On October 28, 1940, Greece entered the Second world war. On this day, a massive invasion of the Italian army began on Greek territory. By the time of the events in question, Italy had already managed to occupy Albania, so Italian troops attacked Greece from Albanian territory. Benito Mussolini laid claim to the southern Balkan territories and considered the entire Adriatic coast and Greece as the natural possessions of the Italian Empire.
By the time hostilities began, Greece was certainly losing to Italy militarily. But this makes resistance Greek army has not become any less bitter. In the very first days of the Italo-Greek War, Italian troops were opposed by the border units of the Greek army, which were reinforced by five infantry and one cavalry divisions. At this time, the commander-in-chief of the Greek armed forces was General Alexandros Leonidou Papagos (1883-1955). He was already a middle-aged man, fifty-seven years old. Papagos had almost forty years of military service behind him. He received his military education at the Belgian Military Academy in Brussels, as well as at the cavalry school in Ypres. In 1906, he began serving in the Greek army as an officer. At the time of the outbreak of the First Balkan War, Papagos was an officer of the General Staff, but in 1917, after the abolition of the monarchy, Papagos, as a man of monarchical convictions, was dismissed from the ranks of the armed forces. Then he was reinstated in the service, performed well during the Greco-Turkish War in Asia Minor, then was dismissed again. In 1927, Papagos was reinstated into military service. By 1934 he had risen to the rank of corps commander, and in 1935-1936. served as Minister of Defense of Greece. In 1936-1940 General Papagos was the Chief of the General Staff of the Greek Armed Forces. It was he who exercised direct command of the Greek army during the Italo-Greek War of 1940-1941.
The Italian army, which invaded Greek territory, operated in Epirus and Western Macedonia. However, on the orders of General Papagos, the Greeks offered serious resistance to the Italians. The Italian command sent the elite 3rd Alpine Division "Julia", numbering 11,000 soldiers and officers, to capture the Pinda ridge, in order to cut off the Greek troops in Epirus from Western Macedonia. She was opposed only by a brigade of the Greek army numbering 2,000 soldiers and officers. The brigade was commanded by Colonel Konstantinos Davakis (1897-1943) - one of the most interesting figures in the Greek armed forces and, moreover, in world military science. A native of the Greek village of Kehrianika, Konstantinos Davakis graduated from officer school in 1916, at the age of nineteen, and began serving in the Greek army with the rank of junior lieutenant. A little later, he received higher military education at the Athens Military Academy, and then in France, where he received training as a tank officer.
During World War I, Davakis served on the Macedonian front, where he was gassed. Davakis's bravery contributed to his rapid advancement in military service. Already in 1918, at the age of 21 and just two years after graduating from college, Davakis received the rank of captain. A real military officer, he distinguished himself during the Greco-Turkish War, participating in the Asia Minor campaign of the Greek army. After the Battle of Alpanos Heights he was awarded the "Golden Distinction for Bravery". In 1922-1937 Davakis continued to serve in the armed forces, combining alternating command of military units and scientific and teaching work. He managed to serve as chief of staff of the 2nd division and 1st army corps, taught at a military school, wrote a number of scientific works on military history and tactics of armored forces. In 1931, Davakis received the rank of lieutenant colonel, but in 1937, only forty years old, a promising commander resigned. This was facilitated by deteriorating health due to injuries and wounds received in numerous battles.
Nevertheless, Davakis continued to engage in military science. In particular, he put forward the idea of using tanks to break through the defense line and then pursue the enemy. According to Davakis, tanks and armored vehicles had a clear advantage against fortified defensive lines and helped the infantry advance. Modern historians consider Greek Colonel Konstantinos Davakis one of the founders of the concept of using motorized infantry formations.
When in August 1940 it was already clear that fascist Italy would sooner or later launch an attack on Greece, a partial military mobilization was carried out in the country. Forty-three-year-old Davakis (pictured) was also called up from the reserves. Remembering his front-line services, the command appointed the colonel to the post of commander of the 51st Infantry Regiment. Then, to defend the Pindus ridge, the Pindus brigade was formed, consisting of several infantry, cavalry and artillery units and subunits. 
The brigade included two infantry battalions transferred from the 51st Infantry Regiment, a cavalry detachment, an artillery battery, and several smaller units. The headquarters of the Pindus Brigade was located in the village of Eptakhorion. Colonel Konstantinos Davakis was appointed commander of the Pindus brigade. The general command of the border troops concentrated on the border of Greece with Albania was exercised by General Vasilios Vrahnos. After the Italian army began its invasion of Greece on October 28, 1940, it was the border troops concentrated in Epirus that first met it.
The much more numerous and well-armed Italian division “Giulia” was thrown against the Pindus brigade. Colonel Davakis was responsible for 35 kilometers of the front line. He expected more powerful reinforcements from the Greek army, so he switched to defensive tactics. However, two days after the Italian attack, on November 1, 1940, Colonel Davakis, at the head of the brigade's forces, launched a brave counterattack against the Italian troops. The Julia Division was forced to retreat. During the next battle near the village of Drosopigi, the colonel was seriously wounded in the chest. When one of the officers ran up to him, Davakis ordered to consider himself dead and not to be distracted by his own salvation, but to engage in defense. Only when the colonel lost consciousness was he loaded onto a stretcher and transported to Eptakhori, where the headquarters of the Pindus Brigade was located. Two days later, Davakis came to his senses, but felt unwell. The officer had to move to the rear. He was replaced as brigade commander by Major Ioannis Karavias.
The victory of the Pindus Brigade over the Italian Giulia Division was one of the first examples of brilliant action against the armed forces of the Axis countries. So little Greece showed the whole world that the descendants of the heroic three hundred Spartans are always ready to fight with those who would encroach on the independence of the country. Military historians are convinced that one of the main reasons for the victory of the Davakis brigade was the tactical mistake of the Italian division commander. The colonel was able to instantly recognize this error and quickly respond to it. As a result of the actions of Davakis, the units of the Greek army that arrived in time were able to not only repel the onslaught of the Italians, but also endure fighting to the territory of neighboring Albania. For fascist Italy this was a serious blow. In December 1940, the offensive of the Greek army continued. The Greeks occupied the key cities of Epirus - Korcha and Gjirokastra. At the same time, General Papagos expressed fears that sooner or later Nazi Germany would enter the war on the side of Italy. Therefore, he proposed not to retreat under any circumstances, but to undertake a further offensive, without giving the Italian troops a moment of rest. Lieutenant General Ioannis Pitsikas, commander of the Epirus Army of the Greek Armed Forces, proposed organizing an attack on the Klisura crossing, which was of strategic importance.
The operation to seize control of the Klisura crossing began on January 6, 1941. Its development and implementation was led by the headquarters of the 2nd Army Corps, which sent the 1st and 11th infantry divisions to the Klisura crossing. Despite the fact that the tanks of the 131st Centaur Tank Division went on the offensive from the Italian side, the Greek troops managed to destroy the Italian tanks with artillery fire. As a result of four days of fighting, Greek troops occupied the Klisura pass. Naturally, the Italians immediately launched a counterattack. The 7th Infantry Division “Wolves of Tuscany” and the “Giulia” mountaineering brigade were sent to the Greek positions. They were opposed by only four Greek battalions, but the Italians were again defeated. On January 11, the “Wolves of Tuscany” division was completely defeated, after which the Klisura passage was completely under the control of Greek troops. The capture of the Klisura gorge was another impressive victory for the Greek army in this war. The Greeks continued the offensive, which was stopped only on January 25 - and then due to worsening weather. Still, winter in the mountains turns out to be a serious obstacle even for the most brave warriors.
The Italian command did not want to put up with the defeats from the Greek army that entered the system. Moreover, this dealt a severe blow to the pride of Benito Mussolini himself, who considered himself a great conqueror. In March 1941, the Italian army again launched a counteroffensive, trying to regain the positions captured by Greek troops. This time, Benito Mussolini himself observed the progress of the hostilities, hastily arriving in the Albanian capital Tirana. But the presence of the Duce did not help the Italian troops. The Italian spring offensive, under which name this operation entered world military history, after a week of fighting ended in a new complete defeat of the Italian troops. During the Italian Spring Offensive, a new example of the heroism of Greek soldiers was the feat of the ΙΙ/5 Infantry Battalion, which defended Hill 731 on Albanian territory. The battalion was commanded by Major Dimitrios Kaslas (1901-1966). Kaslas was a typical example of a person from the lower classes - a peasant son who worked in a bakery in his youth and graduated from evening school; he entered military service, at the age of 23 he passed the exams for the officer rank and became a junior lieutenant. However, promotion was difficult and in 1940, at the start of the war, Kaslas was still a captain and only then was promoted to major for his distinction in battle. Despite the fact that Italian troops attacked the heights 18 times, they were invariably defeated and retreated back. The battle at height 731 went down in world history as “New Thermopylae”.
The complete failure of the Italian Spring Offensive confused all the cards of the Axis leadership. Adolf Hitler was forced to come to the aid of his ally. On April 6, 1941, German troops launched an attack on Greek territory from Bulgaria. They managed to get through the southern Yugoslav lands to the rear of the Greek troops fighting in Albania against the Italians. On April 20, 1941, Lieutenant General Georgios Tsolakoglu, commander of the Western Macedonian Army, signed an act of surrender, although this was a direct violation of the order of the Greek commander-in-chief Papagos. After the capitulation, the German-Italian-Bulgarian occupation of Greece began. But even under conditions of occupation, Greek patriots continued the armed struggle against the occupiers. Most of the officers and soldiers of the Greek army never went over to the side of the collaborators.
