Non-refundable verbs are verbs without the postfix –sya; returnable– verbs with the postfix –sya. Historically education reflexive verbs associated with the pronoun Xia, which was originally attached only to transitive verbs ( wash + xia (“yourself”) = wash).
All verbs in Russian can be divided into several groups:
|
irreflexive verbs, from which returns are formed |
non-refundable |
returnable |
|
a) wash + wash build + xia education return different forms meet + xia b) turn white + xia darken + xia – morphological synonyms c) look - look enough verbs work - get enough SD d) write - impersonal is not written sleep - can't sleep verbs |
reply lunch |
fight laugh balk |
Thus, we can conclude that the postfix –sya in the Russian language can perform several functions:
Form reflexive forms of verbs ( wash, whiten);
Form reflexive verbs that differ from producing non-reflexive verbs in lexical meaning ( forgive - say goodbye, finish - achieve).
It should be noted that some verbs in –sya have a synonymous reflexive combination ( to deprive - to deprive oneself, to cover oneself - to cover oneself).
The division of verbs into non-reflexive and reflexive was established in the Russian language without regard to the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive, voice and non-voice. It does not completely coincide with either one or the other, although it is associated with the categories of transitivity and voice: the affix –sya is an indicator of the intransitivity of the verb, and voice correlation is provided only by the reflexive forms of the verb.
Pledge category
The category of voice is one of the most difficult problems of Russian grammar. Linguistic scientists define the content of this category differently, and therefore resolve the issue of the number of voices differently: some count up to 17 voices, others deny the presence of voices altogether.
In Russian linguistics there are the following definitions of voice:
1) pledge means “an act that passes from one thing to another, and an act that does not pass from one thing to another” (Lomonosov);
2) voices are those verbal forms that denote a difference in the relationship of the verbal action to its subject. On this basis, a refundable deposit can be allocated ( the book is being read) and non-refundable deposit ( read a book) – Aksakov, Fortunatov;
3) pledge is the relation of action to object (Buslaev, Shapiro);
4) pledge is an expression of the asset and liability of the subject (Isachenko, AG-70);
5) deposit – is the relation of action to subject and object(Vinogradov, Golovin, Gvozdev, Shansky).
In all the above definitions of collateral there is general criterion– the relationship of action to subject and object. This feature is, indeed, important in voice content, since voice, like other verbal categories, manifests itself primarily as a certain grammatical relation - the relation of an action to its source and to the object. The category of pledge reflects objectively occurring processes, the implementation of which is possible in the presence of an actor and an object of action.
The mother (subject) washes (action) the child (object).
The child (subject, object) washes himself (action).
But in the Russian language there are verbs that name such actions, for the implementation of which only the doer, the subject of the action is needed:
Clouds (subject) float quietly across the sky.
Thus, all verbs in Russian can be divided into two groups:
1) verbs capable of conveying voice relations (voice verbs);
2) verbs that do not convey voice relations (non-voice verbs).
The verbs of the Russian language contain some morphological inconstant and constant features. One of them includes reflexive and non-reflexive types of verbs. Non-reflexive verbs, as well as reflexive ones, carry the presence or absence of special reflexive word-forming postfixes - -сь and -ся. Let's try to figure out what it is and how such verbs are used.
Reflexivity of verbs
The reflexivity of verbs is a grammatical category that will indicate the direction or non-direction of a certain state defined by this verb, or an action on some subject. Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs in Russian are conjugated forms, which differ in the presence or absence of postfixes -s and -sya (reflexive).
What constitutes reflexivity in verbs can be seen in the following examples: The boy washed himself and got ready. The man got into a conversation with a friend (these are examples of reflexive verbs).
The puppy played with the ball and ran off to the playground. It was raining in the evening (this is a non-reflexive form of the verb). This is how you need to distinguish them.
