structure of the atom. J. Maxwell and F. Huygens created the theory of wave electromagnetic vibrations, using, as an analogue, the theory of wave mechanical vibrations.

The analogy method becomes relevant if the following conditions are met:

as many essential features as possible should resemble each other;
a sufficiently large sample of known traits must be truly related to the unknown trait;
analogy should not be interpreted as identical similarity;
It is also necessary to consider the fundamental differences between the subject of study and its analogue.

Note that this method is most often and fruitfully used by economists.

Analysis - synthesis

Analysis and synthesis find their application both in scientific research and in ordinary mental activity.

The first is the process of mentally (most often) breaking down the object under study into its components for a more complete study of each of them. However, the analysis stage is followed by a synthesis stage, when the studied components are combined together. In this case, all properties identified during their analysis are taken into account and then their relationships and methods of communication are determined.

The integrated use of analysis and synthesis is characteristic of theoretical knowledge. It is these methods in their unity and opposition German philosopher Hegel laid the basis for dialectics, which, in his words, “is the soul of all scientific knowledge.”

Induction and deduction

When the term “methods of analysis” is used, it most often refers to deduction and induction. These are logical methods.

Deduction presupposes a course of reasoning that follows from the general to the particular. It allows us to identify certain consequences from the general content of the hypothesis that can be substantiated empirically. Thus, deduction is characterized by the establishment of a common connection.

Sherlock Holmes, mentioned at the beginning of this article, very clearly substantiated his deductive method in the story “The Land of Crimson Clouds”: “Life is an endless connection of causes and effects. Therefore, we can understand it by examining one link after another.” The famous detective collected as much information as possible, choosing the most significant from many versions.

Continuing to characterize methods of analysis, let us characterize induction. This is the formulation of a general conclusion from a series of particulars (from the particular to the general.) A distinction is made between complete and incomplete induction. Complete induction is characterized by the development of a theory, while incomplete induction is characterized by the development of a hypothesis. The hypothesis, as is known, should be updated by proving it. Only after this does it become a theory. Induction, as a method of analysis, is widely used in philosophy, economics, medicine, and law.

Idealization

Often the theory of scientific knowledge uses ideal concepts that do not exist in reality. Researchers endow non-natural objects with special, limiting properties that are possible only in “limiting” cases. Examples include a straight line, a material point, and an ideal gas. Thus, science distinguishes from the objective world certain objects that are completely amenable to scientific description, devoid of secondary properties.

The idealization method, in particular, was used by Galileo, who noticed that if you remove all external forces, affecting a moving object, it will continue to move indefinitely, rectilinearly and uniformly.

Thus, idealization makes it possible in theory to obtain a result that is unattainable in reality.

However, in reality, for this case, the researcher takes into account: the height of the falling object above sea level, the latitude of the point of impact, the impact of wind, air density, etc.

Training of methodological scientists as the most important task of education

Today, the role of universities in training specialists who are creatively proficient in the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge is becoming obvious. At the same time, as evidenced by the experience of Stanford, Harvard, Yale and Columbia universities, they are assigned a leading role in the development latest technologies. Perhaps this is why their graduates are in demand in knowledge-intensive companies, the share of which has a constant tendency to increase.

An important role in the training of researchers is played by:

flexibility of the education program;
the opportunity for individual training for the most talented students capable of becoming promising young scientists.

At the same time, the specialization of people developing human knowledge in the field of IT, engineering, production, mathematical modeling presupposes the presence of teachers with up-to-date qualifications.

Conclusion

The examples of theoretical knowledge methods mentioned in the article provide general idea O creative work scientists. Their activity boils down to the formation of a scientific representation of the world.

It, in a narrower, special sense, consists in the skillful use of a certain scientific method.
The researcher summarizes empirical verified facts, puts forward and tests scientific hypotheses, and formulates a scientific theory that advances human knowledge from a statement of the known to an awareness of the previously unknown.

Sometimes the ability of scientists to use theoretical scientific methods is like magic. Even after centuries, no one doubts the genius of Leonardo da Vinci, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein.

Empirical knowledge is primary scientific knowledge, which is obtained upon contact with the object being studied. Empiria (lat.) – experience.

On negative experience(mistakes) learn.

Empirical knowledge is descriptive.

Science, 3 functions: description, explanation and prediction.

Empirical level: there is no explanation, but it can be predicted (if we see that copper expands when heated, then we can predict that other metals too).

Methods of obtaining knowledge: empirical research is carried out through observation, experiment and measurement.

Observation is present not only during real contact with an object, but also in our imagination (sign observation - reading, mathematics).

First, observation precedes cognition, we formulate the problem. We can make a hypothesis. The observation at the end of the study is a test of our theory.

The structure of observation includes: object, observer, observation conditions, devices (tools), basic knowledge.

Scientific observation requires recording of all phenomena (so that the scientist can check).

Observations: direct (the object is accessible) and indirect (the object is not accessible, only its traces, etc., that it left are available).