The fates of the main participants in the Italo-Greek War developed differently. The most tragic was the fate of the real hero - Colonel Konstantinos Davakis. While Konstantinos Davakis was being treated in the hospital for his injury, the troops of Nazi Germany arrived to the aid of the Italian army, which was suffering more and more defeats from the Greek troops. Superior enemy forces managed to occupy Greece, although the partisan resistance of Greek patriots continued until the end of World War II. The occupiers began mass purges. First of all, all potentially unreliable elements were arrested, including patriotic officers and former officers of the Greek army. Of course, Colonel Davakis was among those arrested. In the city of Patras, the prisoners were loaded onto the ship "Cita di Genova" and were going to be sent to Italy, where the officers were supposed to be placed in concentration camp. But on the way to the Apennines, the ship was torpedoed by a British submarine, after which it sank off the coast of Albania. Near the city of Avlona (Vlora), the body of Konstantinos Davakis was thrown out to sea. The dead colonel was identified by local Greeks, who buried him nearby. After the war, the body of Konstantinos Davakis was reburied with honor in Athens - the colonel is still revered as one of the most outstanding national heroes of Greece during the Second World War.
The hero of New Thermopylae, Major Dimitrios Kaslas (pictured), remained alive and began to participate in the Greek Resistance. Initially, he served in the pro-English EDES forces, but was then captured by the communists from ELAS and went over to their side. He commanded the 52nd ELAS Infantry Regiment and took part in battles against the invaders. After the war, from 1945 to 1948, he was in exile - as a member of ELAS, but then was amnestied and retired from the Greek army with the rank of lieutenant colonel - in recognition of his front-line services. Kaslas died in 1966.
General Alexandros Papagos received the rank of stratarch in 1949 - the Greek equivalent of the marshal rank, and until 1951 he was commander-in-chief of the Greek army, and from 1952 to 1955. served as Prime Minister of Greece. General Ioannis Pitsikas was captured by the Nazis and sent to a concentration camp. In 1945, he was liberated from Dachau by American troops who arrived in time. After his release, he retired with the rank of lieutenant general, some time later he was mayor of Athens and minister for Northern Greece, and died in 1975 at the age of 94. Collaborator General Tsolakoglu, after the liberation of Greece from the Nazis, was sentenced to death by a Greek court. Then the sentence was changed to life imprisonment, but already in 1948 Tsolakoglu died in prison from leukemia.
Aggravation of the conflict in the Balkans
At the beginning of 1940, the struggle for control of the Balkans between the countries of the Anti-Hitler coalition and the Axis gradually intensified. This territory was of exceptional importance in the plans of the warring parties.
Britannia. The state government planned to create a cover for its territorial possessions on the Balkan Peninsula. This territory was also considered as a source of human and raw material resources. For a long time Greece came under British influence.
The Third Reich planned to use the Balkan Peninsula as a springboard for the upcoming takeover of the USSR. The previously conquered territories of Denmark and Norway, as well as the signed union treaty with Finland, made it possible to block Soviet Union in a northwest direction. The government needed to occupy the Balkan Peninsula to create a southern flank and provide the entire army with food and necessary raw materials. The government planned to concentrate one of the largest army groups in this territory. The offensive was supposed to deal a serious blow to Ukraine and the Caucasus.
Yugoslavia and Türkiye maintained a position of neutrality.
Beginning of the Italo-Greek Wars
On October 15, 1940, a directive was developed in Italy, which spoke of an offensive in Greece. According to these data, Ioannina was supposed to receive a blow from Albanian troops, whose main goal was to break through the defenses of the Greek army. Italy planned to capture Epirus and attack Thessaloniki and Athens. The island of Corfu had to be captured using amphibious forces.
Invasion of Italian troops into Greek territory
On October 28, 1940, Italian armed forces landed in Greece. On the first day they received weak resistance from border guard units. However, Greek soldiers working undercover, reinforced by 5 infantry and a cavalry division, did not allow the interventionists to move. On November 1, army commander A. Papagos gave the order to launch a counterattack on the enemy’s unprotected left flank. After 2 days of prolonged fighting, the Italian army had to return to the Albanian Peninsula. The invasion was suppressed.
Actions of the Axis powers
In March 1941, a revolutionary coup took place in Yugoslavia. Due to the complications of the political situation, the German authorities were forced to look for opportunities to quickly implement plans in relation to the Balkans. It was decided to immediately change the methods of political pressure and pressure to an openly aggressive policy.
Invasion of the aggressor army into the territories of Greece and Yugoslavia
The hostilities taking place in Greece have ended complete defeat British armies. British, Australian and New Zealand troops were quickly evacuated. The number of military personnel removed was approximately 80% of all forces previously sent to Greece. This operation, the purpose of which was to conquer the Balkan Peninsula, was called “Marita”.
Results and consequences of the invasion
The aggressive policy of the German government towards Greece had dire consequences.
In May 1941, the entire territory of Greece came under Nazi occupation. The interventionists were given the opportunity to control the most significant regions of the state - Athens and Thessaloniki. The rest of the territory was received by German satellites - Bulgaria and fascist Italy.
Large casualties among the civilian population. More than 30,000 civilians died of starvation in Athens and repression. The economic condition of Greece was undermined. Almost the entire army was evacuated to the lands of the Middle East. German soldiers carried out several demonstration executions, during which about 2,000 people died. Total Greek losses in World War II exceeded 200,000 inhabitants.
Formation of the Greek Resistance. This movement was one of the most effective in all of Europe. The resistance carried out guerrilla operations and worked to create a global spy network.
Genocide of the Jewish population
More than 12,000 Jews fought in the Greek army. Their most famous representative was Mordechai Frizis, who is credited with resisting the Italian interventionists. The consequences of the aggressive genocide of the Third Reich were the murder of 86% of the Jews, despite the fact that the Greek Orthodox Church and the majority of the Greeks tried to protect them.
In July 1942, Jews received an order to prepare for deportation to concentration camps in Germany. For the purpose of release, the community paid a contribution of 2.5 million drachmas. However, it was possible to postpone the deportation only until March. About 45,000 Jews were sent to Auschwitz. Those people who were able to return witnessed the dire consequences of the genocide - the destruction of Jewish schools and synagogues. This event was called the Holocaust and is one of the most brutal acts against humanity in history.
Economic situation
After the occupation, the state's economy remained completely destroyed. Agriculture was the most damaged, and foreign trade relations, two of the most important aspects of the Greek economic system, suffered. Numerous compensations, the payment of which the occupiers demanded, caused inflation in the market. In 1944, inflation processes in Greece reached their peak - the 100 billion drachma banknote became considered the most valuable. Barter exchange remained one of the most common methods of trade throughout the occupation period.
Resistance
In order to repel the intervention troops, a people's liberation army was created in Greece. This military system planned to accomplish the following objectives.
The fight against Bulgarian, Italian and German occupation in the country.
Resistance to Greek Nazism, as well as collaborator am.
The People's Liberation Army was able to not depend on anyone in its actions and carry out operations without the help of allies. In fact, it was thanks to this military force that the future liberation of Greece was realized. Notable leaders included individuals such as Yiannis Ritsos, Yiannis Xenakos and Al Demi. Underground organizations emerged en masse, most of which preached monarchical and pro-Western views.
Consequences
It is unknown how the history of World War II would have ended for Greece if it had not been for the development of military operations in other theaters. The offensive of the Soviet troops, the overthrow of the fascist regime in Italy - these events significantly undermined the military power of the Third Reich. Despite the imperfection of British warfare, Greece was liberated thanks to a global guerrilla movement.
Of course, the importance of Greece during the Second World War remains underestimated in our time. Considering the fact that Greece took the blow of the German army and repelled it for 2 months, we can safely say that this significantly undermined the military power of Germany and did not allow the Nazis to realize their plans for the USSR.
GOVERNMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY
"HIGH SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS"
Faculty of History
Department of Social History
"Greece in World War II:
from the war with Italy to the Civil War"
Essay by a 1st year undergraduate student of group No.
for a university-wide elective
"Russia and America: the Balkan Knot"
Moscow 2013
The Second World War is considered the worst war in human history. It radically changed the course of humanity and the path of its development, giving rise to new trends in politics, culture and other spheres of society. It brought with it colossal destruction that the world could only remove in our time. The war, which lasted 6 long years and took millions of lives, engulfed the whole world. Each state of that time felt the blow of the war to a greater or lesser extent.
Among these states is Greece, which experienced many of the horrors of that war. This and how she lived and fought in those years will be discussed in my essay.
The state of Greece gained its independence in 1830 after the long Greek revolution against the Ottoman yoke from 1821 to 1830. At the same time, the first president and prime minister were elected. Later, Greece was turned into a monarchy. But even after this, the Greeks continued to fight against their former enslavers in other wars for the remaining territories that were in the territory of Hellas. This was one of the points of the policy for the creation of Greater Hellas, developed by prominent Greek nationalists. The Balkan War, in which Greece was victorious along with Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro, brought these plans closer to completion than ever before (the island of Crete was annexed). But the First World War was ahead, where the Greeks would enter into battle with the Bulgarians, who were in the Triple Alliance...
