Words are the building materials for any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts and communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. called a function. The suitability of a word for communication and transmission of thoughts is called its
Thus, the word is the basic, main structural unit of language.
Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.
Lexical is the relationship between the sound (phonetic) design of a word, its sound, and phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. It can be said more simply: this is the meaning. From a lexical point of view, the words “barrel”, “bump”, “point” are different units because they mean various items.
Grammatical meaning words are the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words “barrel” and “dot” are considered grammatically, then they will be absolutely the same: creatures. feminine, standing in the nominative case and singular. number.
If you compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, you can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, but the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: “son”, “sonny”, “sonny”, “sonny”).
The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed using word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, “forest”, “forester”, “forester” will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root “forest”. From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.
On the contrary, the words “came”, “arrived”, “ran up”, “ran up”, “flew off”, “shot down” will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed using the suffix “l”.
The following conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, general meaning a whole series of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. “Mom”, “Dad”, “Motherland” - creatures. 1 declension, in the form I.p., singular. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" are feminine nouns. gender, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words “red”, “huge”, “wooden” indicates that these are adjectives in the form husband. kind, singular numbers, I.p. It is clear that lexical meaning these words are different.
The grammatical meaning of the word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), is expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed using function words, stress, word order or intonation.
Its appearance (name) directly depends on how the form is formed.
Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within a unit (with the help of endings or formative suffixes). Case forms(no) mothers, daughters, sons, Motherland are formed using endings. the verbs “wrote”, “jumped” - using the suffix and the verb “jumped” - using the suffix “l” and the ending “a”.
Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for function words. For example, the verbs “I will sing” and “let us sing” are formed using function words (verbs). The words "will" and "let's" in in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create, in the first case, the future tense, and in the second, the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.
Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, etc.
Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.
For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken off from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” (a girl’s braid), and also “a river bank of a special shape” (I went for a swim on the braid) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (to sharpen a braid well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.
The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.
If the main component of the lexical meaning is, as a rule, contained in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny,” the noun has the following: nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is common noun, inanimate.
If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word “morning”, then you will probably clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.
If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose words that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage. syntactic constructions(and suggestions).
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Sources:
- lexical meaning is
At morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of a given part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.
You will need
- - table of forms of participles.
Instructions
Try to put full communion in short form. With the passive this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles short form Dont Have. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to the archaic style.
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note
Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or state is constant sign of this item. These can be both active and passive participles - a walking excavator, canned peas, etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.
Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.
The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. On the first line write "Signs", " Active participle", "Passive participle". The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, the presence or absence of a short form.
Sources:
- what is the type of participles in 2019
A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.
Instructions
The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendships and inclinations should be. romantic relationship. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.
According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.
Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.
It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on various areas cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.
You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous websites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.
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- how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019
Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words Slavic origin and borrowed ones have to be guided completely different criteria.
You will need
- - Internet access;
- - manuals on the Russian language.
Instructions
Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative case). Highlight the ending. A noun belongs to the masculine gender if (wind, computer) or “a”, “ya” (Sasha, uncle). The feminine gender has the endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) and the sign (night, stove). Neuter gender ends with “o”, “e”, but there is a group of indeclinable neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word
MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR
Subject of morphology
Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of study of which is grammatical meaning and forms of expression of this meaning. If at the level of syntax the forms of expression of grammatical meaning are phrases and sentences, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e. individual forms of a specific word (table, table, table etc.).
Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, and determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.
Morphology also includes the study of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.
Thus, the subject of morphology is grammar classes words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and rules of their inflection.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), necessary mainly to connect the given word with other words in the text.
The lexical meaning of a word is specific and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.
The indicator of the lexical meaning in a word is the stem of the word, and the grammatical meaning has special indicators: ending (window- O, beautiful- th, growth ut), formative suffix, prefix (a game- l, white- her, With-do), emphasis (neg e shut up- cut A t), phoneme alternation (sl. ah at- sl cool it), function word (will play, O coat) and etc.
Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I'm reading- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective, indicative, present tense, etc.
Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. General grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, a feature of an object - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).
The general grammatical meaning of a word consists of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of the particular grammatical meanings of gender, number and case. In other words, if a word has meanings of gender, number and case independent of the words combined with it, then it has the meaning of objectivity and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.
The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).
Grammatical form is defined as regular modifications of a word that have different grammatical meanings. For example, shape 1 person unit. Part of the present tense I write, I read, I see or past tense plural form. h. wrote, read, saw.
In morphology, the term grammatical form can be used in two ways. Firstly, the grammatical form can be understood as an abstract pattern in abstraction from concrete words: the adjective form singular. h., feminine, I. p. This form can be represented in different words: red, wooden, boring.