Approbation (lat.) – approval (it does not come from the word “test”).

Measurement: direct (measurement of length), indirect (time, temperature; temperature is the energy of movement of molecules).

Measurement in science is carried out many times. Since all quantities will be different in measurement. Each specific result is an average value (the error is also considered).

An experiment is an active influence on an object. Task: search (we don’t know what will happen) or testing an already existing hypothesis.

Empirical knowledge has the logical form of a concept. When we connect two empirical concepts or phenomena, we get a law (the larger the volume, the lower the pressure, etc.).

Empirical knowledge is the first and last scientific knowledge (Comte, Mach, this is the opinion of the positivists). Theoretical knowledge does not contain new knowledge, in their opinion.

But a scientist cannot be an empiricist, since he uses language (and language is abstract, it uses concepts that cannot be touched).

A fact is almost the same as a theory (both are one knowledge). The fact needs interpretation. The interpretation of a fact gives meaning to it. A fact always has many interpretations.

The structure of the fact: what we experience (psychological component); what we expressed (linguistic component); the event itself.

Facts, role in science: source and verification. Facts must confirm knowledge. Post-positivism (Poper): a fact cannot confirm, but it can refute a theory.

Locator: any scientific knowledge is an assumption (it cannot be refuted or confirmed). The goal is to replace old assumptions (guesses) with new ones. And we “guess” that the new ones are better than the old ones.

Scientific knowledge is a complex developing system in which, as evolution progresses, new levels of organization arise. They have a reverse impact on previously established levels of knowledge and transform them. In this process, new techniques and methods are constantly emerging. theoretical research, the strategy of scientific research is changing.

There are two types of organization of knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Accordingly, two types of cognitive procedures that generate this knowledge can be distinguished.

Turning to the philosophical aspect of this issue, it is necessary to note such philosophers of the New Time as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that we derive all our knowledge from experience and sensations.

The difference between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge concerns the means of research, the specifics of methods and the nature of the subject of research.

Let us consider the means of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Empirical research is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object being studied. It involves making observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations and other means of real observation and experiment.

In theoretical research, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one.

In addition to the tools that are associated with the organization of experiments and observations, conceptual tools are also used in empirical research. They function as a special language, often called the empirical language of science. It has a complex organization in which the actual empirical terms and the terms of the theoretical language interact.

The meaning of empirical terms is special abstractions that could be called empirical objects. They must be distinguished from objects of reality. Empirical objects are abstractions that actually highlight a certain set of properties and relationships of things. Real objects are represented in empirical cognition in the image of ideal objects that have a strictly fixed and limited set of characteristics. A real object has an infinite number of attributes.

As for theoretical knowledge, other research tools are used in it. There are no means of material, practical interaction with the object being studied. But the language of theoretical research also differs from the language of empirical descriptions. It is based on theoretical terms, the meaning of which is theoretical ideal objects.

The features of the means and methods of the two levels of scientific knowledge are associated with the specifics of the subject of empirical and theoretical research. At each of these levels, a researcher can deal with the same objective reality, but he studies it in different subject sections, in different aspects, and therefore its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given differently. Empirical research is fundamentally focused on studying phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet identified in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appearing through their concrete shell.

At the level of theoretical knowledge, essential connections are identified in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws to which this object is subject. The task of the theory is precisely to divide this complex network of laws into components, then to recreate their interaction step by step and thus reveal the essence of the object.

The empirical and theoretical levels differ in research methods. With the help of empirical research methods, the accumulation, recording, generalization and systematization of experimental data, their statistical and inductive processing are carried out, while with the help of theoretical ones, the laws of science and theories are formed.

Empirical research methods include observation, comparison, measurement and experiment; theoretical methods include analogy, idealization, formalization, etc.

Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, providing primary material for scientific research. Focus - most important characteristic observations. By concentrating attention on an object, the observer relies on some knowledge he has about it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of the observation. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of the object repeatedly and in different conditions, systematicity, eliminating gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

Requirements for scientific observations:

Clear statement of the purpose of observation;
- choice of methodology and development of a plan;
- consistency;
- control over the reliability and correctness of observation results;
- processing, comprehension and interpretation of the resulting data array;
- As a method of scientific knowledge, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.

Comparison and measurement play an important role in cognition. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. If objects are compared with an object that acts as a standard, then such a comparison is called measurement.

The most complex and effective method of empirical knowledge is experiment, based on other empirical methods. An experiment is a method of studying an object, in which the researcher (experimenter) actively influences the object, creates artificial conditions necessary to identify certain of its properties. An experiment involves the use of certain means: devices, instruments, experimental installations, is characterized by an active influence on the object, and can be repeated as many times as required to obtain reliable results.

There are two types of experimental problems:

A research experiment that involves searching for unknown dependencies between several parameters of an object;
- a verification experiment, which is used when it is necessary to confirm or refute certain consequences of a theory.