After the First World War, Greece, as an ally of the Entente, was among the victors. She entered it quite late, in 1917, having suffered small losses by war standards (about 5,000 people during the entire war), fighting on the Balkan and Thessaloniki fronts. According to the Peace of Neuilly, Greece received almost the entire part of the province of Thrace, i.e. now the territorial composition of Greece included its modern borders. But Greece, as the winner, also received part of Izmir in the Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey. This event could not but cause a flurry of indignation in Turkey. In addition, a difficult political situation has developed in both countries. In Greece, King Alexander dies in 1919; in Turkey, power changes under the leadership of Kemal Pasha. The Greco-Turkish war is coming, where only the peoples who had recovered from the horrors of the world war again took up the barrels of weapons.
In this war, the Greeks counted on combat support from their former allies, but they never received it. Due to the unsuccessful tactics of the Greek commanders and the skillful leadership of the Turkish troops by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the Greeks suffered a significant defeat. Carrying out weak attacks, the Greek command abandoned Greek soldiers to certain death. As a result, in 1921, Ataturk’s army took the Greek city of Smyrna and carried out a terrible massacre in which about 60,000 people died.
As a result, the Greeks were forced to make peace with the Turks due to the depletion of the resources of the Greek army and the inability to continue military operations. In October 1922, the Peace of Mudan was signed, according to which Eastern Thrace and Adrianople, lost to Turkey in 1918, were returned to Turkey. This caused a revolt in the Greek army, during which King Constantine of Greece was removed from the throne, and Prime Minister Gounaris and former commander-in-chief Hadzimanestis were declared responsible for the defeat and were executed. The monarchy was soon abolished in 1924 after the accession of George II to the throne and the Republic of Greece was proclaimed. Only 10 years later, when fascist monarchists led by General Metaxas came to power in elections in 1935, the monarchy was restored and George returned from emigration from London.
Greece tried to behave calmly in world politics, tried to build relationships with former enemies. This was done in order to avoid new military conflicts with states stronger than it. Exhausted by previous wars, she tried to increase her well-being through the competent management of the economy of abstinence in solving global problems.
But gradually the world situation became more and more turbulent... In 1933, with A. Hitler coming to power in Germany, the Third Reich was formed, which gradually began to pursue an imperial policy. Not long ago, the fascist regime of Mussolini was formed in Italy. It was also not known for being a friendly neighborhood. The Duce sought to revive the spirit of the Roman Empire. To do this, he intended to subjugate the territories of the Mediterranean coast, thereby controlling the Mediterranean Sea - “Nostra Mare”, as Benito saw it. To this end, he formed a military alliance with Germany, counting on assistance in his actions.
After this there was the Italo-Ethiopian War, where Italy was able to avenge the defeat in the first Italo-Abyssinian War (gg.) and subjugate the territory of Abyssinia, Eritrea and part of Somalia. Then came the Anschluss of Austria Nazi Germany in 1938, the occupation of the Sudetenland in the same year, which seriously frightened the world community. And the following year, 1939, World War II began with the invasion of Poland. But before that, on April 7, fascist Italy carried out an anemic operation to occupy the territory of Albania, when, as a result, King Zogu I of Albania fled to Greece, and King Emmanuel III of Italy became the supreme ruler. Thus, Greece stood in the way of the Italians in implementing the “Nostra Mare” plan in Europe. But Greece did not yet realize this. However, Italy's annexation of Albania in 1939 was one of the factors that led France and Britain to provide guarantees of assistance to Greece in the event of violations of their sovereignty.
Meanwhile, Germany was fighting a great war with its allies in Western Europe. Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg fell, France also fell under the “German boot”, Denmark and Norway were also captured. In total, almost all European states that did not have a neutrality pact were captured. Italy, with its Albania, and nothing more, had nothing to boast about, so the Duce undertook to launch an offensive from Albania to Greek territories as soon as possible.
The Third Reich also had its eyes on Greece, and the Balkans in general, so that it intended to begin the upcoming offensive against the Soviet Union with them. The main forces were to be located in Yugoslavia, from where an attack on Ukraine and the Caucasus would be launched through Romania. So Hitler supported Mussolini's future aggression against the Greeks. The final decision on the invasion was made on October 15, 1940.
On October 28, 1940, Italian troops in the region of Epirus and Western Macedonia crossed the Greek border. The Italian command had large manpower numbers of more than 550 thousand against the Greek 300; on military equipment was big advantage Italians. However, the Greeks barely managed to hold off the Italian attack with small forces. The Greeks' excellent knowledge of the area, the carelessness of the Italian military leaders and the praiseworthy Greek courage played a role in this. The division of Colonel Konstantinos Davakis especially distinguished itself by holding back the 11,000-strong Julia mountaineering division with a force of 2,000 men in November 1941 near the city of Pindus in northern Greece.
In January, Greek troops went on the offensive in the region of Northern Epirus, in the Permeti district. From January 6 to 11, the so-called “occupation of the Klisura gorge” lasted, when the Greeks began to advance to the Albanian border, and ultimately success was achieved. In addition, promised assistance from Great Britain began to arrive, bringing cargo in the form of aircraft and weapons. Mussolini was beside himself with rage at the current situation at the front. He appointed a new commander of the Italian forces (instead of Ubaldo Soddu, Duce's favorite Hugo Cavaliero was appointed. But this reshuffle did not change things.
Having launched a spring offensive in March to drive out the Greeks who had occupied the southern part of Albania, the Italians suffered a great defeat from the Greek units of General Alexandros Papagos, considered the main military leader of the Greek troops at that time. Personal observation of the progress of Benito Mussolini’s offensive did not help either. One failed attack on Hill 731 cost Italy 3,000 lives. In the end, Cavaliero suggested that the Duce stop the offensive. The Duce was forced to agree. Realizing that he could no longer break the high fighting spirit of the Greeks on his own, Mussolini was forced to resort to asking Germany for help.
The Third Reich was just preparing for the invasion of the USSR, but was forced to help its allies in the current situation, as the Greeks advanced to the strategically important airfield in Vleri.
The German offensive, together with the Italians, began on April 6, 1941. At the same time, Romanian and Bulgarian units moved to Yugoslavia. The operation to conquer the Balkans was called "Marita".
An English expedition arrived to help the Greeks, exhausted by the long war. corps from Egypt, which had with it two infantry divisions and 9 aviation squadrons. Greece also created two divisions to repel the Nazi invaders: “Eastern Macedonia” and “Central Macedonia”. On April 3, a meeting of the allied forces of Great Britain, Greece, and Yugoslavia was called to develop a plan for future resistance. But, unfortunately, despite having different points of view, the commands were unable to agree. This played a fatal role in the Greek operation.
German troops, encountering weak resistance, marched rapidly from north to south of Greece and in just over a month they were able to reach Athens and capture mainland Greece and its islands. The Italian army, as before, met fierce resistance from the Greeks and British. On April 12, the Greeks were driven out of the territory of southern Albania, and on April 23, German troops took Athens. King George II and his family were evacuated to Crete, the only Greek territory not occupied by the Axis countries. On April 30, Parliamentary power passed into the hands of the Axis protege, General Tsolakoglu, and the country was headed by Reich Plenipotentiary Representative Gunther Alterbung. Greece was divided into three occupation zones: German (northeastern Greece), Italian (islands on the west coast) and Bulgarian (territory of Thrace).
The Greeks and the British had no choice but to defend Crete, where the royal family of Greece was located. A limited contingent of the British fleet, sent to help the Greeks, was based on it. Therefore, the allies had to hold him at all costs. The Germans pursued the goal of completing the capture of Greece and establishing control over it.
On May 20, 1941, the Cretan operation, called “Mercury,” began. It was the very first and largest operation airborne troops Wehrmacht in the war. It was led by Colonel General Karl Student, and the Allied forces were commanded by New Zealand Lieutenant General Bernard Freyberg.
The German paratroopers, thanks to a well-coordinated strategy and numbers, were able to initially turn the result in their favor. British troops could do virtually nothing against the oncoming enemy force, and eventually, after 11 days of resistance, Great Britain was forced to surrender Crete to Germany. She suffered heavy losses from the troops provided to Greece. The Greek army, which remained after the attack of Italy and Germany on the mainland, simply ceased to exist after Operation Mercury. Thus, the German army completely broke the strong Greek spirit that helped the Greeks in the fight against the Italians. And Greece itself plunged into three years of “German order.”
But the fight was not completely over. Many Greeks joined the partisans and continued to fight guerrilla warfare with the occupiers. In September 1941 it was created underground organization"People's Republican Greek Power". It was led by former Greek army officer Napoleon Zervas. She pursued pro-Western and monarchist ideas, considered the British her main ally and advocated for the restoration of the monarchical system. Later, in December, the Greek People's Liberation Army was created, the core of which was the Communist Party of Greece. The two organizations hated each other primarily because of their different political opinions. The result was a similar situation to the NOLA made by the communists and Chetnik-monarchists. They had different political views and great hatred for each other, but they had one common enemy. However, the communists in both places accused “right-wing” organizations of collaboration. Be that as it may, they carried out successful operations together against the invaders.