A couple of useful words
Let us briefly remind you once again that understanding how to define a non-reflexive verb is not particularly difficult. It can be transitive and intransitive, it can mean a certain action that is aimed at a subject (assembling a puzzle, reading a book), a state, a certain position in space, a multidirectional action, and the like (dreaming, sitting, thinking). Irreflexive verbs do not include the postfix -сь and -ся.
Shades of meaning
Reflexive verbs are capable of expressing an action that will be directed at a specific subject (at someone doing something, at a speaker, at a looker, and so on).
It seems possible to discuss reflexive and non-reflexive verbs in Russian endlessly. Here are examples of reflexive verbs with completely different shades of meaning:
To be happy, upset, sad (denotes the mental or physical state of a certain subject);
The dress wrinkles, the dog bites, the nettle branch burns (shows a permanent quality or property of the subject);
Dress, eat, put on shoes, bathe (the action of the verbs is directed exclusively at oneself);
I want, I wish, it gets dark (impersonal action is shown here);
Hugging, quarreling, seeing each other (a reciprocal action performed by several people in their relationship to each other);
Clean up, line up, get some money (an action of an indirect reciprocal nature, which is performed by the subject solely in his own interests).
Unforgettable suffixes for reflexive verbs
Let's figure out what a reflexive and non-reflexive verb means.
Verbs in the reflexive form have suffixes:
Xia - maybe, both after consonants (take, surround, and the like), and after endings (teach - learn, dries - dries, and the like));
S will come after vowels (lowered, drawn, unseen, and so on).
In the process of forming reflexive verbs great importance have not only suffixes, but also prefixes (read - read a lot, drink - get drunk). In addition, among the verbs of this type there are non-derivatives. They are the ones that under no circumstances are used without the suffixes -sya and -sya (to laugh, to fight, to please).
Since pronouns in the accusative case and nouns are never used after reflexive verbs, they are all classified as intransitive.
No suffixes
Non-reflexive verbs in Russian do not have the suffixes -sya and -sya. They can be either intransitive (create, breathe, play) or transitive (speak, draw).
An important point: many reflexive verbs can be formed from non-reflexive ones, for example, cook - prepare.
Based on the above, you need to understand that in order to determine what a reflexive and non-reflexive verb means and exactly what type it belongs to, you need to find a suffix that helped in education. If the suffixes -sya (-sya) are present in words, then these are reflexive verbs. If they are not present, then non-reflexive verbs.
Situations marked in verbs
So, we already know that reflexive verbs have the suffixes -sya and -sya. They can be both non-derivative (for example, laugh), and formed from transitive and non-transitive transitive verbs(to wash - to wash).
Some intransitive and reflexive verbs formed from them talk about the same situation, for example: something is black in the distance and something is black in the distance. True, in the vast majority of situations, you can understand what a non-reflexive verb means and what it looks like “in life” by noting that the verbs reflexive and non-reflexive mean completely different moments.
A good example is the following: washing - a situation in which there are two participants (a mother washes her daughter) and washing - a situation in which there is only one participant (the girl is washing); Petya hit Vanya. Petya and Vanya hit a large stone (in both cases we are talking about two boys, but the situations in which they are direct participants are completely different).
Here we can say that the components of meaning themselves, which are introduced into the word by the postfixes -sya and -sya, are word-forming.
What can you find in grammars?
And the following information is noted there (we are talking about several meanings):
The meaning is mid-reflexive - to have fun, get angry, get scared, rejoice;
The meaning is active-non-objective - bite, butt, swear (use ;
The meaning is reciprocal - quarrel, make up, meet, hug, kiss;
The meaning is proper-reflexive - to dress, put on shoes, meet, powder;
The meaning is passive-reflexive - to be remembered, to be remembered;
The meaning is indirectly returnable - to gather, stock up, pack, pack;
The meaning is passive-qualitative - to be introduced, to be remembered.
A reflexive verb can be formed by using -sya as a help, which will be combined with other morphemes (wink, run up).