In an experiment, as a rule, devices are used - artificial or natural material systems, the principles of which are well known to us. Those. within the framework of our experiment, our knowledge and some theoretical ideas already appear in material form. Without them, experimentation is impossible, at least within the framework of science. Any attempt to separate experiment from the theory of knowledge makes it impossible to understand its nature, to understand its essence.

Experiments and observational data.

The difference between observational data and empirical facts as special types of empirical knowledge was recorded in the positivist philosophy of science of the 30s. At this time, there was a rather intense discussion regarding what could serve as the empirical basis of science. At first it was assumed that they were the direct results of experience - observational data. In the language of science, they are expressed in the form of special statements - entries in observation protocols, the so-called protocol sentences.

The observation protocol indicates who observed, the time of observation, and describes the devices if they were used in the observation.

Analysis of the meaning of protocol sentences showed that they contain not only information about the phenomena being studied, but also, as a rule, include observer errors, layers of external disturbing influences, systematic and random errors of instruments, etc. But then it became obvious that these observations, due to the fact that they are burdened with subjective layers, cannot serve as the basis for theoretical constructions.

During the discussions, it was established that such knowledge is empirical facts. They form the empirical basis on which scientific theories are based.

The very nature of fact-recording statements emphasizes their special objective status in comparison with protocol sentences. But then a new problem arises: how is the transition from observational data to empirical facts accomplished and what guarantees the objective status of a scientific fact?

Scientific knowledge has 2 levels: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level cognition is associated with the subject of scientific research, includes 2 components - sensory experience (sensation, perception, idea) and their primary theoretical understanding.

Empirical cognition is characterized by fact-recording activity.

Theoretical level consists in further processing of empirical material. Theoretical knowledge is essential knowledge carried out at the level of high-order abstractions.

Positions of empiricism: in the foreground - the role of sensation, direct observations in cognition and denial of the role of theoretical thinking. The position of rationalism: in the 1st plane is the activity of the mind, ascribes to it the role of unity of the power of knowledge and ignoring the meaning of sensory knowledge.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by direct exploration of real-life, sensory-perceptible objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) stage of cognition. At this level, the scientist operates only with theoretical (ideal, symbolic) objects. Also at this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, and patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed. Theoretical level – a higher level in scientific knowledge

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones include: problem, hypothesis and theory.

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that arose in the course of cognition and requires an answer. solutions.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems), for example, the problem of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution to a specific problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, as well as new problems, certain conceptual ideas, including hypotheses, are put forward.

Hypothesis - a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification and justification. In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, clarified and specified, turning into delusions if the test gives a negative result.

The decisive test of the truth of a hypothesis is practice (the logical criterion of truth plays a supporting role in this case). A tested and proven hypothesis becomes a reliable truth and becomes a scientific theory.

Theory - the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and significant connections of a certain area of reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton’s classical mechanics, Darwin’s evolutionary theory, Einstein’s theory of relativity, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.

In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only when people are convinced of its truth. Without transforming an idea into a personal conviction, a person’s faith, successful practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.

General methods of understanding reality include: induction, deduction, analogy, comparison, generalization, abstraction, etc.

Specific methods of theoretical knowledge in science include: idealization, interpretation, thought experiment, machine computational experiment, axiomatic method and genetic method of theory construction, etc.

In scientific knowledge, for example, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used. Abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (at the same time abstracting from a number of individual properties, characteristics of these objects) and combining them into special group. An example is the grouping of the entire set of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by isolating certain properties and relationships that are inextricably linked with objects of the material world into independent entities (“stability” ", "solubility", "electrical conductivity", etc.).

The formation of scientific abstractions and general theoretical principles is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of deeper, more comprehensive knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of research will be qualitatively different compared to that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension) are fundamentally different from each other

Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Cognition - this is a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding the world around us and oneself in this world. “Knowledge is, determined primarily by socio-historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion, and improvement

A person comprehends the world around him, masters it in various ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished. The first (genetically original) is material and technical - the production of means of subsistence, labor, practice. The second is spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relationship of subject and object is only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms. Each form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. correspond to specific forms of cognition. Usually the following are distinguished: ordinary, playful, mythological, artistic and figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. The latter, although connected, are not identical to one another; each of them has its own specifics. We will not dwell on the consideration of each of the forms of knowledge. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.

Analysis - mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - combining the elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “every form of energy is converted into heat.”

Abstraction (idealization) - mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction - the process of deriving a general position from observing a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction - the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general provisions. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.

In the history of natural science, there have been attempts to absolutize the meaning in science of the inductive method (F. Bacon) or the deductive method (R. Descartes), to give them universal meaning. However, these methods cannot be used as separate methods, isolated from each other. each of them is used at a certain stage of the cognition process.

Analogy - a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling - reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models. photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.

Classification - distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.

One of the first classifications in natural science was the classification of flora and fauna by the outstanding Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). For representatives of living nature, he established a certain gradation: class, order, genus, species, variation.