It is also worth mentioning the 13th Light Bomber Squadron, which consisted of Greek pilots who served the British Crown and fought in the Middle East, Italy and Greece. These pilots flew the British Avro Anson aircraft and served the Royal Air Force well during the war.
It is not surprising that, knowing this, the occupiers undertook acts of intimidation of the local population. During the three years of “Axis rule,” many terrible events occurred in Greece.
One can recall the incident in the city of Doksato in September 1942, when, after communist activities and an attack on a police station where 7 Bulgarian soldiers were killed, the Bulgarian command brought out the entire male population over 14 years of age to be shot.
Also indicative are the executions of civilians by the Germans in Kerdilia in October 1941 after a local partisan detachment"Odysseus Androutsos" attacked the local police station. Then the Germans shot about 230 people.
There are also known bloody cases in Kalavriata, Distomo and Paramitya, where the Wehrmacht ordered the execution of the local population for aiding the partisans. In total, about 2,000 people died. Thus, the German command suppressed the desire in the local population to help the partisans.
The Holocaust in Greece deserves a separate topic. During the war with Italy, 13 thousand Jews fought on the Greek side. Lieutenant Colonel Mordechai Frizis received special honors. He commanded a Greek platoon and died on the battlefield in December 1940. After the Axis occupation of Greece, Jews were subjected to mass deportation. About 45,000 Jews went to Auschwitz during the years of occupation. Most of them died there. During the release of Fr. Corfu, the German command undertook the mass deportation of Jews from the island. But out of 1900, two hundred managed to escape, where they were sheltered by the local population. The Greek Holocaust is one of the terrible events in Greek history.
One thing is also known war crime over former allies who rebelled against the German commandant. On September 23, 1943, the Acqui regiment, consisting of 3,000 Italian soldiers who rose up against their partners in arms and killed several German soldiers, was destroyed. Their commander, Garobbio, planned to defect to the Allied side and wage war against the Germans. For this they were all arrested, and then the decision to shoot them followed. It was destroyed in the province of Kefalonia.
It is unknown how long this nightmare would have continued if not for the development of the war on other fronts. The Germans were defeated in the Stalingrad Cauldron, and Soviet troops went on the offensive. Later, Allied troops landed in Italy and the fascist regime was overthrown. Thus, Italy, which entered into an alliance with the allies, lost its possessions in Greece in the west and the Dodecanese Islands. The British command decided to take advantage of this situation, thereby seizing a springboard for a future invasion of the Balkans. On September 8, the Dodecanese operation began, during which British troops took one island after another. Unfortunately, the matter stalled at Fr. Rhodes, where large forces of German infantry and landing forces were able to recapture the island, and then reconquered the islands for themselves in two months. On November 23, 1943, the British command admitted defeat.
But the partisan movement in Greece did not sleep... It was so massive that the German commandants could not cope with it with any force. Even the fate of being shot did not frighten the Greek population, who went into the partisan underground. In 1944, the strength of the NOAG reached 120 thousand people, which was a great force. The activities of the "People's Republican Greek League" were also extensive - about 14 thousand people. There is no doubt that their actions could not but lead to final defeat Nazi invaders. Abundantly supported by the British command in terms of weapons, they fought a successful fight. In the end she was successful. In November, German troops were expelled from Greek territory, and the collaborationist government led by Ioannis Rallis () was overthrown, he himself was sentenced to life imprisonment.
Thus, the Nazi yoke that weighed on Greece lasted three terrible years. The Greek economy, which was already weak, was completely destroyed over these years. The drachma exchange rate “fell into a great abyss” of cheapness (if before the war the most large bill was in denomination of 25,000 drachmas, then during the war it was equal to the colossal figure of 100 billion drachmas). Greece lost 200,000 people during the war. These include both civilians and military personnel. The monarchy was returned again, but later a civil war broke out between the communists and the National United Greek League, where the latter won.
Until now, Greece's participation in World War II has been underestimated in terms of the scale of that war. But it is worth remembering that if Greece had not taken the blow of the German troops in April, or had it held out for two months under their blows, Germany could have invaded the USSR much earlier, and it would have been great if we would have been able to hold out and defeat it in the end. ..
Literature.
1. “One Hundred Great Wars”, “Veche”, 2001, 470 pp., M. - Ch. "The Greco-Turkish War(". Page 398-401.
2. Winston Churchill. “The Second World War.” (In 3 books).Book 1 .T.1-2 , M,: Military Publishing House, 1991- 592 pp. pp. 528-530, 535.
3. Galleazo Ciano. “Diaries of a Fascist”; M.: “Plats”, 2010- 688 pages
4. Hanson Baldwin. Chapter 3: Crete - invasion on wings. // Battles Lost and Won = Battles Lost and Won/ ed. Yu. Bem. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2002. - P. 78-148. - 624 s.
5. W. Churchill . The Second World War, translation from English, vol. 2, p. 117.
6. Solon Neokosmou Grigoriadis (S. N. Grigoriadis) Ιστορία της σύγχρονης Ελλάδας 1941-1974. - Athens: Polaris, 2009. - T. 1.
(1924-1935)
“Hitler always confronts me with a fait accompli. But this time I will repay him in kind: he will learn from the newspapers that I occupied Greece."
Italo-Greek War 1940
Invasion
Axis actions
Defeat of the Greco-British army
Retreat of the British contingent
At sea, the evacuation was led by Vice Admiral G. Pridham-Wippell (en: Sir Henry Daniel Pridham-Wippell), and on shore by Rear Admiral G. T. Bailey-Groman and army headquarters.
Final evacuation figures for the army:
A total of 50,662 people were removed, including British Royal Air Force personnel and several thousand Cypriot, Palestinian, Greek and Yugoslav residents. This represented about 80 percent of the force originally sent to Greece. 
Results of the invasion
By mid-May, Greece was completely occupied by the Nazis, who began to rule the most important regions of the country, including the cities of Athens and Thessaloniki. Other regions of the country were transferred to Germany's satellites: fascist Italy and Bulgaria (see maps). The collaborationist government of Greece was created immediately after the country's defeat.
The occupation led to dire consequences for the Greek civilian population. More than 30,000 civilians died in Athens from starvation, tens of thousands due to repression by the Nazis and collaborators; The country's economy was also destroyed. Most of the navy and part of the Greek army went into exile to the Middle East.
At the same time, the Greek Resistance was formed, one of the most effective resistance movements in occupied Europe. Resistance groups launched guerrilla attacks against the occupying forces, fought against collaborationist "security battalions" and created a large spy network, and at the end of 1943 they began to fight among themselves. When the country was liberated in October 1944 (largely due to the efforts of the local Resistance rather than the British troops landing during Operation Manna in September 1944), Greece was in a state of extreme political polarization, which soon led to the outbreak of civil war .
Terror and hunger
Jewish genocide
12,898 Greek Jews fought alongside the Greek army. One of the most famous representatives of the Jewish community was Lieutenant Colonel Mordechai Frizis (Μαρδοχαίος Φριζής), who successfully resisted the Italian invasion. 86% of Jews, especially in areas occupied by Germany and Bulgaria, were killed, despite the efforts of the Greek Orthodox Church and many Greeks to hide them. Even though a large number of Jews in the occupied territory were deported, many found shelter with their neighbors.
Resistance
Economy
As a result of the occupation in 1941-1944. The Greek economy was in ruins, and significant damage was caused to the country's foreign trade relations and agriculture - two of the most important components of the Greek economic system. German demands to pay significant "costs of occupation" caused hyperinflation. The average inflation rate during the years of occupation was 8.55·10 9%/month (prices doubling every 28 hours). The highest inflation rate in Greek history was reached in 1944. If in 1943 the banknote of 25,000 drachmas had the highest price value, then already in 1944 it was 100 billion drachmas. One of the consequences of hyperinflation was a general famine that began in the winter of 1942 and lasted until 1944. The stratification of monetary savings caused by hyperinflation and black markets significantly hampered post-war economic development.
According to the model proposed in October 1944 by the governor of the central bank of Greece, K. Zolotas (Ξενοφών Ζολώτας), when the Greek economy reaches a fifth of the pre-war level, the accumulated money supply should first of all be spent on paying government bills. debt and stabilization of inflation. However, even achieving a cash turnover of 20% of the pre-war level was an unattainable task. The national income was minimal, even taking into account the fact that the bulk of the population was at the subsistence level. The only form of trade available was barter.
Based on an analysis of the current situation, Zolotas chose an economic policy, the initial condition of which was the abandonment of the currency system. This meant that first an organizational production infrastructure had to be created, then production itself had to be established, and money circulation had to be stimulated using the quantity theory of money and taking into account the velocity of circulation of money.
Zolotas also proposed a plan by which the government could avoid inflation - full support of the national currency by the Greek exile Treasury or through foreign lending, along with the introduction of free convertibility of the national currency. The Zolotas Plan also included incentives at the state level for the import of goods and raw materials in order to subsidize the domestic market.
The most famous representative of the movement for state intervention in the economy at that time, K. Varvaresos, who took over the post of K. Zolotas on February 2, 1945, was a supporter of the “1/5 formula.” His position was to cut trading by about 50%. Taking into account a 50% increase in world prices, he indexed the ratio of the drachma to the pound. Based on his calculations, this ratio should be increased several times. Taking into account psychological factors and the deterioration of living conditions until the withdrawal of German troops, Varvaresos declared a turnover of 1/5 of the pre-war level as a stable anti-inflationary basis for economic recovery in the post-war period.