It is with the voice that reflexivity will be associated (that is, in the case in which the voice is defined at the morpheme level, reflexive verbs formed from transitive verbs will be combined into a voice, which is called reflexive-medial).
The intransitive sign is an affix. Combinations such as I’m afraid of dad, I obey my older brother, which can be found in the Russian language, are few and non-normative.
Without rules - nowhere
Let's return to what a non-reflexive verb is. The rule says that without a postfix -sya. But in return ones this postfix is present. It has long been the case that the appearance of reflexive verbs was associated with the pronoun -sya. True, initially it was attached exclusively to transitive verbs (for example, bathe + xia (that is, oneself) = bathe).
The variety of verbs in the Russian language is divided into different groups.
Non-reflexive verbs from which reflexive verbs are formed - build + sya; meet + xia; write - can't write, sleep - can't sleep.
Non-reflexive verbs - have dinner, answer.
Reflexive verbs - laugh, fight, resist.
From the information provided we can conclude: the postfix -sya in Russian can perform different functions:
Prepare reflexive verbs that differ from producing non-reflexive verbs in lexical meaning (forgive - say goodbye);
Form the reflexive form of verbs (whiten).
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that some verbs in -sya have a synonymous reflexive combination (to cover oneself - to cover oneself).
The division of verbs into reflexive and non-reflexive has developed in the Russian language completely regardless of their division into transitive and intransitive, voicing and non-vocal. It does not coincide with either one hundred percent, but is in certain connection with the categories of transitivity and voice: -sya represents the intransitivity of the verb, but only the reflexive form can provide voice correlation.
In conclusion
Let's talk a little more about verbs and summarize the productive conversation.
Verbs are words that define the meaning of a process, that is, capable of expressing the signs they designate as a certain action (say, read, write), state (sit, jump) or becoming (aging).
In addition to syntactic conjugation forms, verbs have non-syntactic reflexive and non-reflexive forms and aspect forms. According to the way non-syntactic formal meanings are expressed with their help, verbs can be divided into grammatical categories, which are in some relation to each other.
The division of verbs into non-reflexive and reflexive depends on how much the grammatically intransitive meaning of the process is expressed or, conversely, not expressed in them.
Reflexive verbs are verbs that contain grammatically expressed intransitivity. In other words, they perfectly show that the process they express can be addressed to a direct object, which is represented by a noun in the accusative case without a preposition. An example would be the words - get angry, meet, wash, knock, get dressed.
Irreflexive verbs have some difference: they do not have any indication of the intransitiveness of the process. That is why they can be transitive: dressing (daughter), making people angry (parents), welcoming (guests), and intransitive: banging, knocking.
A verb is a word that denotes an action and answers the question “What to do?” The last clarification is very important, because the word “walking,” for example, also denotes an action, however, it cannot be classified as a verb.
Action is always directed towards some object. It may be the same thing that does it, or some other one. In the first case we will be talking about a reflexive verb, and in the second - about a non-reflexive one.
Identification feature of reflexive verbs
The fact that an action performed by a certain subject is directed at himself can be indicated by a reflexive pronoun. In the Russian language there is only one such pronoun, which does not even have a nominative case - “yourself”.
Language always strives for brevity, so the reflexive pronoun in combination with verbs was shortened to “sya”, and then turned into a part of these verbs - a postfix, i.e. suffix that is after the ending. This is how reflexive verbs arose, the identifying feature of which is the postfix “-sya”: “dress yourself” - “ ”, “wash yourself” - “wash”. Verbs that do not have such a postfix are called non-reflexive.
Types of reflexive verbs
The semantic content of a reflexive verb is not always so simple. An action that someone directly performs on himself is only one reflexive verb - proper reflexive.
A verb of this kind can also imply a certain action that the object performs not on itself, but in its own interests. For example, if people are said to be “being built,” this can mean not only “forming themselves in a line” (a self-reflexive verb), but also “building a house for themselves.” In the latter case, the verb will be called indirect reflexive.
