The agreement between Russia and France, concluded in Tilsit in 1807, was temporary. The continental blockade of Great Britain, to which Russia was forced to join in accordance with the terms of the Peace of Tilsit, undermined the country's economy, which was focused on export trade. Export turnover decreased from 120 million to 83 million rubles, import supplies exceeded exports and created conditions for an outburst of inflationary processes. In addition, exporters suffered from high duties imposed by France, which made foreign trade unprofitable. The economic decline and the precariousness of the peace with Napoleon forced Alexander I to prepare for war. For Bonaparte, Russia was an obstacle that stood in his way to world domination.
Thus, the causes of the Patriotic War of 1812 were:
1. the desire of Napoleon Bonaparte and the French bourgeoisie supporting him to establish world hegemony, which was impossible without the defeat and subjugation of Russia and Great Britain;
2. aggravation of contradictions between Russia and France, intensified both as a result of Russia’s non-compliance with the conditions of the continental blockade, and Napoleon’s support of anti-Russian sentiments in Poland, supporting local magnates in their aspirations to recreate the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth within its former borders;
3. Russia’s loss of former influence in Central Europe as a result of France’s conquests, as well as Napoleon’s actions aimed at undermining its international authority;
4. the increase in personal hostility between Alexander I and Napoleon I, caused both by the refusal of the Russian side to marry the Grand Duchesses Catherine, then Anna, to the French Emperor, as well as Napoleon’s hints about Alexander’s involvement in the murder of his father, Emperor Paul I.
The course of military operations (the retreat of the Russian army).
Napoleon's army, which he himself called the "Great Army", numbered over 600,000 people and 1,420 guns. In addition to the French, it included the national corps of European countries conquered by Napoleon, as well as the Polish corps of Prince Jozef Anton Poniatowski.
Napoleon's main forces were deployed in two echelons. The first (444,000 people and 940 guns) consisted of three groups: the right wing, led by Jerome Bonaparte (78,000 people, 159 guns) was supposed to move to Grodno, diverting as many Russian forces as possible; the central group under the command of Eugene Beauharnais (82,000 people, 208 guns) was supposed to prevent the connection of the 1st and 2nd Russian armies; The left wing, led by Napoleon himself (218,000 people, 527 guns), moved to Vilna - it was assigned the main role in the entire campaign. In the rear, between the Vistula and Oder, there remained a second echelon - 170,000 people, 432 guns and a reserve (Marshal Augereau's corps and other troops).
The “Great Army” was opposed by 220 - 240 thousand Russian soldiers with 942 guns. In addition, as noted above, the Russian troops were divided: the 1st Western Army under the command of the Minister of War, Infantry General M.B. Barclay de Tolly (110 - 127 thousand people with 558 guns) stretched over 200 km from Lithuania to Grodno in Belarus; 2nd Western Army led by Infantry General P.I. Bagration (45 - 48 thousand people with 216 guns) occupied a line up to 100 km east of Bialystok; 3rd Western Army of Cavalry General A.P. Tormasova (46,000 people with 168 guns) stood in Volyn near Lutsk. On the right flank of the Russian troops (in Finland) was the corps of Lieutenant General F.F. Steingel (19 thousand people with 102 guns), on the left flank - the Danube Army of Admiral P.V. Chichagov (57 thousand people with 202 guns).
Given the enormous size and power of Russia, Napoleon planned to complete the campaign in three years: in 1812, to capture the western provinces from Riga to Lutsk, in 1813 - Moscow, in 1814 - St. Petersburg. Such gradualism would allow him to dismember Russia, providing rear support and communications for the army operating over vast areas. The conqueror of Europe did not count on a blitzkrieg, although he intended to one by one quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army in the border areas.
On the evening of June 24 (11), 1812, a patrol of the Life Guards Cossack Regiment under the command of the cornet Alexander Nikolayevich Rubashkin noticed a suspicious movement on the Neman River. When it became completely dark, a company of French sappers crossed the river from the elevated and wooded Polish bank to the Russian bank on boats and ferries, with whom a shootout took place. This happened three miles up the river from Kovno (Kaunas, Lithuania).
At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 25 (12), the vanguard of the French troops had already entered Kovno. The crossing of 220 thousand soldiers of the Great Army near Kovno took 4 days. The river was crossed by the 1st, 2nd, 3rd infantry corps, guards and cavalry. Emperor Alexander I was at a ball hosted by Leonty Leontyevich Bennigsen in Vilna, where he was informed about Napoleon's invasion.
June 30 (17) - July 1 (June 18) near Prena south of Kovno, another group crossed the Neman (79 thousand soldiers: 6th and 4th infantry corps, cavalry) under the command of the Viceroy of Italy, Napoleon's stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. Almost simultaneously, on July 1 (June 18), even further south, near Grodno, the Neman crossed 4 corps (78-79 thousand soldiers: 5th, 7th, 8th infantry and 4th cavalry corps) under the overall command of the King of Westphalia, brother Napoleon, Jerome Bonaparte.
In the northern direction near Tilsit, the Niemen crossed the 10th Corps of Marshal Etienne Jacques Macdonald. In the southern direction, from Warsaw through Bugn, a separate Austrian corps of General Karl Philipp Schwarzenberg (30-33 thousand soldiers) began to invade.
On June 29 (16), Vilna was occupied. Napoleon, having arranged state affairs in occupied Lithuania, left the city following his troops only on July 17 (4).
The French emperor targeted the 10th corps (32 thousand people) of Marshal E.Zh. MacDonald to St. Petersburg. First, the corps had to occupy Riga, and then, connecting with the 2nd Corps of Marshal Charles Nicolas Oudinot (28 thousand people), move on. The basis of MacDonald's corps were 20 thousand Prussian soldiers under the command of General Yu.A. Graverta.
Marshal MacDonald approached the fortifications of Riga, however, lacking siege artillery, he stopped at the distant approaches to the city. The military governor of Riga, General Ivan Nikolaevich Essen, burned the outskirts and prepared for defense. Trying to support Oudinot, Macdonald captured the abandoned city of Dinaburg (now Daugavpils in Latvia) on the Western Dvina River and stopped active operations, waiting for siege artillery from East Prussia. The Prussian military from MacDonald's corps avoided active combat clashes in a war that was foreign to them, however, they offered active resistance and repeatedly repulsed the attacks of the defenders of Riga with heavy losses.
Marshal Oudinot, having occupied the city of Polotsk, decided to bypass from the north the separate corps of General Pyotr Christianovich Wittgenstein (17 thousand people with 84 guns), allocated by the commander-in-chief of the 1st Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly during the retreat through Polotsk to defend the St. Petersburg direction.
Fearing a connection between Oudinot and MacDonald, P.H. Wittgenstein, unexpectedly for the enemy, attacked Oudinot's corps near Klyastitsy.
On July 29 (16), near the town of Vilkomir, 3 French cavalry regiments (12 squadrons) were unexpectedly attacked by 4 squadrons of the Grodno Hussar Regiment under the command of Major General Yakov Petrovich Kulnev and the Don Cossacks of Lieutenant Colonel Ivan Ivanovich Platov 4th (nephew of M.I. Platov) , Major Ivan Andreevich Selivanov 2nd, Colonel Mark Ivanovich Rodionov 2nd. Despite their numerical superiority, the French were overthrown and their advance stopped for several hours. Then, while on reconnaissance, near the village of Chernevo, the hussars and Cossacks Ya.P. Kulneva attacked units of the cavalry division of General Sebastiani. The enemy suffered heavy losses.