In the fall of 1944, EAM appointed Zolotos to the post of co-governor of the Greek central bank along with Varvares. The latter refused to admit this and resigned, but it was not accepted. On November 11, a new drachma was issued in denominations of 1/600 £. The old drachmas were converted into new ones in the ratio of 50 billion/1. The Central Bank introduced a policy of selling gold sovereigns in order to bolster public acceptance of the new currency. However, the adoption of this policy was an irreversible phenomenon. Political instability led to the withdrawal of CNG from EAM and contributed to the rapid rise in prices. In June 1945 the ratio had already reached 1/2000. Between May and October 1945, Varvaresos was called upon to become prime minister. His plan was to create a strong government rather than rebuild the economy. The plan called for immediate UN humanitarian assistance in the form of food and raw materials, taxation of military acquisitions, and basic provision for the population through government administration. However, in September 1945, this plan, essentially the only one proposed, was rejected due to lack of support from both the right and the left. The end result was the stabilization of the national currency after only 7 years.
see also
Reflection in modern culture and traditions
Okha Day
Celebrated in Greece, Cyprus and Greek communities around the world on October 28th of each year, Okha Day (Greek: Okha Day). Επέτειος του «"Οχι» ) commemorates the refusal of Ioannis Metaxas to accept the ultimatum presented to Mussolini on October 28, 1940.
In fiction
Novels translated into Russian:
- James Aldridge. "A Matter of Honor"
- Alistair MacLean. "The Guns of Navarone", "10 points from Navarone"
- Louis de Bernières. "Captain Corelli's Mandolin"
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Notes
Footnotes
Sources
Links
see also
Literature
- History of the Second World War 1939-1945 in twelve volumes(edited by A. A. Grechko, D. F. Ustinov), M., Military Publishing House of the USSR Ministry of Defense, 1973-1982
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An excerpt characterizing Greece in World War II
“Where is it, this high sky, which I did not know until now and saw today?” was his first thought. “And I didn’t know this suffering either,” he thought. - Yes, I didn’t know anything until now. But where am I?He began to listen and heard the sounds of approaching horses and the sounds of voices speaking French. He opened his eyes. Above him was again the same high sky with floating clouds rising even higher, through which a blue infinity could be seen. He did not turn his head and did not see those who, judging by the sound of hooves and voices, drove up to him and stopped.
The horsemen who arrived were Napoleon, accompanied by two adjutants. Bonaparte, driving around the battlefield, gave the last orders to strengthen the batteries firing at the Augesta Dam and examined the dead and wounded remaining on the battlefield.
- De beaux hommes! [Beauties!] - said Napoleon, looking at the killed Russian grenadier, who, with his face buried in the ground and the back of his head blackened, was lying on his stomach, throwing one already numb arm far away.
– Les munitions des pieces de position sont epuisees, sire! [There are no more battery charges, Your Majesty!] - said at that time the adjutant, who arrived from the batteries that were firing at Augest.
“Faites avancer celles de la reserve, [Have it brought from the reserves,” said Napoleon, and, having driven off a few steps, he stopped over Prince Andrei, who was lying on his back with the flagpole thrown next to him (the banner had already been taken by the French, like a trophy) .
“Voila une belle mort, [This is a beautiful death,”] said Napoleon, looking at Bolkonsky.
Prince Andrei realized that this was said about him, and that Napoleon was saying this. He heard the one who said these words called sire. But he heard these words as if he heard the buzzing of a fly. Not only was he not interested in them, but he did not even notice them, and immediately forgot them. His head was burning; he felt that he was emanating blood, and he saw above him the distant, high and eternal sky. He knew that it was Napoleon - his hero, but at that moment Napoleon seemed to him such a small, insignificant person in comparison with what was now happening between his soul and this high, endless sky with clouds running across it. He didn’t care at all at that moment, no matter who stood above him, no matter what they said about him; He was only glad that people were standing over him, and he only wished that these people would help him and return him to life, which seemed so beautiful to him, because he understood it so differently now. He mustered all his strength to move and make some sound. He weakly moved his leg and produced a pitying, weak, painful groan.
- A! “He’s alive,” said Napoleon. - Raise this one young man, ce jeune homme, and take it to the dressing station!
Having said this, Napoleon rode further towards Marshal Lan, who, taking off his hat, smiling and congratulating him on his victory, drove up to the emperor.
Prince Andrei did not remember anything further: he lost consciousness from the terrible pain that was caused to him by being placed on a stretcher, jolts while moving, and probing the wound at the dressing station. He woke up only at the end of the day, when he was united with other Russian wounded and captured officers and carried to the hospital. During this movement he felt somewhat fresher and could look around and even speak.
The first words he heard when he woke up were the words of the French escort officer, who hurriedly said:
- We must stop here: the emperor will pass by now; it will give him pleasure to see these captive gentlemen.
“There are so many prisoners these days, almost the entire Russian army, that he probably got bored with it,” said another officer.
- Well, however! This one, they say, is the commander of the entire guard of Emperor Alexander,” said the first, pointing to a wounded Russian officer in a white cavalry uniform.
Bolkonsky recognized Prince Repnin, whom he had met in St. Petersburg society. Next to him stood another, 19-year-old boy, also a wounded cavalry officer.
Bonaparte, galloping up, stopped his horse.
-Who is the eldest? - he said when he saw the prisoners.
They named the colonel, Prince Repnin.
– Are you the commander of the cavalry regiment of Emperor Alexander? - asked Napoleon.
“I commanded a squadron,” answered Repnin.
“Your regiment honestly fulfilled its duty,” said Napoleon.
“The praise of a great commander is the best reward for a soldier,” said Repnin.
“I give it to you with pleasure,” said Napoleon. -Who is this young man next to you?
Prince Repnin named Lieutenant Sukhtelen.
Looking at him, Napoleon said, smiling:
– II est venu bien jeune se frotter a nous. [He came to compete with us when he was young.]
“Youth doesn’t stop you from being brave,” Sukhtelen said in a breaking voice.
“Excellent answer,” said Napoleon. - Young man, you will go far!
Prince Andrei, who, to complete the trophy of the captives, was also put forward, in full view of the emperor, could not help but attract his attention. Napoleon apparently remembered that he had seen him on the field and, addressing him, used the same name of the young man - jeune homme, under which Bolkonsky was reflected in his memory for the first time.
– Et vous, jeune homme? Well, what about you, young man? - he turned to him, - how do you feel, mon brave?
Despite the fact that five minutes before this, Prince Andrei could say a few words to the soldiers carrying him, he now, directly fixing his eyes on Napoleon, was silent... All the interests that occupied Napoleon seemed so insignificant to him at that moment, so petty seemed to him his hero himself, with this petty vanity and joy of victory, in comparison with that high, fair and kind sky that he saw and understood - that he could not answer him.
And everything seemed so useless and insignificant in comparison with the strict and majestic structure of thought that was caused in him by the weakening of his strength from the bleeding, suffering and the imminent expectation of death. Looking into the eyes of Napoleon, Prince Andrei thought about the insignificance of greatness, about the insignificance of life, the meaning of which no one could understand, and about the even greater insignificance of death, the meaning of which no one living could understand and explain.
The emperor, without waiting for an answer, turned away and, driving away, turned to one of the commanders:
“Let them take care of these gentlemen and take them to my bivouac; let my doctor Larrey examine their wounds. Goodbye, Prince Repnin,” and he, moving his horse, galloped on.
There was a radiance of self-satisfaction and happiness on his face.
The soldiers who brought Prince Andrei and removed from him the golden icon they found, hung on his brother by Princess Marya, seeing the kindness with which the emperor treated the prisoners, hastened to return the icon.
Prince Andrei did not see who put it on again or how, but on his chest, above his uniform, suddenly there was an icon on a small gold chain.
“It would be good,” thought Prince Andrei, looking at this icon, which his sister hung on him with such feeling and reverence, “it would be good if everything were as clear and simple as it seems to Princess Marya. How nice it would be to know where to look for help in this life and what to expect after it, there, beyond the grave! How happy and calm I would be if I could now say: Lord, have mercy on me!... But to whom will I say this? Either the power is indefinite, incomprehensible, which I not only cannot address, but which I cannot express in words - the great all or nothing, - he said to himself, - or this is the God who is sewn up here, in this palm, Princess Marya? Nothing, nothing is true, except the insignificance of everything that is clear to me, and the greatness of something incomprehensible, but most important!
The stretcher started moving. With each push he again felt unbearable pain; the feverish state intensified, and he began to become delirious. Those dreams of his father, wife, sister and future son and the tenderness that he experienced on the night before the battle, the figure of the small, insignificant Napoleon and the high sky above all this, formed the main basis of his feverish ideas.
A quiet life and calm family happiness in Bald Mountains seemed to him. He was already enjoying this happiness when suddenly little Napoleon appeared with his indifferent, limited and happy look at the misfortune of others, and doubts and torment began, and only the sky promised peace. By morning, all the dreams mixed up and merged into the chaos and darkness of unconsciousness and oblivion, which, in the opinion of Larrey himself, Doctor Napoleon, were much more likely to be resolved by death than by recovery.