The joint actions of several objects are also denoted by reflexive verbs: “meet”, “negotiate” - these are reciprocal verbs.
However, not, which has the postfix “-sya”, is reflexive. Verbs that have a passive voice cannot be classified as such, i.e. implying that an action on an object is performed by someone else: “a house is being built,” “germs are being destroyed.”
A verb cannot be reflexive if it is transitive, i.e. denotes an action aimed at another object, although in an impersonal form such verbs may have the postfix “-sya”: “I want to buy a car.”
Morphology of Russian literary language*
VERB
Verb categories
Verb meaning and forms
Verbs are words with the meaning of process, i.e. words expressing the characteristics they denote as an action (read, chop, go), state (to be sick, to lie down) or becoming (get younger, grow old).
Verbs have a rich system of mutually opposed each other syntactic forms, the totality of which is called conjugation. Of the syntactic forms, the most characteristic of the verb are those that serve to express the predicate in a sentence, the so-called predicative forms. The presence of these forms allows the verb to be contrasted with other parts of speech, which, without having a predicate form, cannot, unlike the verb, themselves act as a predicate in a sentence.
Predicative forms of the verb are expressed by mood forms, through which differences in the statement expressed by the predicate are indicated in relation to its reality or unreality, possibility (cf. he worked, he works And he would work, work). Predicative forms are opposed attributive forms– participle and gerund, which are forms in which the verb acts as a minor member of the sentence – definitions or circumstances (working, working, working).
Opposed to each other, predicative and attributive forms are united in the sense that, while expressing a process, they at the same time indicate that this process belongs to a person or object (cf. he works, you would work, brother working at the factory; an engineer working in a factory designs a car model etc.). All these forms, i.e. predicative and attributive in their totality are, in turn, opposed to the so-called indefinite form, or infinitive (work), in which there is no indication that the process is related to a person or thing. Representing a negative form in its grammatical meaning, the infinitive is neither a predicative nor an attributive form.
In addition to syntactic conjugation forms, verbs have non-syntactic forms repayment And irrevocability and shapes kind. According to the non-syntactic formal meanings expressed by these forms, verbs are divided into grammatical categories correlative to each other: firstly, into verbs returnable And non-refundable, secondly, on verbs perfect And imperfect species.
The division of verbs into reflexive and non-reflexive depends on whether their intransitive meaning of the process is grammatically expressed or not expressed. Reflexive verbs are verbs with grammatically expressed intransitivity, i.e. they indicate that the process they express is not and cannot be addressed to the direct object expressed by the noun in wine. pad. without a preposition, for example: wash, dress, meet, get angry, knock, turn black etc. In contrast, non-reflexive verbs do not indicate the intransitivity of the process, and therefore they can be transitive: wash(hands), dress(child) meet(delegation), make you angry(father), and intransitive: knock, blacken and etc.
The division of verbs into perfect and imperfect verbs is determined by how they express the flow of the process in relation to its completeness. Perfective verbs express a process in its completeness, at the moment the process reaches a limit or result: write, decide, start, get dressed, take a walk etc. Imperfective verbs express a process without indicating its completeness or completeness: write, decide, start, get dressed, walk etc.
The ways of forming verb forms are extremely diverse. Main grammatical means They are formed by various affixes: prefixes, suffixes, endings. But, in addition, in the formation of verb forms, a change in the stem is used much more widely than other parts of speech, expressed in various kinds of alternations of phonemes, cf., for example: appropriates - appropriates, asks - asks, twist - twist, graph - graph, knit - knit, plow - plow, carry - drive, carry - carry etc.
When forming conjugation forms, along with syntactic forms usual for the grammatical structure of the Russian language, i.e. forms in which real and formal meanings are expressed in one word, a number of verbal forms are formed analytically with the help of special auxiliary particles and words that express the syntactic formal meanings of a given form, while the conjugated verb denotes only real and non-syntactic formal meanings. So, for example, the conditional mood is formed (would work), future tense for imperfective verbs (they will work) and some other forms.