At the same time, Marshal Oudinot occupied the village of Klyastitsy, having 28 thousand soldiers and 114 guns against the Russians 17 thousand. However, General P.Kh. Wittgenstein decided to attack, taking advantage of the stretched French forces. The vanguard of Ya.P. moved ahead. Kulneva (3,700 horsemen, 12 guns), followed by the main forces of P.Kh. Wittgenstein (13 thousand soldiers, 72 guns).
July 31 (18) at 2 o'clock in the afternoon, the Russian vanguard under the command of Ya.P. Kulneva collided with the French vanguard near the village of Yakubovo. The encounter battle continued until the end of the day. Ya.P. Kulnev tried to oust the French from the village, but after a series of fierce battles the French held this settlement.
On August 1 (July 19), the main Russian forces entered the battle, and after several attacks and counterattacks, Yakubovo was captured. Oudinot was forced to retreat to Klyastitsy.
To continue the attack on Klyastitsy, it was necessary to cross the Nishcha River. Oudinot ordered the construction of a powerful battery and ordered the destruction of the only bridge. While the detachment of Ya.P. Kulneva was crossed by a ford to bypass the French positions, the 2nd battalion of the Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment attacked directly across the burning bridge. The French were forced to retreat.
General Ya.P. Kulnev continued the pursuit with 2 cavalry regiments together with the Cossacks I.I. Platov 4th, I.A. Selivanov 2nd, M.I. Rodionov 2nd, infantry battalion and artillery battery. After crossing the Drissa River on August 2 (July 20), he was ambushed near the village of Boyarshchino. The French artillery shot at Y.P.’s detachment. Kulneva from the commanding heights. He himself was mortally wounded.
Pursuing the Russian vanguard, the division of French General Jean Antoine Verdier, in turn, came across the main forces of General P.Kh. Wittgenstein and was completely destroyed. P.H. Wittgenstein was slightly wounded.
Marshal Oudinot retreated beyond the Dvina, leaving behind fortified Polotsk. Thus, the French offensive on St. Petersburg failed. Moreover, fearing the actions of General P.Kh. Wittgenstein on the supply routes of the Great Army, the French emperor was forced to weaken the main group of troops by sending the corps of General Gouvillon Saint-Cyr to help Oudinot.
In the main direction, the Moscow direction, the Russian troops, retreating, fought rearguard battles, inflicting significant losses on the enemy. The main task was to unite the forces of the 1st and 2nd Western armies. The position of Bagration's 2nd Army, which was threatened by encirclement, was especially difficult. It was not possible to get through to Minsk and connect with Barclay de Tolly’s army there, because. the path was cut off. Bagration changed the direction of movement, but the troops of Jerome Bonaparte overtook him. On July 9 (June 27), near the town of Mir, a rearguard battle of Russian troops took place, the basis of which was the Cossack cavalry of Ataman M.I. Platov with the best part of Napoleonic cavalry - the Polish cavalry regiments. The Polish lancers, who fell into the Cossack front, were defeated and hastily retreated. The next day a new battle took place, and again the Don people won.
July 14 (2) - July 15 (3) near the town of Romanovo, Cossacks M.I. Platov held back the French for 2 days to allow army convoys to cross Pripyat. Platov's successful rearguard battles allowed the 2nd Army to freely reach Bobruisk and concentrate its forces. All attempts to surround Bagration failed. Napoleon was furious that the Cossacks M.I. Platov destroyed the 1st Cavalry Regiment of Lieutenant Colonel Pshependovsky and the squadron of the 12th Uhlan Regiment, and also thoroughly “battered” other units of General Latour-Maubourg’s corps. And his officers and soldiers were surprised and delighted that their wounded comrades who were captured (there were 360 prisoners in total, including 17 officers) received medical care and care and were left in Romanov.
Bagration decided to advance to Mogilev. And in order to occupy the city before the French approached, he sent there the 7th Infantry Corps of Lieutenant General N.N. Raevsky and the brigade of Colonel V.A. Sysoev, which consisted of 5 Don Cossack regiments. But Marshal Davout's corps entered Mogilev much earlier. As a result, on July 23 (11), the corps N.N. Raevsky had to repel the advance of superior enemy forces between the villages of Saltanovka and Dashkovka. N.N. Raevsky personally led soldiers into battle. Both sides suffered heavy casualties; The enemy was driven back in fierce bayonet attacks, but the plan to break through Mogilev had to be abandoned. There was only one way left - to Smolensk. The fierce resistance of the Russians misled Davout. He decided that he was fighting the main forces of Bagration. The Napoleonic commander began to strengthen himself near the village of Saltanovka, expecting a second Russian offensive. Thanks to this, Bagration gained time, managed to cross the Dnieper and break away from the French on the way to Smolensk.
At this time, the 3rd Western Army of Alexander Petrovich Tormasov operated very successfully. Already on July 25 (13), the Russians liberated the city of Brest-Litovsk, captured by French units. On July 28 (16), the Tormasov captured Kobrin, capturing a 5,000-strong detachment of the Saxon Major General Klengel, led by himself.
On August 11 (July 30) in the battle of Gorodechno, Lieutenant General E.I. Markov repelled an attack by superior French forces. After these successes, the Southwestern Front stabilized. And here significant enemy forces were pinned down for a long time.
Meanwhile, important changes took place in the leadership of the Russian troops. On July 19 (7), Emperor Alexander I, who was in the 1st Western Army with his entire retinue, which greatly hampered the normal staff and operational work of the army, left for St. Petersburg. Barclay de Tolly got the opportunity to fully implement his plan for waging war against Napoleon, developed by him in 1810 - 1812. In general terms, it boiled down to the following: firstly, to avoid a general battle and retreat deeper into the country so as not to expose the army to the danger of defeat; secondly, to weaken the superior enemy forces and gain time to prepare fresh troops and militia.
Barclay de Tolly led the 1st Army to Vitebsk, where he hoped to wait for Bagration. Vanguard of the army under the command of A.I. Osterman-Tolstoy was sent to the village of Ostrovno to delay the French advance.
On July 24 (12), the battle with the advancing enemy began. The cavalry corps of Lieutenant General F.P. was sent to help Osterman-Tolstoy. Uvarov and the 3rd Infantry Division of Lieutenant General P.P. Konovnitsyn, which replaced the Osterman-Tolstoy building. After 3 days of stubborn fighting with the superior forces of Marshal Murat, Konovnitsyn began to slowly, with battles, retreat to the Luchesa River, where all of Barclay’s forces had already concentrated.
The fierce resistance of the Russians prompted Napoleon to think that they were ready to give the general battle that he so wanted. The French emperor brought his entire 150,000-strong group here (against 75,000 Russians). But Barclay de Tolly, having deployed the corps of Major General P.P. as cover. Palena broke away from the French and moved towards Smolensk. The troops of Marshals Ney and Murat were thrown onto the flank and rear of the Russian army. In their vanguard was the division of General Horace Francois Sebastiniani, consisting of 9 cavalry and 1 infantry regiments. On July 27 (15), near the village of Molevo Boloto, they clashed in a fierce battle with 7 Cossack regiments and 12 guns of the Don horse artillery under the overall command of Ataman M.I. Platova. The French were defeated and fled, pursued by the Don, and the hussars of P.P., who joined them at the end of the battle. Palena. About 300 privates and 12 officers were captured. In addition, the Cossacks seized O.F.’s personal documents. Sebastiniani, the content of which indicated that the French command knew the plans of the leadership of the Russian army, i.e. Napoleonic spy settled in the headquarters of Barclay de Tolly.