“C"est un sujet nerveux et bilieux," said Larrey, "il n"en rechappera pas. [This is a nervous and bilious man, he will not recover.]
Prince Andrey, among other hopelessly wounded, was handed over to the care of the residents.
At the beginning of 1806, Nikolai Rostov returned on vacation. Denisov was also going home to Voronezh, and Rostov persuaded him to go with him to Moscow and stay in their house. At the penultimate station, having met a comrade, Denisov drank three bottles of wine with him and, approaching Moscow, despite the potholes of the road, he did not wake up, lying at the bottom of the relay sleigh, near Rostov, which, as it approached Moscow, came more and more to impatience.
“Is it soon? Soon? Oh, these unbearable streets, shops, rolls, lanterns, cab drivers!” thought Rostov, when they had already signed up for their holidays at the outpost and entered Moscow.
- Denisov, we’ve arrived! Sleeping! - he said, leaning forward with his whole body, as if by this position he hoped to speed up the movement of the sleigh. Denisov did not respond.
“Here is the corner of the intersection where Zakhar the cabman stands; Here he is Zakhar, and still the same horse. Here is the shop where they bought gingerbread. Soon? Well!
- To which house? - asked the coachman.
- Yes, over there at the end, how can you not see! This is our home,” said Rostov, “after all, this is our home!” Denisov! Denisov! We'll come now.
Denisov raised his head, cleared his throat and did not answer.
“Dmitry,” Rostov turned to the footman in the irradiation room. - After all, this is our fire?
“That’s exactly how daddy’s office is lit up.”
– Haven’t gone to bed yet? A? How do you think? “Don’t forget to get me a new Hungarian at once,” Rostov added, feeling the new mustache. “Come on, let’s go,” he shouted to the coachman. “Wake up, Vasya,” he turned to Denisov, who lowered his head again. - Come on, let's go, three rubles for vodka, let's go! - Rostov shouted when the sleigh was already three houses away from the entrance. It seemed to him that the horses were not moving. Finally the sleigh took to the right towards the entrance; Above his head, Rostov saw a familiar cornice with chipped plaster, a porch, a sidewalk pillar. He jumped out of the sleigh as he walked and ran into the hallway. The house also stood motionless, unwelcoming, as if it did not care about who came to it. There was no one in the hallway. "My God! is everything alright? thought Rostov, stopping for a minute with a sinking heart and immediately starting to run further along the entryway and familiar, crooked steps. Still the same door knob The castle, for whose uncleanliness the countess was angry, also opened weakly. One tallow candle was burning in the hallway.
Old man Mikhail was sleeping on the chest. Prokofy, the traveling footman, the one who was so strong that he could lift the carriage by the back, sat and knitted bast shoes from the edges. He looked at the opened door, and his indifferent, sleepy expression suddenly transformed into an enthusiastically frightened one.
- Fathers, lights! Young Count! – he cried out, recognizing the young master. - What is this? My darling! - And Prokofy, shaking with excitement, rushed to the door to the living room, probably to make an announcement, but apparently changed his mind again, returned back and fell on the young master’s shoulder.
-Are you healthy? - Rostov asked, pulling his hand away from him.
- God bless! All glory to God! We just ate it now! Let me look at you, Your Excellency!
- Is everything all right?
- Thank God, thank God!
Rostov, completely forgetting about Denisov, not wanting to let anyone warn him, took off his fur coat and ran on tiptoe into the dark, large hall. Everything is the same, the same card tables, the same chandelier in a case; but someone had already seen the young master, and before he had time to reach the living room, something quickly, like a storm, flew out of the side door and hugged and began to kiss him. Another, third, same creature jumped out of another, third door; more hugs, more kisses, more screams, tears of joy. He couldn’t make out where and who dad was, who was Natasha, who was Petya. Everyone was screaming, talking and kissing him at the same time. Only his mother was not among them - he remembered that.
- I didn’t know... Nikolushka... my friend!
- Here he is... ours... My friend, Kolya... He has changed! No candles! Tea!
- Yes, kiss me!
- Darling... and then me.
Sonya, Natasha, Petya, Anna Mikhailovna, Vera, the old count, hugged him; and people and maids, filling the rooms, muttered and gasped.
Petya hung on his legs. - And then me! - he shouted. Natasha, after she had bent him to her and kissed his whole face, jumped away from him and holding onto the hem of his Hungarian jacket, jumped like a goat all in one place and squealed shrilly.
On all sides there were eyes shining with tears of joy, loving eyes, on all sides there were lips seeking a kiss.
Sonya, red as red, also held his hand and was all beaming in the blissful gaze fixed on his eyes, which she was waiting for. Sonya was already 16 years old, and she was very beautiful, especially at this moment of happy, enthusiastic animation. She looked at him without taking her eyes off, smiling and holding her breath. He looked at her gratefully; but still waited and looked for someone. The old countess had not come out yet. And then steps were heard at the door. The steps are so fast that they couldn't be his mother's.
But it was she in a new dress, still unfamiliar to him, sewn without him. Everyone left him and he ran to her. When they came together, she fell on his chest, sobbing. She could not raise her face and only pressed it to the cold strings of his Hungarian. Denisov, unnoticed by anyone, entered the room, stood right there and, looking at them, rubbed his eyes.
“Vasily Denisov, a friend of your son,” he said, introducing himself to the count, who was looking at him questioningly.
- Welcome. I know, I know,” said the count, kissing and hugging Denisov. - Nikolushka wrote... Natasha, Vera, here he is Denisov.
The same happy, enthusiastic faces turned to the shaggy figure of Denisov and surrounded him.
- Darling, Denisov! - Natasha squealed, not remembering herself with delight, jumped up to him, hugged and kissed him. Everyone was embarrassed by Natasha's action. Denisov also blushed, but smiled and took Natasha’s hand and kissed it.
Denisov was taken to the room prepared for him, and the Rostovs all gathered in the sofa near Nikolushka.
The old countess, without letting go of his hand, which she kissed every minute, sat next to him; the rest, crowding around them, caught his every movement, word, glance, and did not take their rapturously loving eyes off him. The brother and sisters argued and grabbed each other's places closer to him, and fought over who should bring him tea, a scarf, a pipe.
Rostov was very happy with the love that was shown to him; but the first minute of his meeting was so blissful that his present happiness seemed not enough to him, and he kept waiting for something else, and more, and more.
The next morning, the visitors slept from the road until 10 o'clock.
In the previous room there were scattered sabers, bags, tanks, open suitcases, and dirty boots. The cleaned two pairs with spurs had just been placed against the wall. Servants brought washbasins, hot water for shaving, and cleaned dresses. It smelled of tobacco and men.
- Hey, G"ishka, t"ubku! – Vaska Denisov’s hoarse voice shouted. - Rostov, get up!
Rostov, rubbing his drooping eyes, raised his confused head from the hot pillow.
- Why is it late? “It’s late, it’s 10 o’clock,” Natasha’s voice answered, and in the next room the rustling of starched dresses, the whispering and laughter of girls’ voices was heard, and something blue, ribbons, black hair and cheerful faces flashed through the slightly open door. It was Natasha with Sonya and Petya, who came to see if he was up.
- Nikolenka, get up! – Natasha’s voice was heard again at the door.
- Now!
At this time, Petya, in the first room, saw and grabbed the sabers, and experiencing the delight that boys experience at the sight of a warlike older brother, and forgetting that it was indecent for sisters to see undressed men, opened the door.
- Is this your saber? - he shouted. The girls jumped back. Denisov, with frightened eyes, hid his furry legs in a blanket, looking back at his comrade for help. The door let Petya through and closed again. Laughter was heard from behind the door.
“Nikolenka, come out in your dressing gown,” said Natasha’s voice.
- Is this your saber? - Petya asked, - or is it yours? - He addressed the mustachioed, black Denisov with obsequious respect.
Rostov hastily put on his shoes, put on his robe and went out. Natasha put on one boot with a spur and climbed into the other. Sonya was spinning and was just about to puff up her dress and sit down when he came out. Both were wearing the same brand new blue dresses - fresh, rosy, cheerful. Sonya ran away, and Natasha, taking her brother by the arm, led him to the sofa, and they began to talk. They did not have time to ask each other and answer questions about thousands of little things that could only interest them alone. Natasha laughed at every word that he said and that she said, not because what they said was funny, but because she was having fun and was unable to contain her joy, which was expressed by laughter.
- Oh, how good, great! – she condemned everything. Rostov felt how, under the influence of the hot rays of love, for the first time in a year and a half, that childish smile blossomed on his soul and face, which he had never smiled since he left home.
“No, listen,” she said, “are you completely a man now?” I'm terribly glad that you are my brother. “She touched his mustache. - I want to know what kind of men you are? Are they like us? No?
- Why did Sonya run away? - Rostov asked.
- Yes. That's another whole story! How will you talk to Sonya? You or you?
“As it will happen,” said Rostov.
– Tell her, please, I’ll tell you later.
- So what?
- Well, I’ll tell you now. You know that Sonya is my friend, such a friend that I would burn my hand for her. Look at this. - She rolled up her muslin sleeve and showed a red mark on her long, thin and delicate arm under the shoulder, much above the elbow (in a place that is sometimes covered by ball gowns).