The formation of verb forms mainly corresponds to the general inflectional structure of the Russian language. Indeed, syntactic formal meanings of verbs are indicated not only by affixes, but also by changing the stem of the word (cf. lyub'-at - lyubl'u). Affixes usually denote not one, but several formal meanings (cf. I love And love'-at, where the endings indicate the person and number of the verb), finally, the same formal meaning can be expressed by different suffixes (cf. go-ut And scream-at). However, the formation of some forms of the verb is not inflectional, but agglutinative in nature, i.e. they are formed by “gluing”, stringing together identical unambiguous suffixes. This is, for example, the formation of forms of the imperative mood (cf. teach, teach, teach, teach, learn, learn, learn, learn).
Reflexive and irreflexive verbs
Depending on the presence or absence of verbs grammatical features, indicating the intransitivity of the process, verbs in the Russian language are divided into two categories: reflexive and non-reflexive verbs. In other words, the division of verbs into reflexive and non-reflexive is determined by whether or not the form of the verb itself indicates that the process it denotes is not reversed, is not directed towards a direct object, which is expressed by nouns in wine. pad. without pretext.
Reflexive verbs- these are those that indicate by their form that the process denoted by them is not and cannot be addressed to a direct object: appear, return, rush, share, call, knock etc., i.e. Reflexive verbs are verbs with grammatically expressed intransitivity.
In contrast to reflexive verbs irreversible verbs do not contain in their form grammatical features indicating the intransitiveness of the process: wash, return, rush, smoke, call, knock etc. Consequently, these are verbs with grammatically unexpressed intransitivity.
The opposition of reflexive and non-reflexive verbs to each other, as verbs with expressed and unexpressed intransitivity, corresponds to purely external formal features. Reflexive verbs are characterized by the presence of a special suffix, the so-called reflexive particle -sya, -sya, through which the intransitivity of the process denoted by the verb is expressed: meet, knock. On the contrary, irreflexive verbs do not have a reflexive particle, and at the same time there is no grammatical indication of the intransitiveness of the process: meet, knock. Thus, formally, reflexive and non-reflexive verbs oppose each other, like verbs with a reflexive particle and verbs without a reflexive particle.
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Expressing a process without indicating its intransitivity, irreflexive verbs can have both transitive and intransitive meanings. This does not contradict their definition as verbs with unexpressed intransitivity, since the mere absence of grammatical features indicating the intransitive meaning of the process does not mean that the process must necessarily be transitive. And indeed, although some irreflexive verbs have a transitive meaning, others have an intransitive meaning, and therefore they are divided into verbs transitional And intransitive.
The division of irreflexive verbs into transitive and intransitive is based on their meaning. Intransitive verbs express a state, becoming and action that is not and cannot, by its very nature, be addressed to a direct object: A lonely sail is white.(M. Lermontov), Huts here and there are turning black. (A. Pushkin), Factory chimneys are smoking, Birds are flying, A steamer is sailing along the river, Gun shots are crackling etc. In contrast, transitive verbs express only an action, and an action that is directly addressed to a direct object: The old man was catching fish with a net, the old woman was spinning her yarn. (A. Pushkin), The people broke the king's shackles.(V. Mayakovsky), I write poetry and, dissatisfied, I burn. (N. Nekrasov), The waves scrape the sand with white golden claws.(S. Yesenin), etc. This difference in the meaning of transitive and intransitive verbs is not always sharply manifested, since the action denoted by a transitive verb can be expressed in abstraction from the object to which it is directed, cf.: I write in my room and read without a lamp.(A. Pushkin), Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.(A. Pushkin) - and then comes closer to the meaning of intransitive verbs. But still, in this case, transitive verbs denote a potentially transitive action.