On August 2 (July 21) near the city of Krasny, the troops of Marshals Ney and Murat fought with the 27th Infantry Division of Lieutenant General D.P. Neverovsky, consisting of 7 thousand unfired recruits.
All day long, forming in a square and slowly moving towards Smolensk, this small detachment fought heroically, repelling 45 attacks by Murat’s cavalry and numerous attacks by Ney’s infantry.
The delay of the enemy near Krasnoye allowed Barclay de Tolly to bring the 1st Army to Smolensk. And on August 3 (July 22), Bagration’s 2nd Army approached Smolensk. As a result of all these efforts, Napoleon's plan to defeat the two Russian armies one by one collapsed.
For two days, August 4 and 5 (July 23–24), stubborn battles took place under the walls of Smolensk. On August 6 and 7 (July 25–26), the battle continued for the city itself.
But there was no general battle here either. Inspired by the heroism of Russian soldiers and officers and private successes, many military leaders insisted on going on the offensive. However, Barclay de Tolly, having weighed everything, decided to continue the retreat. On August 7 (July 26) Russian troops left Smolensk.
Napoleon sent his best forces after them - two infantry and two cavalry corps - about 35 thousand people. They were opposed by the rearguard of General Pavel Alekseevich Tuchkov, numbering 3 thousand people, half of which were Don Cossacks under the command of Major General A.A. Karpov and a company (12 guns) of the Don horse artillery.
Already on the morning of August 7 (July 26), Marshal Ney attacked P.A. Tuchkov’s corps at Valutina Gora (Battle of Lubinsk), but was repulsed. However, the enemy pressure increased. Our rearguard retreated a little and gained a foothold on the line of the Stragan River. Chief of Staff of the 1st Army A.P. Ermolov strengthened P.A. Tuchkov's first cavalry corps, which included a Life Guards Cossack regiment and 4 hussar regiments. Now the forces of the Russian corps have grown to 10 thousand people. As enemy attacks intensified, Barclay de Tolly strengthened Tuchkov's corps with new units. The 3rd Infantry Corps of General P.P. approached the village of Dubino. Konovnitsyna. After this, 15 thousand Russians confronted the corps of Ney, Murat and Junot, who joined them. Cossacks and hussars under the command of Count V.V. Orlov-Denisov, using the “venter”, was lured into an ambush near the village of Zabolotye and inflicted great damage on Murat’s cavalry.
In total, the enemy lost about 9 thousand people that day, and the Russians lost more than 5 thousand people. During the night attack, General P.A. was seriously wounded and captured. Tuchkov.
But his troops held out and gave the 1st and 2nd armies the opportunity to break away from pursuit French troops.
Russian units retreated in three columns. They were covered by rearguard detachments: Southern - under the command of General K.K. Siversa, Central - under the command of General M.I. Platov, Northern - under the command of General K.A. Kreutz. But the brunt of the fighting fell on the M.I. unit. Platova. It consisted of 8 incomplete Don Cossack regiments: Atamansky, Balabin S.F., Vlasov M.G., Grekov T.D., Denisov V.T., Zhirov I.I., Ilovaisky N.V., Kharitonova K.I. and one Simferopol equestrian Tatar.
On August 9 (July 28), Platov’s fighters held back the onslaught of the French at the Solovyova crossing of the Dnieper. On August 10 (July 29) they detained the enemy at Pnevaya Sloboda, and in the meantime, 7 infantry battalions, 18 squadrons of hussars and lancers and 22 guns, including Don horse artillery, arrived to reinforce them, under the command of Major General G.V. Rosen, took a convenient position near the village of Mikhailovka. Where they repulsed enemy attacks on August 11 and 12 (July 30 and 31). On August 13 (1), Napoleonic troops were detained for a whole day near the city of Dorogobuzh at the turn of the Osma River. On August 14 (2), the Cossacks and Tatars of Platov fettered the advance of the French vanguard, remaining in their positions, giving the opportunity to the detachment of G.V. Rosen, retreat and gain a foothold near the village of Belomirskoye. On August 15 (3), the battle here lasted from 11 a.m. to 8 p.m. On this day, the Cossacks rushed to attack the enemy 6 times and lost more killed and wounded than in the entire time since the beginning of the war.
On the evening of August 16 (4), M.I. Platov handed over command of the rearguard to General P.P. Konovnitsin and went to Moscow to resolve the accumulated issues: about the formation and dispatch of the Don militia to the theater of operations - 26 regiments, supplies for the regiments already fighting against the French army, and many others. The rearguard continued to carry out its assigned tasks. Thanks to this, the main forces of the Russian army retreated without major losses.
A. Northen "Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow"
As you know, war usually begins when a lot of reasons and circumstances converge at one point, when mutual claims and grievances reach enormous proportions, and the voice of reason is drowned out.
Background
After 1807, Napoleon marched victoriously across Europe and beyond, and only Great Britain did not want to submit to him: it seized French colonies in America and India and dominated the sea, interfering with French trade. The only thing Napoleon could do in such a situation was to declare a continental blockade of Great Britain (after the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805, Napoleon lost the opportunity to fight England at sea, where she became almost the only ruler). He decided to disrupt England's trade by closing all European ports to it, dealing a crushing blow to Britain's trade and economy. But the effectiveness of the continental blockade depended on other European states and their compliance with sanctions. Napoleon persistently demanded that Alexander I more consistently implement the continental blockade, but for Russia, Great Britain was the main trading partner, and she did not want to break off trade relations with her.
P. Delaroche "Napoleon Bonaparte"
In 1810, Russia introduced free trade with neutral countries, which allowed it to trade with Great Britain through intermediaries, and also adopted a protective tariff that increased customs rates mainly on imported French goods. Napoleon was outraged by Russian policies. But he also had a personal reason for the war with Russia: in order to confirm the legitimacy of his coronation, he wanted to marry a representative of one of the monarchies, but Alexander I twice rejected his proposals: the first time for a marriage with his sister Grand Duchess Catherine, and then with Grand Duchess Anna. Napoleon married the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I, but declared in 1811: “ In five years I will be the ruler of the whole world. There is only Russia left - I will crush it...." At the same time, Napoleon continued to violate the Truce of Tilsit by occupying Prussia. Alexander demanded that French troops be withdrawn from there. In a word, the military machine began to spin: Napoleon concluded a military treaty with the Austrian Empire, which pledged to provide France with an army of 30 thousand for the war with Russia, then followed by an agreement with Prussia, which provided another 20 thousand soldiers for Napoleon’s army, and the French emperor himself intensively studied military and economic situation Russia, preparing for war with it. But Russian intelligence was not asleep either: M.I. Kutuzov successfully concludes a peace treaty with Turkey (ending the 5-year war for Moldova), thereby liberating the Danube Army under the command of Admiral Chichagov; in addition, information about the state of the Grand French Army and its movements was regularly intercepted at the Russian embassy in Paris.
Thus, both sides prepared for war. The size of the French army was, according to various sources, from 400 to 500 thousand soldiers, of which only half were French, the remaining soldiers were 16 nationalities, mainly Germans and Poles. Napoleon's army was well armed and financially secure. Its only weakness was precisely the diversity of its national composition.
The size of the Russian army: the 1st Army of Barclay de Tolly and the 2nd Army of Bagration were 153 thousand soldiers + the 3rd Army of Tormasov 45 thousand + the Danube Army of Admiral Chichagov 55 thousand + the Finnish corps of Steingel 19 thousand + a separate corps of Essen nearby Riga 18 thousand + 20-25 thousand Cossacks = approximately 315 thousand. Technically, Russia did not lag behind France. But embezzlement flourished in the Russian army. England provided Russia with material and financial support.