“I burned this to prove my love to her.” I just lit the ruler on fire and pressed it down.
Sitting in his former classroom, on the sofa with cushions on his arms, and looking into those desperately animated eyes of Natasha, Rostov again entered that family, children's world, which had no meaning for anyone except for him, but which gave him some of the best pleasures in life; and burning his hand with a ruler to show love did not seem useless to him: he understood and was not surprised by it.
- So what? only? - he asked.
- Well, so friendly, so friendly! Is this nonsense - with a ruler; but we are forever friends. She will love anyone, forever; but I don’t understand this, I’ll forget now.
- Well, what then?
- Yes, that’s how she loves me and you. - Natasha suddenly blushed, - well, you remember, before leaving... So she says that you forget all this... She said: I will always love him, and let him be free. It’s true that this is excellent, noble! - Yes Yes? very noble? Yes? - Natasha asked so seriously and excitedly that it was clear that what she was saying now, she had previously said with tears.
Rostov thought about it.
“I don’t take back my word on anything,” he said. - And then, Sonya is such a charm that what fool would refuse his happiness?
“No, no,” Natasha screamed. “We’ve already talked about this with her.” We knew you would say this. But this is impossible, because, you know, if you say that - you consider yourself bound by the word, then it turns out that she seemed to say it on purpose. It turns out that you are still forcibly marrying her, and it turns out completely different.
Rostov saw that all this was well thought out by them. Sonya amazed him with her beauty yesterday too. Today, having caught a glimpse of her, she seemed even better to him. She was a lovely 16-year-old girl, obviously loving him passionately (he did not doubt this for a minute). Why shouldn’t he love her now, and not even marry her, Rostov thought, but now there are so many other joys and activities! “Yes, they came up with this perfectly,” he thought, “we must remain free.”
“Well, great,” he said, “we’ll talk later.” Oh, how glad I am for you! - he added.
- Well, why didn’t you cheat on Boris? - asked the brother.
The decision to create military aviation was made by the Greek government in 1911. The Greek Air Force participated in the Balkan Wars, World War I, the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1921 and was assigned to the independent species armed forces.
In August 1936, the dictatorial regime of General I. Metaxas was established in the country. General Metaxas, who came to power, decided to start a campaign of voluntary collection of money to strengthen aviation - well, sometimes voluntary, sometimes not. :)
For example, he indirectly put pressure on Greek industrialists, sending them messages of gratitude for the amounts they allegedly transferred to the rearmament of aviation, forcing them to actually transfer money to the aviation fund.
Or the initiative of Minister P. Ikonomakos -
playing simultaneously on Greek patriotism and Greek vanity, he began to publish in newspapers the amounts and names of donors to the aviation fund.
The Greek Air Force entered World War II on October 28, 1940. Initially, Greek aviation successfully opposed Italian aviation in Greece and Albania, despite the Italians' threefold superiority in aircraft numbers, as well as their technical superiority.
During the German invasion in 1941, the air force was completely destroyed. Later, several Greek squadrons were formed and fought under British command in the Middle East.
↓ German Dornier 17s over the Acropolis
A group of pilots of the Greek 335 Squadron RAF in front of the newly received Hawker Hurricane Mark II C, Dekeyla Egypt, 1942
Unfinished rearmament and preparation of aviation for war
The biggest problem facing Greece was to find aircraft of sufficient numbers and characteristics, because as far as the Italian aviation market is concerned, it was practically closed to Greek aviation. Priority to all others European countries aircraft manufacturers (France, Great Britain, Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia) were re-equipping their own aircraft.
Despite the extremely narrow scope of choice, Greek aviation managed get:
36 P.Z.L. fighters P.24F/G from Poland,
9 Bloch MB.151 fighters and
12 Potez 633 B2 Grec bombers from France,
12 Fairey Battle B.1 bombers from Great Britain, and
16 reconnaissance aircraft Henschel Hs126K-6 and
12 Dornier Do22Kg seaplanes from Germany
The result of the campaign to raise funds for aviation was the symbolic, due to small numbers, acquisition of 4 fighters as a gift from the Greek diaspora (two Czechoslovakian Avia B.534, purchased by a Greek businessman of the diaspora and two Gloster Gladiator MkI), which became the first modern aircraft received in this period. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 caused the many orders unfulfilled aviation, such as:
12 Potez 633 B2 Grec bombers,
12 Avro Anson Mk I naval aircraft,
16 Bloch MB.151 fighters, and
12 Bristol Blenheim MkIV bombers and
32 Henschel Hs126K-6 reconnaissance aircraft
It should be noted that in many cases the lost aircraft were advanced, and in some cases fully prepaid by the Greek government.
In total, by the end of 1939, Greek aviation received 128 combat and 75 training aircraft. 24 Spitfire Mk I fighters and 30 F4F-3A Wildcat fighters were also ordered - and 30 P-40 Tomahawk fighters and 48 Martin Maryland bombers from the US - orders that were never completed.
In the spring of 1941, the US government decided to provide Greece, through the Lend-Lease Act, with 30 F-4F-3A Wildcat fighters, which, due to the occupation of Greece by German troops in April-May 1941, were also never received by Greek aviation (they were transferred to Great Britain from Gibraltar).
Thus, at the beginning of military operations on October 28, 1940, when Italian troops invaded Greece, Greek aviation consisted of 158 military aircraft of all types, of which only 128 were in service (in flight and combat condition). Of the total, only 79 (in formation 59) were fighters and bombers - against 380 Italian (according to airwar.ru, 77 Greek front-line aircraft were called to counter as many as 463 Italian)! Aviation also included 63 training and support aircraft.
PZL P.24 aircraft of the 22nd squadron of the Greek Air Force at the field airfield
The country's fighter aviation was concentrated in the 1st Fighter Regiment (Mire Dioxes) of Lieutenant Colonel E. Kelades, which was armed with Polish P.24F and six P.24G fighters, evenly distributed among three squadrons - 21st, 22nd and 23rd. y. By October 28, out of 36 R.24s, 24 were operational. The regiment's fighters were dispersed across the airfields of Kalambaka, Ioannina, Larissa and Thessaloniki and could cover the group in the area of the Greek-Albanian border.
The P.24 was far from being the most advanced aircraft for the early 1940s, but it could easily fight on equal terms with the Italian CR.42 fighter, one of the main ones for this theater of operations at that time; it was noticeably superior to the CR.32, but in most characteristics it was inferior to the G .50bis. Another fighter squadron, the 24th, was included in the air defense of the capital and was armed with nine modern French MB.151 fighters.
In other words, the Greek Air Force was inferior in numbers even to the aviation group that the Italians created only in Albania. The Italian Air Force in the area of future combat operations had a noticeable quantitative and some qualitative superiority over the Greeks.
Greek Air Force PZL P.24F fighters
Italo-Greek War 1940-41
An Italian bomber (Savoia-Marchetti SM.79?) at an airfield in Albania before Christmas.
Close-in reconnaissance aircraft Henschel Hs.126, Greek Air Force
List of aces from Greece
During World War II, the Greek military pilot Mithralexis Marinos became famous (we'll talk about him later). But there were others too.
Greece had (indirectly) seven to nine aces:
Ioannis Agorastos "John" Plagis. 16 wins
As the child of Greek immigrants in Rhodesia, he flew with the Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1940-1945.
He was the most successful ace of Greek nationality. He was also the most successful Southern Rhodesian ace of the war, with 16 confirmed aerial victories, including 11 over Malta. In the post-war period he took British citizenship and remained in the RAF to fly the Gloster Meteor. After his retirement he returned to Rhodesia, where he later committed suicide.
Plagis's Spitfires when he flew for the RAF. Mk.IX (above) and Mk.Vb (below)
Vasilios Michael "Vass" Vassiliades. 10 - 11 + 1/2 wins
Greek from Chios, born in 1920. Was a student in Britain at the time the war broke out. The son of the owner of a prosperous shipping company, he was a typical “millionaire playboy” and did not need anything. Apparently out of boredom, he joined the RAF in October 1942.
Behind a short time proved to be an excellent fighter and had six confirmed victories, two more victories in the group and one presumptive. Later, he won three more victories on Tempests (all FW 190). Another aircraft of this type was recorded as damaged.
On March 25, 1945, four Tempests were sent to attack an enemy convoy in the Bocholt area. However, the anti-aircraft fire was strong and the Greek ace's plane was shot down. The pilot had no chance to escape.
After the war, his father named one of his ships after him, but it sank in the English Channel after a collision with another ship. The Irony of Fate?
Mustangs of Vassiliades
Hawker "Tempest" from the 3rd squadron, on which Vassiliades died.
Spyros Nikolaou "Steve" Pisanos. 6 wins
A Greek immigrant to the United States, he enlisted in the RAF. Remained with the RAF despite an offer to go to North Africa to join the Royal Hellenic Air Force fighting alongside the RAF. In March 1944 he jumped over France and was rescued by the French Resistance, remaining with them until the liberation of Paris. After the war he became a test pilot in the USA. He served briefly as a civilian pilot for TWA on four-engine airliners.
Andreas Antoniou. 6 wins
Greek captain, fought during the Greco-Italian War of 1940-41. Flew PZL P-24.
Panagiotis Argyropoulos. 5 wins
Staff Sergeant. Shot down at least one BR-20 bomber over Kleisura.