Another use of the term is in the meaning of the form of a specific word: form I.p. units noun back. For terminological differentiation, the concept is introduced word forms. Word form – a specific word in any grammatical form: in the garden is a word form of the word garden.
Several points are distinguished in the content of the word form. Firstly, the lexical meaning is distinguished, and secondly, the word-formative (or derivational) meaning, which, on the one hand, participates in the formation of the lexical meaning, and on the other hand, carries information about the part-verbal affiliation of the word. For example, in the word teacher the word-formation meaning of a person is expressed by a suffix –tel, which also signals that the word is a noun. Thirdly, grammatical relational meanings are distinguished in a word, which are expressed either by inflection (ending) or in other ways (see below). For example, in the word teacher grammatical meanings of gender, number, and case are expressed with a zero ending.
Compare: lexical meaning relational meaning
Teacher + tel + Sh
derivational
Meaning
grammatical meaning
Grammatical meanings are contrasted with lexical ones in the way they express meanings: grammatical meanings have regular expression in the form of affixes, sometimes the roots themselves (the phenomenon of suppletivism), repetitions (reduplication), non-segmental units, function words or combinations of independent words. Lexical meanings lack such regular expression.
Grammatical meanings are abstract in nature and inherent in a number of words, not just one word. The abstract nature of grammatical meanings is manifested, in particular, in such examples where the meaning of objectivity - the part-verbal characteristic of nouns - is found in words whose roots express action - move, run. The grammatical meaning is repeated in a number of words, the lexical meaning is individual.
Let's take a closer look at ways of expressing grammatical meanings. There are different synthetic and analytical methods. In the synthetic (simple) method, grammatical meanings are expressed through morphemes - relational, formative and even root. In the analytical (complex) method, grammatical meaning is expressed by a combination of words - significant and auxiliary or significant and significant, as well as reduplication, word order and intonation.
Examples of relational affixes are: DOLL A-DOLL
RED – RED – RED, HODILS - WALKED A - WALKED,
where inflections express the meaning of gender and number. Formative affixes are used, for example, to express meanings of the past tense - I WENT, I SAW.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed by different roots, this method is called suppletivism: good is better, bad is worse, I am to me. In addition to the mentioned synthetic methods, internal inflection and stress are also used. Internal inflection is a grammatical device represented by the alternation of phonemes (historical or grammatical), which serves to express grammatical meanings: in English language tooth (teeth) - teeth (tooth), man (man) - men (men). Stress serves as the only means of distinguishing singular forms. h. R. p. and many others. ch. i. p. for words pbrusa - sail, lega - lugb.
Analytical methods, which are a combination of two words, significant and auxiliary, are observed in the examples: I will write, I would write. In the example I walked, you walked, he walked The category of a person is expressed by separate independent words - pronouns. Another means of expressing grammatical meanings is reduplication. This phenomenon consists of the repetition of either a syllable, or a root, or an entire word. For example, barely, just a little. In some languages, reduplication is quite common. For example, in individual languages African reduplication is a means of expressing the plural; in the Indo-European proto-language, reduplication was used to express the meaning of duration in verbal stems. Different intonation distinguishes sentences with the meaning of question and motivation: Right? - To the right! In examples two hours And two hours word order affects the expression of the meaning of specific and approximate time.
Word forms of one word constitute a paradigm. Paradigms can be complete and partial, complete and incomplete. The paradigms of many words turn out to be very complex. For example, the case paradigm of a noun consists of singular and plural case word forms. Case forms, united by the grammatical meaning of the singular or the meaning of the plural, are partial paradigms within the complete paradigm. A complete paradigm can consist of two, three, four or more partial paradigms. For example, a complete adjective paradigm consists of at least five quotients. The paradigm of a word may lack any particular paradigm. For example, collective nouns do not have plural forms. Such paradigms are called incomplete.
Grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical meaning, therefore it characterizes only some certain word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucratism (M.) with a wolf expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case (the meaning of the comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.
For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and an ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. Thus, nouns have 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects different techniques highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, feather indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate plural, big is masculine, big is feminine, and big is neuter, the shape big does not indicate gender.
3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This required condition to highlight a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the contrast between transitional and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and functional parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.
Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are not included in the number of either independent or auxiliary parts of speech; they constitute a special grammatical place words Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.
Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.
Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words morphological feature Changeability-immutability is distinguished, on the one hand, by names and a verb, on the other - by an adverb and a category of state.
The last two categories - adverbs and state category - are different syntactic function(adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, the category of state serves as a predicate impersonal offer: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), as well as the fact that, unlike adverbs, words of the category of state are able to control (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, to slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).
Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles participate in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].