Barclay de Tolly. Lithograph by A. Munster
Starting the war, Napoleon did not plan to send his troops deep into Russia; his plans were to create a complete continental blockade of England, then include Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania in Poland and create a Polish state as a counterbalance. Russian Empire, in order to then conclude a military alliance with Russia and jointly move towards India. Truly, Napoleonic plans! Napoleon hoped to end the battle with Russia in the border areas with his victory, so the retreat of Russian troops into the interior of the country took him by surprise.
Alexander I foresaw this circumstance (disastrous for the French army to advance in depth): “ If Emperor Napoleon starts a war against me, then it is possible and even probable that he will beat us if we accept the battle, but this will not yet give him peace. ... We have an immense space behind us, and we will maintain a well-organized army. ... If the lot of arms decides the case against me, then I would rather retreat to Kamchatka than cede my provinces and sign treaties in my capital that are only a respite. The Frenchman is brave, but long hardships and bad climate tire and discourage him. Our climate and our winter will fight for us“, he wrote to the French Ambassador to Russia A. Caulaincourt.
Beginning of the war
The first skirmish with the French (a company of sappers) occurred on June 23, 1812, when they crossed to the Russian coast. And at 6 o’clock in the morning on June 24, 1812, the vanguard of the French troops entered Kovno. In the evening of the same day, Alexander I was informed about Napoleon's invasion. Thus began the Patriotic War of 1812.
Napoleon's army attacked simultaneously in the northern, central and southern directions. For the northern direction, the main task was to capture St. Petersburg (after first occupying Riga). But as a result of the battles near Klyastitsy and on August 17 near Polotsk (a battle between the 1st Russian Infantry Corps under the command of General Wittgenstein and the French corps of Marshal Oudinot and General Saint-Cyr). This battle did not have serious consequences. Over the next two months, the parties did not conduct active hostilities, accumulating forces. Wittgenstein's task was prevent the French from advancing towards St. Petersburg, Saint-Cyr blocked the Russian corps.
The main battles took place in the Moscow direction.
The 1st Western Russian Army was stretched from Baltic Sea to Belarus (Lida). It was headed by Barclay de Tolly, chief of staff - General A.P. Ermolov. The Russian army was threatened with destruction in parts, because... Napoleonic army advanced rapidly. 2nd Western Army, led by P.I. Bagration, was located near Grodno. Bagration's attempt to connect with Barclay de Tolly's 1st Army was unsuccessful, and he retreated to the south. But the Cossacks of Ataman Platov supported Bagration’s army at Grodno. On July 8, Marshal Davout took Minsk, but Bagration, bypassing Minsk to the south, moved to Bobruisk. According to the plan, two Russian armies were to unite in Vitebsk in order to block the French road to Smolensk. A battle took place near Saltanovka, as a result of which Raevsky delayed Davout’s advance to Smolensk, but the path to Vitebsk was closed.
N. Samokish "The feat of Raevsky's soldiers near Saltanovka"
On July 23, Barclay de Tolly's 1st Army arrived in Vitebsk with the goal of waiting for the 2nd Army. Barclay de Tolly sent Osterman-Tolstoy's 4th Corps to meet the French, which fought near Vitebsk, near Ostrovno. However, the armies still could not reunite, and then Barclay de Tolly retreated from Vitebsk to Smolensk, where both Russian armies united on August 3. On August 13, Napoleon also set out for Smolensk, having rested in Vitebsk.
The 3rd Russian Southern Army was commanded by General Tormasov. The French General Rainier stretched his corps along a line of 179 km: Brest-Kobrin-Pinsk, Tormasov took advantage of the irrational location of the French army and defeated it near Kobrin, but, uniting with the corps of General Schwarzenberg, Rainier attacked Tormasov, and he was forced to retreat to Lutsk.
To Moscow!
Napoleon is credited with the phrase: “ If I take Kyiv, I will take Russia by the feet; if I take possession of St. Petersburg, I will take her by the head; Having occupied Moscow, I will strike her in the heart" Whether Napoleon spoke these words or not is now impossible to establish for sure. But one thing is clear: the main forces of Napoleonic army were aimed at capturing Moscow. On August 16, Napoleon was already at Smolensk with an army of 180 thousand and on the same day he began his assault. Barclay de Tolly did not consider it possible to fight here and retreated with his army from the burning city. The French Marshal Ney was pursuing the retreating Russian army, and the Russians decided to give him battle. On August 19, a bloody battle took place at Valutina Mountain, as a result of which Ney suffered heavy losses and was detained. The battle for Smolensk is the beginning of the people's, Patriotic, war: the population began to leave their homes and burn settlements along the route of the French army. Here Napoleon seriously doubted his brilliant victory and asked General P.A., who was captured in the battle of Valutina Gora. Tuchkova to write a letter to his brother so that he would bring to the attention of Alexander I Napoleon’s desire to make peace. He did not receive a response from Alexander I. Meanwhile, relations between Bagration and Barclay de Tolly after Smolensk became increasingly tense and irreconcilable: each saw his own path to victory over Napoleon. On August 17, the Extraordinary Committee approved Infantry General Kutuzov as the single commander-in-chief, and on August 29, in Tsarevo-Zaimishche, he already received the army. Meanwhile, the French had already entered Vyazma...
V. Kelerman "Moscow militias on the Old Smolensk Road"
M.I. Kutuzov, by that time already a famous military leader and diplomat, who served under Catherine II, Paul I, participated in Russian-Turkish wars, in the Russian-Polish War, in 1802 he fell into disgrace with Alexander I, was removed from office and lived on his estate Goroshki in the Zhitomir region. But when Russia joined the coalition to fight Napoleon, he was appointed commander-in-chief of one of the armies and showed himself to be an experienced commander. But after the Austerlitz defeat, which Kutuzov opposed and which Alexander I insisted on, although he did not blame Kutuzov for the defeat, and even awarded him the Order of St. Vladimir, 1st degree, he did not forgive him for the defeat.
At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov was appointed head of the St. Petersburg and then the Moscow militia, but the unsuccessful course of the war showed that an experienced commander of the entire Russian army was needed who enjoyed the trust of society. Alexander I was forced to appoint Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army and militia.
Kutuzov initially continued Barclay de Tolly's strategy - retreat. The words are attributed to him: « We will not defeat Napoleon. We will deceive him».
At the same time, Kutuzov understood the need for a general battle: firstly, this was required public opinion, which was concerned about the constant retreat of the Russian army; secondly, further retreat would mean the voluntary surrender of Moscow.
On September 3, the Russian army stood near the village of Borodino. Here Kutuzov decided to give a big battle, but in order to distract the French to gain time to prepare fortifications, he ordered General Gorchakov to fight near the village of Shevardino, where there was a fortified redoubt (a closed-type fortification, with a rampart and a ditch, intended for all-round defense). All day on September 5 there was a battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt.
After 12 hours of bloody battle, the French pressed the left flank and center of the Russian positions, but were unable to develop the offensive. The Russian army suffered heavy losses (40-45 thousand killed and wounded), the French - 30-34 thousand. There were almost no prisoners on either side. On September 8, Kutuzov ordered a retreat to Mozhaisk with the confidence that only in this way could the army be saved.