Marinos Mitralexis. 5 wins
He fought in the Greco-Italian War in the 22nd Fighter Squadron. Ramming an Italian bomber made him a popular hero figure. After the fall of Greece, he fled to North Africa and fought with the Greek squadron under the command of the Allied air forces.
Marinos Mitralexis survived the war, but died shortly after its end. On 19 September 1948, his twin-engined Airspeed Oxford crashed into the sea during a routine training flight between Rhodes and Athens.
John Lolos. 5 wins
Ethnic Greek. He fought in the Pacific, flying P-47 Thunderbolts. He claimed to have shot down five Japanese Zeros in New Guinea.
Ioannis Kellas. 3 wins
At the time of the Italian invasion of Greece on 28 October 1940, Captain Kellas was serving with 21 Mira (squadron), armed with 12 PZL P.24s and based at Kalambaka.
On November 20, 1940, while intercepting a group of Italian bombers, Ioanis shot down a Z.1007bis.
At the end of 1940, the squadron was re-equipped with Gladiators.
On April 15, his Gladiator was attacked by Messerschmitt over Trikkala. The pilot was slightly injured during the emergency landing. It is interesting that in that battle only one Greek fighter was shot down, while at the same time three German aces scored victories: Oberleutnant Gustav Rudel (victory number 16), Leutnant Ernst Burngen and Oberleutnant Wilhelm Wiesinger (victory number 9).
After evacuation he served with the RAF in the Middle East. He took part in the attack on the headquarters of the Italian command in Libya on the morning of October 28, 1942. Finished the war with three victories. Retired from the Air Force with the rank of captain in 1948. There is no information about the further fate.
Anastassios Bardivilias. 2 wins
Anastassios was assigned to the 21st Squadron of the Hellenic Air Force before the start of the Italian invasion. At that time the squadron was armed with the obsolete PZL P.24, but received an ex-RAF Gladiator in late 1940.
Greek PZL Fighters
PZL P-24 (Polish PZL P.24) is a Polish single-seat fighter of the Second World War, which was in service with Greece, Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey.
It was an export version of the PZL P.11 fighter with a Gnome-Rhone 14K engine, since the Mercury engine installed on the P.11 was produced under an English license, which did not allow production for export.
Designed by the PZL Design Bureau under the leadership of Zygmunt Puławski. The experimental R.24/1 made its first flight in May 1933. Serial production began in August 1936. Built at the PZL factories in Ocec, under license at the IAR factory in Brasov (Romania), and also in Turkey. In Romania, the IAR-80 fighter was designed and built on its basis.
The only surviving PZL P.24 in the world. Turkish Aviation Museum, Istanbul
As for Polish fighters, doubts were expressed about their quality and combat effectiveness. Aviation commission members preferred the British Gloster Gladiator. The need to urgently make a final decision forced Metaxas to intervene personally. A contract was concluded with the Poles in the amount of 133 million Greek drachmas. Not least important for this decision was the financial condition of the country and the fact that Polish aircraft were purchased through clearing in exchange for Greek tobacco.
Thus, Greek aviation became, along with Polish, the only European aviation in which the P.Z.L was the main fighter at the beginning of the war.
PZL P.24, Hellenic Air Force
Ram strike in the Mediterranean sky
On the morning of November 2, 1940, the 22nd squadron of the Greek Royal Air Force, armed with Polish-made PZL P.24F and P.24G fighters, was alerted from the Thessaloniki airfield to repel a raid by 27 Italian bombers, accompanied by Fiat CR.42 fighters (biplanes) and Fiat G.50 (all-metal monoplanes), which were sent to bomb Thessalonica.
By the way, among the pilots of the Italian bombers who bombed the port of Thessaloniki just the day before - on November 1 - and when the Italian raid killed 35 people - were the sons of the Duce, Bruno and Vittorio, and the Minister of Foreign Affairs himself, Count Galeazzo Siano.
Bomber Cant Z.1007 from the 210th squadron of the 50th separate bomber group
More precisely, Thessaloniki was attacked on November 1 by 10 SM.79 bombers of the 105th group with an escort of five Fiat CR.42s of the 393rd squadron. The bombers were led by none other than Lieutenant Colonel G. Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law and Italian Foreign Minister.
An equally representative group attacked the Larissa airfield, where the 23rd and 32nd squadrons of the Greek Air Force were based. Ten Z.1007 Cants were flown by the commander of the 260th Squadron, 106th Group, 47th Regiment, Bruno Mussolini, the eldest son of the Italian dictator, and another of the Cants was piloted by his other son, Vittorio.
B. Mussolini with his sons Bruno and Vittorio.
The next day, none of the six Greek pilots who took off had any serious combat experience - Greece had been drawn into a world war just five days earlier when, on October 28, Italian troops went on the offensive on the Albanian border and enemy aircraft began bombing Greek cities .
One of the PZL fighters was piloted by a native of the province of Messinia (Μεσσηνία), twenty-four-year-old Lieutenant Marinos Mitralexis (Μαρίνος Μητραλέξης). Less than six months before the events described, in the summer of 1940, he graduated from the Greek air force Academy and was assigned to the 22nd Fighter Squadron.
As will be discussed below, in the ensuing air battle, 3 (2 in reality) bombers were shot down. Shocked by the furious onslaught of the enemy, the pilots of the Italian bombers did not tempt fate and, having gotten rid of the bombs, turned back to their base in Albania. For their success, the Greeks had to pay for one fighter that was forced to land after being rammed, another was also forced to land, having used up all its fuel in battle, and one was damaged in an air battle.
Regarding Lieutenant Mitralexis, he later reported that he shot down one of the three Italian bombers, having shot down all the ammunition in battle.
It happened like this. In the first attack, Mitralexis successfully fired a long burst at one bomber, which went into a disorderly fall (as it became known later, the Italian pilot Lieutenant Pasqualetto was killed by the fire of a Greek fighter, but the rest of the crew took control and managed to keep the heavy machine in the air).
As a result, two Italian bombers were shot down, after which they began to retreat. Having overtaken one of the departing enemies (it was CANT Z.1007bis with the number MΜ22381, according to some sources - the same plane that Mithralexis had attacked before), the Greek pilot opened fire, but this time missed, and The next moment I was disappointed to discover that I had run out of ammunition. Mithralexis' wingman, Sergeant Konstantinos Lambropoulos (Κωνσταντινος Λαμπροπουλος), very emotionally described what happened next:
“I was very close to Mithralexis and saw him fly his plane straight at the Italian! It was the most magnificent act I have ever seen!”
Mitralexis came close to the bomb carrier from behind and cut off the Kant's rudder with the propeller of his PZL P. 24 fighter, as a result of which the Italian sharply went towards the ground. With great difficulty, the bomber crew managed to make an emergency landing “on the belly” of the village of Gerakarou (Γερακαρού). However, when the four happily escaped Italians staggered out of the car, they found themselves in a situation almost worse than in the air: a crowd of peasants armed with knives and picks surrounded the pilots, clearly intending to finish them off.
Suddenly a menacing shout was heard, and everyone saw a short Greek officer in flight gear, who pulled out a pistol and ordered the local residents not to touch the prisoners and get away. It was none other than Mitralexis, who, with a damaged propeller, made an emergency landing near the crash site of the bomber. Mithralexis arrested and escorted the four grateful Italians to his base. One of the captured Italian pilots, Garibaldo Brussolo, later wrote that Mithralexis introduced himself and shook hands with his enemy colleagues in a friendly manner.
All of Greece was delighted with the pilot’s feat. Mitralexis was promoted to rank and awarded the highest award in Greece at that time - the Golden Cross of Valor (Αριστείον Ανδρείας). He was the only aviation officer awarded this cross during that war.
Mitralexis
Marinos Mitralexis: the bomber "Cant Z1007bis" - which he rammed on November 2, 1940 near Naoussa - according to one source. However, the rudder is intact, so it is most likely just another CANT Z.1007bis, shot down by Greek fighters in November 1940.
Model Cant Z1007bis. Early examples had a single-fin tail, later aircraft had a double-fin tail with oval fins and rudders located on both sides.
The ram of Mithralexis was even depicted on a Greek postage stamp.
The pilot's feat raised the morale of the Greek army and the small aviation force. The ramming attack on November 18, 1940 was repeated by fighter pilot Grigoris Valkanas (Γρηγόρης Βαλκανάς) from the 23rd Fighter Squadron, destroying an Italian fighter.
Second ram
Grigoris Valkanas(Greek: Γρηγόρης Βαλκανάς) 1916 - 1940. Born in the Greek province of Arcadia, he entered flight school in August 1936 and graduated in September 1939. Shortly after the outbreak of the Italo-Greek War, he was sent to the 23rd Fighter Squadron of the Greek Air Force, located in the city of Larisa.
In the Morova area, northeast of the Albanian city of Korca, 5 Greek Polish-built PZL P.24 fighters from the 23rd and 22nd squadrons intercepted Italian bombers escorted by fighters. Valkanas was the only pilot of the 23rd squadron who had not yet shot down a plane. After he had used up all the ammunition during the battle, he decided not to return to base and went to ram an Italian fighter. Both planes burned out and their pilots died.
Grigoris Valkanas
Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers from the 253rd Squadron of the 104th Independent Bomber Group over Greece.