On September 13, a meeting was held in the village of Fili on the further plan of action. Most of the generals spoke in favor of a new battle. Kutuzov interrupted the meeting and ordered a retreat through Moscow along the Ryazan road. By the evening of September 14, Napoleon entered empty Moscow. On that same day, a fire began in Moscow, engulfing almost the entire Zemlyanoy city and White City, as well as the outskirts of the city, destroying three quarters of the buildings.
A. Smirnov "Fire of Moscow"
There is still no single version about the causes of the fire in Moscow. There are several of them: organized arson by residents when leaving the city, deliberate arson by Russian spies, uncontrolled actions of the French, an accidental fire, the spread of which was facilitated by the general chaos in the abandoned city. Kutuzov directly pointed out that the French burned Moscow. Since the fire had several sources, it is possible that all versions are true.
More than half burned in the fire residential buildings, more than 8 thousand retail outlets, 122 temples out of the existing 329; Up to 2 thousand wounded Russian soldiers left in Moscow died. The university, theaters, and libraries were destroyed, and the manuscript “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the Trinity Chronicle were burned in the Musin-Pushkin palace. Not the entire population of Moscow left the city, only more than 50 thousand people (out of 270 thousand).
In Moscow, Napoleon, on the one hand, builds a plan for a campaign against St. Petersburg, on the other hand, he makes attempts to make peace with Alexander I, but at the same time remains with his demands (a continental blockade of England, the rejection of Lithuania and the creation of a military alliance with Russia). He makes three offers of truce, but receives no response from Alexander to any of them.
Militia
I. Arkhipov "Militia of 1812"
July 18, 1812 Alexander I issues a Manifesto and an appeal to the residents of the “Most Throne Capital of our Moscow” with a call to join the militia (temporary armed formations to help active army to repel the invasion of Napoleonic army). Zemstvo militias were limited to 16 provinces directly adjacent to the theater of operations:
District I - Moscow, Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Ryazan, Tula, Kaluga, Smolensk provinces - was intended to protect Moscow.
District II - St. Petersburg and Novgorod provinces - provided “protection” of the capital.
III district (Volga region) - Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Kostroma, Simbirsk and Vyatka provinces - reserve of the first two militia districts.
The rest of the provinces should remain “inactive” until “there is a need to use them for sacrifices and services equal to the Fatherland.”
Drawing of the banner of the St. Petersburg militia
Chiefs of militias of the Patriotic War of 1812
| Militia of districts and provinces of Russia | Chiefs |
| 1st (Moscow) militia district | Moscow military governor general, infantry general F.V. Rostopchin (Rastopchin) |
| Moscow | Lieutenant General I.I. Morkov (Markov) |
| Tverskaya | Lieutenant General Ya.I. Tyrtov |
| Yaroslavskaya | Major General Ya.I. Dedyulin |
| Vladimirskaya | Lieutenant General B.A. Golitsyn |
| Ryazan | Major General L.D. Izmailov |
| Tula | Civil Governor, Privy Councilor N.I. Bogdanov from 16.11. 1812 – Major General I.I. Miller |
| Kaluzhskaya | Lieutenant General V.F. Shepelev |
| Smolenskaya | Lieutenant General N.P. Lebedev |
| II (St. Petersburg) militia district | General of Infantry M.I. Kutuzov (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), from 27.8. to 09.22.1812 Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky, then - Senator A.A. Bibikov |
| St. Petersburg | General of Infantry M.I. Kutuzov (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), from August 8, 1812, Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky |
| Novgorodskaya | Gene. from infantry N.S. Svechin, from Sep. 1812 Lieutenant General P.I. performed part-time duties. Meller-Zakomelsky, Zherebtsov A.A. |
| III (Volga region) militia district | Lieutenant General P.A. Tolstoy |
| Kazanskaya | Major General D.A. Bulygin |
| Nizhny Novgorod | Valid Chamberlain, Prince G.A. Georgian |
| Penza | Major General N.F. Kishensky |
| Kostromskaya | Lieutenant General P.G. Bordakov |
| Simbirskaya | Valid State Councilor D.V. Tenishev |
| Vyatskaya | — |
The collection of militias was entrusted to the apparatus state power, nobility and church. The military trained warriors, a gathering was announced Money for the militia. Each landowner had to deadlines present a certain number of equipped and armed warriors from among their serfs. Unauthorized departure joining the militia of serfs was considered a crime. Selection for the detachment was made by the landowner or peasant communities by lot.
I. Luchaninov "Blessing of the Militia"
There were not enough firearms for the militia; they were primarily allocated for the formation of reserve units of the regular army. Therefore, after the end of the gathering, all the militias, except for the St. Petersburg one, were armed mainly with edged weapons - pikes, spears and axes. Military training of the militias took place according to a shortened recruit training program by officers and lower ranks from the army and Cossack units. In addition to zemstvo (peasant) militias, the formation of Cossack militias began. Some wealthy landowners assembled entire regiments from their serfs or formed them at their own expense.
In some cities and villages adjacent to the Smolensk, Moscow, Kaluga, Tula, Tver, Pskov, Chernigov, Tambov, and Oryol provinces, “cordons” or “guard militias” were formed for self-defense and maintenance internal order.
The convening of the militia allowed the government of Alexander I to short time mobilize large human and material resources for the war. After completion of formation, the entire militia was under the unified command of Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov and the supreme leadership of Emperor Alexander I.
S. Gersimov "Kutuzov - Chief of the Militia"
During the period that the Great French Army was in Moscow, the Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Tula, Ryazan and Kaluga militias defended the borders of their provinces from enemy foragers and marauders and, together with army partisans, blocked the enemy in Moscow, and when the French retreated, they were pursued by the militias of Moscow, Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslavl, Tula, Kaluga, St. Petersburg and Novgorod zemstvo provincial troops, Don, Little Russian and Bashkir Cossack regiments, as well as individual battalions, squadrons and detachments. The militia could not be used as an independent fighting force, because they had poor military training and weapons. But they fought against enemy foragers, looters, deserters, and also performed police functions to maintain internal order. They destroyed and captured 10-12 thousand enemy soldiers and officers.
After the end of hostilities on Russian territory, all provincial militias, except Vladimir, Tver and Smolensk, participated in the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814. In the spring of 1813, the Moscow and Smolensk troops were disbanded, and by the end of 1814, all other zemstvo troops were disbanded.
Guerrilla warfare
J. Doe "D.V. Davydov"
After the Moscow fire started guerrilla warfare and passive resistance increased. The peasants refused to supply the French with food and fodder, went into the forests, burned unharvested grain in the fields so that the enemy would not get anything. Volatile partisan detachments for operations in the rear and on the enemy’s communication lines in order to impede his supply and destroy his small detachments. The most famous commanders of the flying detachments were Denis Davydov, Alexander Seslavin, Alexander Figner. Army partisan units received comprehensive support from a spontaneous peasant partisan movement. It was the violence and looting by the French that sparked the guerrilla war. The partisans made up the first ring of encirclement around Moscow, occupied by the French, and the second ring was made up of militias.
Battle at Tarutino
Kutuzov, retreating, took the army south to the village of Tarutino, closer to Kaluga. Being on the old Kaluga road, Kutuzov's army covered Tula, Kaluga, Bryansk and the grain-producing southern provinces, and threatened the enemy rear between Moscow and Smolensk. He waited, knowing that Napoleon’s army would not last long in Moscow without provisions, and winter was approaching... On October 18, near Tarutino, he gave battle to the French barrier under the command of Murat - and Murat’s retreat marked the fact that the initiative in the war had passed to the Russians.
Beginning of the End
Napoleon was forced to think about wintering his army. Where? “I’m going to look for another position from where it will be more profitable to launch a new campaign, the action of which will be directed towards St. Petersburg or Kyiv" And at this time Kutuzov put everything under surveillance possible ways withdrawal of Napoleonic army from Moscow. Kutuzov's foresight was manifested in the fact that with his Tarutino maneuver he anticipated the movement of French troops to Smolensk through Kaluga.
On October 19, the French army (consisting of 110 thousand) began to leave Moscow along the Old Kaluga Road. Napoleon planned to get to the nearest large food base in Smolensk through an area not devastated by the war - through Kaluga, but Kutuzov blocked his way. Then Napoleon turned near the village of Troitsky onto the New Kaluga Road (modern Kyiv highway) to bypass Tarutino. However, Kutuzov transferred the army to Maloyaroslavets and cut off the French retreat along the New Kaluga Road.
Already in Moscow, this war would not turn into a brilliant victory for him, but a shameful flight from Russia the distraught soldiers of his once great army, which conquered all of Europe? In 1807, after the defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the French near Friedland, Emperor Alexander I was forced to sign the unfavorable and humiliating Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon. At that moment, no one thought that in a few years Russian troops would drive Napoleon’s army to Paris, and Russia would take a leading position in European politics.
Causes and course of the Patriotic War of 1812
Main reasons
- Violation by both Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia sabotaged the continental blockade of England, which was disadvantageous for itself. France, in violation of the treaty, stationed troops in Prussia, annexing the Duchy of Oldenburg.
- The policy towards European states pursued by Napoleon without taking into account the interests of Russia.
- An indirect reason can also be considered that Bonaparte twice made attempts to marry the sisters of Alexander the First, but both times he was refused.
Since 1810, both sides have been actively pursuing preparation to war, accumulating military forces.
Beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812
Who, if not Bonaparte, who conquered Europe, could be confident in his blitzkrieg? Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army in border battles. Early in the morning of June 24, 1812, the Grand Army of the French crossed the Russian border in four places.
The northern flank under the command of Marshal MacDonald set out in the direction of Riga - St. Petersburg. Main a group of troops under the command of Napoleon himself advanced towards Smolensk. To the south of the main forces, the offensive was developed by the corps of Napoleon's stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. The corps of the Austrian general Karl Schwarzenberg was advancing in the Kiev direction.
After crossing the border, Napoleon failed to maintain the high tempo of the offensive. It was not only the vast Russian distances and the famous Russian roads that were to blame. The local population gave the French army a slightly different reception than in Europe. Sabotage food supplies from the occupied territories became the most massive form of resistance to the invaders, but, of course, only a regular army could provide serious resistance to them.
Before joining Moscow the French army had to participate in nine major battles. IN large quantities battles and armed skirmishes. Even before the occupation of Smolensk, the Great Army lost 100 thousand soldiers, but, in general, the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 was extremely unsuccessful for the Russian army.
On the eve of the invasion of Napoleonic army, Russian troops were dispersed in three places. The first army of Barclay de Tolly was near Vilna, the second army of Bagration was near Volokovysk, and the third army of Tormasov was in Volyn. Strategy Napoleon's goal was to break up the Russian armies separately. Russian troops begin to retreat.
Through the efforts of the so-called Russian party, instead of Barclay de Tolly, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed to the post of commander-in-chief, with whom many generals with Russian surnames sympathized. The retreat strategy was not popular in Russian society.
However, Kutuzov continued to adhere to tactics retreat chosen by Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon sought to impose a main, general battle on the Russian army as soon as possible.
The main battles of the Patriotic War of 1812
Bloody battle for Smolensk became a rehearsal for a general battle. Bonaparte, hoping that the Russians will concentrate all their forces here, is preparing the main blow, and pulls up an army of 185 thousand to the city. Despite Bagration's objections, Baclay de Tolly decides to leave Smolensk. The French, having lost more than 20 thousand people in battle, entered the burning and destroyed city. The Russian army, despite the surrender of Smolensk, retained its combat effectiveness.
The news about surrender of Smolensk overtook Kutuzov near Vyazma. Meanwhile, Napoleon advanced his army towards Moscow. Kutuzov found himself in a very serious situation. He continued his retreat, but before leaving Moscow, Kutuzov had to fight a general battle. The protracted retreat left a depressing impression on the Russian soldiers. Everyone was full of desire to give a decisive battle. When a little more than a hundred miles remained to Moscow, on a field near the village of Borodino the Great Army collided, as Bonaparte himself later admitted, with the Invincible Army.
Before the start of the battle, the Russian troops numbered 120 thousand, the French numbered 135 thousand. On the left flank of the formation of Russian troops were Semyonov’s flashes and units of the second army Bagration. On the right are the battle formations of the first army of Barclay de Tolly, and the old Smolensk road was covered by the third infantry corps of General Tuchkov.
At dawn, September 7, Napoleon inspected the positions. At seven o'clock in the morning the French batteries gave the signal to begin the battle.
The grenadiers of Major General took the brunt of the first blow Vorontsova and 27th Infantry Division Nemerovsky near the village of Semenovskaya. The French broke into Semyonov's flushes several times, but abandoned them under the pressure of Russian counterattacks. During the main counterattack here, Bagration was mortally wounded. As a result, the French managed to capture the flushes, but they did not gain any advantages. They failed to break through the left flank, and the Russians retreated in an organized manner to the Semyonov ravines, taking up a position there.
A difficult situation developed in the center, where Bonaparte’s main attack was directed, where the battery fought desperately Raevsky. To break the resistance of the battery defenders, Napoleon was already ready to bring his main reserve into battle. But this was prevented by Platov’s Cossacks and Uvarov’s cavalrymen, who, on Kutuzov’s orders, carried out a swift raid into the rear of the French left flank. This stopped the French advance on Raevsky's battery for about two hours, which allowed the Russians to bring up some reserves.
After bloody battles, the Russians retreated from Raevsky’s battery in an organized manner and again took up defensive positions. The battle, which had already lasted twelve hours, gradually subsided.
During Battle of Borodino The Russians lost almost half of their personnel, but continued to hold their positions. The Russian army lost twenty-seven of its best generals, four of them were killed, and twenty-three were wounded. The French lost about thirty thousand soldiers. Of the thirty French generals who were incapacitated, eight died.
Brief results of the Battle of Borodino:
- Napoleon was unable to defeat the Russian army and achieve the complete surrender of Russia.
- Kutuzov, although he greatly weakened Bonaparte’s army, was unable to defend Moscow.
Despite the fact that the Russians were formally unable to win, the Borodino field forever remained in Russian history as a field of Russian glory.
Having received information about losses near Borodino, Kutuzov I realized that the second battle would be disastrous for the Russian army, and Moscow would have to be abandoned. At the military council in Fili, Kutuzov insisted on the surrender of Moscow without a fight, although many generals were against it.
September 14 Russian army left Moscow. The Emperor of Europe, observing the majestic panorama of Moscow from Poklonnaya Hill, was waiting for the city delegation with the keys to the city. After the hardships and hardships of war, Bonaparte’s soldiers found the long-awaited warm apartments, food and valuables that Muscovites, who for the most part left the city along with the army, did not have time to take out.
After widespread looting and looting Fires started in Moscow. Due to the dry and windy weather, the entire city was on fire. For safety reasons, Napoleon was forced to move from the Kremlin to the suburban Petrovsky Palace; on the way, he got lost and almost burned himself to death.
Bonaparte allowed the soldiers of his army to plunder what was not yet burned. The French army was distinguished by its defiant disdain for the local population. Marshal Davout built his bedroom in the altar of the Archangel Church. Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin The French used it as a stable, and in Arkhangelskoye they organized an army kitchen. The oldest monastery in Moscow, St. Daniel's Monastery, was equipped for cattle slaughter.
This behavior of the French outraged the entire Russian people to the core. Everyone burned with vengeance for the desecrated shrines and the desecration of the Russian land. Now the war has finally acquired the character and content domestic.
The expulsion of the French from Russia and the end of the war
Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, committed maneuver, thanks to which the French army had already lost the initiative before the end of the war. The Russians, retreating along the Ryazan road, were able to march onto the old Kaluga road, and entrenched themselves near the village of Tarutino, from where they were able to control all directions leading from Moscow to the south, through Kaluga.
Kutuzov foresaw that precisely Kaluga land unaffected by the war, Bonaparte will begin to retreat. The entire time Napoleon was in Moscow, the Russian army was replenished with fresh reserves. On October 18, near the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov attacked the French units of Marshal Murat. As a result of the battle, the French lost more than four thousand people and retreated. Russian losses amounted to about one and a half thousand.
Bonaparte realized the futility of his expectations of a peace treaty, and the very next day after the Tarutino battle he hastily left Moscow. The Grand Army now resembled a barbarian horde with plundered property. Having completed complex maneuvers on the march to Kaluga, the French entered Maloyaroslavets. On October 24, Russian troops decided to drive the French out of the city. Maloyaroslavets as a result of a stubborn battle, it changed hands eight times.
This battle became a turning point in the history of the Patriotic War of 1812. The French had to retreat along the old Smolensk road they had destroyed. Now the once Great Army considered its successful retreats as victories. Russian troops used parallel pursuit tactics. After the battle of Vyazma, and especially after the battle near the village of Krasnoye, where the losses of Bonaparte’s army were comparable to its losses at Borodino, the effectiveness of such tactics became obvious.
In the territories occupied by the French they were active partisans. Bearded peasants, armed with pitchforks and axes, suddenly appeared from the forest, which numbed the French. Element people's war captured not only the peasants, but also all classes of Russian society. Kutuzov himself sent his son-in-law, Prince Kudashev, to the partisans, who led one of the detachments.
The last and decisive blow was dealt to Napoleon's army at the crossing Berezina River. Many Western historians consider the Berezina operation almost a triumph of Napoleon, who managed to preserve the Great Army, or rather its remnants. About 9 thousand French soldiers were able to cross the Berezina.
Napoleon, who did not lose, in fact, a single battle in Russia, lost campaign. The Great Army ceased to exist.
Results of the Patriotic War of 1812
- In the vastness of Russia, the French army was almost completely destroyed, which affected the balance of power in Europe.
- The self-awareness of all layers of Russian society has increased unusually.
- Russia, having emerged victorious from the war, strengthened its position in the geopolitical arena.
- The national liberation movement intensified in European countries, conquered by Napoleon.
The Patriotic War of 1812, the reasons for which were Napoleon’s desire to dominate the whole world by capturing all states, became a significant milestone in the history of our country. At that time, of all the European countries, only Russia and England continued to maintain independence. Napoleon felt particular irritation towards to the Russian state, which continues to oppose the expansion of its aggression and systematically violate
Entering into confrontation with the French, Russia acted as the intercessor of the monarchical states of Europe.
They had been preparing for war since 1810. Russia and France understood that military action was inevitable.
The French emperor sent troops to create weapons depots there. Russia felt threatened and began to increase the size of the army in the western provinces.
The Patriotic War of 1812 began with Napoleon's invasion on June 12. The 600,000-strong French army crossed the Neman.
At the same time, the Russian government developed a plan to confront the invaders. It was created by the theorist Ful. According to the plan, the entire Russian army was composed of three parts. Bagration, Tormasov, and Barclay de Tolly were chosen as commanders. According to Fuhl's assumption, the Russian troops were supposed to retreat to fortified positions systematically and, having united, repulse the onslaught of the French. However, the Patriotic War of 1812 began to develop differently. The Russian army was retreating, and Napoleon was approaching Moscow. Despite Russian resistance, the French soon found themselves close to the capital.
The situation that began to develop required immediate action. Kutuzov took over the post of commander-in-chief of the Russian troops on August 20.
The general battle took place on August 26 near the village of Battle). This battle was the bloodiest one-day battle in the entire history of the country. There was no winner in this battle. But there were no losers either. However, after assessing the situation, Kutuzov decides to retreat after the battle. It was decided to give up Moscow without a fight. All residents were removed from the capital, and the city itself was burned.
On September 2, Napoleonic soldiers entered Moscow. The French commander-in-chief assumed that the Muscovites would bring him the keys to the city. But the city was burned, all the barns with ammunition and provisions burned down.
The next battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. There were fierce battles, during which the French army wavered. Napoleon had to retreat along the same road along which he came (along Old Smolenskaya).
The next battles took place near Krasnoye, Vyazma, near the crossing of the Berezina. The Russian army drove the French out of their land. Thus, the Napoleonic invasion of Russia ended.
The Patriotic War of 1812 ended on December 23, about which Alexander 1 signed a manifesto. However, the Napoleonic campaign continued. The battles continued until 1814.
Patriotic War of 1812. Results
Military operations at that time began in Russia. This war caused a surge in the national consciousness of the Russian people. Absolutely the entire population, regardless of age, took part in the battle with Napoleon.
Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 confirmed Russian heroism and courage. This battle gave birth to the stories of great people: Kutuzov, Raevsky, Bagration, Tormasov and others whose names will forever be remembered in history. The war with the Napoleonic army was a striking example of the self-sacrifice of the people in the name of saving their Motherland.
The military events of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place on the territory of Russia between it and France. The reason was Alexander I's refusal to support the continental blockade, which Napoleon wanted to use as the main weapon against Great Britain. In addition, France's policy towards European states did not take into account the interests of the Russian Empire. And as a result, the Patriotic War of 1812 began. You will learn briefly but informatively about military operations from this article.
Background to the war
Due to the defeat of the Russian army in the Battle of Friedland in 1807, Alexander I concluded the Peace of Tilsit with Napoleon Bonaparte. By signing the agreement, the head of Russia was obliged to join the continental blockade of the United Kingdom, which, in fact, contradicted the political and economic interests of the empire. This world became a shame and humiliation - this is what the Russian nobility thought. But the Russian government decided to use the Peace of Tilsit for its own purposes to accumulate forces and prepare for war with Bonaparte.
As a result of the Erfurt Congress, the empire took Finland and a number of other territories, and France, in turn, was ready to capture all of Europe. After numerous annexations, Napoleon's army moved significantly closer to the Russian border.
Russian empire
The reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 on the part of Russia were primarily economic. The terms of the Peace of Tilsit dealt a significant blow to the finances of the empire. For clear example Let's give a number of figures: before 1807, Russian merchants and landowners exported 2.2 million quarters of grain for sale, and after the agreement - only 600 thousand. This reduction led to a drop in value of this product. At the same time, the export of gold to France in exchange for all sorts of luxury goods increased. These and other events led to the depreciation of money.
The territorial causes of the Patriotic War of 1812 are somewhat complicated due to Napoleon's desire to conquer the whole world. The year 1807 went down in history as the time of the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from lands that at that time belonged to Poland. The newly formed state wanted to unite all the territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. To fulfill the plan, it was necessary to separate from Russia part of the lands that once belonged to Poland.
Three years later, Bonaparte seized the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, who was a relative of Alexander I. The Russian emperor demanded the return of the lands, which, of course, did not happen. After these conflicts, talk began to appear about signs of a coming and inevitable war between the two empires.
France
The main reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 for France are an obstacle international trade, as a result of which the state of the country’s economy has noticeably deteriorated. In essence, Napoleon's main and only enemy was Great Britain. The United Kingdom captured the colonies of countries such as India, America and, again, France. Considering that England literally reigned at sea, the only weapon against it would have been a continental blockade.
The reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 also lie in the fact that, on the one hand, Russia did not want to sever trade relations with Great Britain, and on the other, it was necessary to fulfill the conditions of the Tilsit Peace in favor of France. Finding himself in such a dual situation, Bonaparte saw only one way out - military.
As for the French emperor, he was not a hereditary monarch. In order to prove his legitimacy in holding the crown, he made an offer to the sister of Alexander I, which he was immediately refused. A second attempt to enter into a family union with the fourteen-year-old Princess Anne, who later became Queen of the Netherlands, was also unsuccessful. In 1810, Bonaparte finally married Mary of Austria. This marriage gave Napoleon reliable protection rear in the event of a second war with the Russians.
The two-time refusal of Alexander I and Bonaparte's marriage to the princess of Austria led to a crisis of trust between the two empires. This fact served as the first reason due to which the Patriotic War of 1812 occurred. Russia, by the way, itself pushed Napoleon into conflict with its further controversial actions.
Shortly before the start of the first battle, Bonaparte told the Warsaw ambassador Dominique Dufour de Pradt that supposedly in five years he would rule the world, but for this all that remained was to “crush” Russia. Alexander I, constantly fearing the restoration of Poland, pulled several divisions to the border of the Duchy of Warsaw, which, in fact, was the second reason why the Patriotic War of 1812 began. Briefly, this can be formulated as follows: such behavior of the Russian ruler was perceived by the French emperor as a threat to Poland and France.
Further development of the conflict
The first stage was the Belarusian-Lithuanian operation, covering June-July 1812. At that time, Russia managed to protect itself from encirclement in Belarus and Lithuania. Russian troops managed to repel the onslaught of the French in the St. Petersburg direction. The Smolensk operation is considered the second stage of the war, and the third is the campaign against Moscow. The fourth stage is the Kaluga campaign. Its essence was the attempts of French troops to break through in this direction back from Moscow. The fifth period, which ended the war, saw the ousting of Napoleonic army from Russian territory.
Start
On June 24, at six in the morning, the vanguard of Bonaparte’s troops crossed the Neman, reaching the city of Kovno (Lithuania, modern Kaunas). Before the invasion of Russia, a large group of the French army numbering 300 thousand people was concentrated on the border.
As of January 1, 1801, the army of Alexander I numbered 446 thousand people. As a result of recruitment at the start of the war, the number increased to 597 thousand soldiers.
The Emperor addressed the people with an appeal for voluntary mobilization for the protection and defense of the Fatherland. In the so-called civil uprising Anyone had the opportunity to join, regardless of occupation and class.
Battle of Borodino
The most major battle took place on August 26 near the village of Borodino. More and more researchers are inclined to believe that the battle took place over 3 days (from August 24 to 26). In fact, this event marked the beginning of the defeat of Bonaparte's army.
In the battle, 135 thousand French fought with the 120 thousand army of Alexander I. The Russian army lost 44 thousand, while Napoleon lost 58 thousand people. During the battle, the army under the command of Bonaparte managed to capture the Russian positions, but after the end of hostilities, the French had to retreat to previously occupied lines. Thus, it is generally accepted that Russia won this battle. The next day, Commander-in-Chief M.I. Kutuzov ordered a retreat due to large human losses and Napoleon's presence of reserve troops rushing to help the French.
In 1839, a reconstruction of the events of the Battle of Borodino, carried out by Nicholas I, was created for the first time. 150 thousand military personnel ended up on the Borodino field. The centennial anniversary was celebrated no less richly. The film archive has preserved a small amount of chronicle footage of how Nicholas II walked around the formation of soldiers participating in the reconstruction.
Result
The battles of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted from June 24 to December 26 (new style). And they ended with the complete destruction of Bonaparte’s Grand Army, which included soldiers from Prussia and Austria. On December 21, according to the official Hans Jacob von Auerswald, only a small part of the French soldiers returned back, and even those were in terrible condition. A little later, some of them died from multiple diseases and wounds in their homeland.
The results of the Patriotic War of 1812 cost Napoleon 580 thousand people and about 1200 guns. Historian Modest Bogdanovich estimated the losses Russian troops 210 thousand militias and soldiers. In 1813, the War of the Sixth Coalition began, in which European states fought against the plans of Napoleon and his allies. In October of the same year, Bonaparte was defeated in the battle of Leipzig, and in April of the following year he renounced the French crown.
Defeat of France
The reasons for the failure of Napoleon's plans were as follows:
An important role was played by Kutuzov’s military restraint and the political will of Alexander I;
A large number of patriots among the common people and nobility who donated their material resources for the maintenance of the Russian army and their lives for the sake of victory;
A persistent and stubborn guerrilla war, in which even women took part.
Command
The heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 did everything possible to prevent the French from conquering Russian soil, thanks to which they won a well-deserved victory. Without the dedication of the people and the wisdom of the commanders, Emperor Alexander I would have lost this battle.
Among those who fought, such names as M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, S. Volkonsky, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, D. Golitsyn, D. S. Dokhturov, I. S. Dorokhov, P. Konovnitsyn, D. P. Neverovsky, D.V. Davydov, P.I. Bagration, M.I. Platov, A.I. Kutaisov, A.P. Ermolov, N.N. Raevsky, P.H. Wittgenstein and others.
But the main fighter against Napoleon’s aggression was the ordinary Russian people. Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 belongs to the voluntarily mobilized population, which withstood all the hardships of a hitherto unprecedented war. Many award documents testify to the massive heroism of the soldiers. More than four dozen officers were personally rewarded by Kutuzov with the Order of St. George.
Human losses of France and Russia
The data given below was published by historian S. Shvedov on the 175th anniversary of the end of the battle. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812, written by different researchers of the theater of operations, has significant differences in the issue of human losses.
On average, we can confidently say that the number of war victims from Russia reached 300 thousand, most of whom (175 thousand) were the mobilized part of the population. There are many factors that led to this outcome:
Rapid exhaustion of people due to movement over long distances;
Unfavorable climatic conditions;
There is an urgent need for more water, food and warm clothing;
Diseases and epidemics.
As for France, for it the results of the Patriotic War of 1812 took on a more serious form. The number of French killed is much greater than that of Russians. At the beginning of the war, Napoleon's army, which entered the territory of the empire, numbered 480 thousand soldiers. At the end of the war, Bonaparte withdrew only 20 thousand survivors from Russia, leaving about 150 thousand prisoners and 850 guns.
About the name
The course of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted 7 months. From the first day of the battles, it acquired a movement of national liberation from Napoleon's aggression. The popular trend was the main reason for the victory Russian army over French.
This war became a real test of the unity of the Russian people. All classes, regardless of state rank, material and property status, came to the defense of their Fatherland. This is where the name came from. One way or another, all the people who participated in the battles are real heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812.
● French soldiers never cooked or ate porridge, as the Russians do. Their field cuisine has different traditions.
● In Russia there is a lyceum, which bears the name of the ataman of the Patriotic War, Matvey Platov.
● On December 12, 1812, in honor of the victory over Bonaparte, Alexander I proclaimed the forgiveness of those people who helped the French army.
● M. Barclay de Tolly in 1812 created the first military intelligence service in Russia.