The meaning of transitive verbs determines the possibility of combining with them in speech nouns in the accusative case without a preposition, denoting a direct object, i.e. the object to which the action is directed. This connection is possible precisely because the verb itself denotes an action directed at an object. In other words, transitive verbs can control accusative case nouns with the meaning of a direct object. Intransitive verbs do not control the accusative case and are not combined with it, since they do not have the meaning of transitivity. However, if a noun in the accusative case denotes not a direct object, but the duration of an action in time or space, then it can also be used with intransitive verbs: A thunderstorm raged all night, There was bad weather all summer, They walked in silence all the way.
The meaning of transitive verbs is also related to the possibility of forming passive participles in them: read - readable, read - read, build - built, love - loved, warm - warmed etc. It should be noted, however, that not all transitive verbs have passive participles. They are formed more or less regularly only in perfective verbs, since they form passive past participles, which are productive forms. For many transitive verbs of the imperfect form, which form only passive participles of the present tense, which are forms that are not very productive, passive participles No. On the other hand, although intransitive verbs, as a rule, do not have passive participles, they can be formed for individual intransitive verbs, cf.: threaten – threatened, neglect – neglected, depend – dependent, manage – controlled.
The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs in most cases is not indicated by any grammatical features. One can only note the contrast between transitive and intransitive verbs, which are formed from adjectives through derivational suffixes -there are And -it. By suffix -there are Intransitive verbs are formed, denoting state and formation (the process of gradual development of a characteristic), for example: turn white, turn black, turn red, turn golden and etc.; using the same suffix -it From the same adjectives verbs are formed that denote a transitive action: whiten, blacken, redden, gild etc. Most of the remaining verbal suffixes are used equally to form both transitive and intransitive verbs, and therefore they cannot serve as signs of distinguishing transitivity and intransitivity of verbs. In some cases, with the help of prefixes from intransitive verbs, transitive verbs are formed, cf.: walk And go out(sick), sit And serve time(leg) sit out(chair), sit through(chickens), etc. However, intransitive verbs become transitive only with some, few prefixes (cf. come, walk around, go in, go; sit, sit out etc.), and, in addition, many intransitive verbs are either rarely combined with prefixes, or, even if they are connected, they retain their intransitivity.
Due to the absence of signs that would indicate the transitive or intransitive meaning of irreflexive verbs, in careless colloquial speech Intransitive verbs are often used to mean transitive, for example: He broke the glass, Don't shake your leg, Take a walk baby, I tan my legs etc. Although such use is usually perceived as erroneous, incorrect, as a “slip of the tongue,” it clearly demonstrates the grammatical indistinguishability of transitive and intransitive verbs. It is significant that this kind of “reservation” is impossible with reflexive verbs, as verbs with grammatically expressed intransitivity.
Meaning and formation of reflexive verbs
All reflexive verbs are intransitive. This is their common grammatical property. Therefore, like other intransitive verbs (irreflexive), they cannot control the accusative case of nouns with the meaning of a direct object and do not form passive participles.
The intransitive meaning of reflexive verbs is grammatically indicated by a special affix, the so-called reflexive particle. This particle, being an inseparable element of the verb, is attached to the end of the word and is preserved in all forms that are formed in reflexive verbs. It is presented in two versions - -xia And -s. IN verb forms ending in a consonant, the variant is used -sya: wash-sya, washed-sya, wash-sya, wash-sya, my-sya(moj-sya), and in forms ending in a vowel - a variant -sya: washed-sya, wash-sya, wash-sya, wash-sya, wash-sya. However, in participles both in consonant and vowel forms, the reflexive particle is always presented in the variant -xia, cf.: washable And washable, washable And washing-sya, washed-sya And washed etc. By adding such a particle, reflexive verbs can be formed from both transitive and intransitive non-reflexive verbs.
The addition of a reflexive particle to transitive verbs is a means by which their transitive meaning is eliminated: verbs from transitive become intransitive. At the same time, in addition to eliminating transitivity, the reflexive particle introduces additional meanings into the reflexive verbs formed from transitive verbs, which indicate differences in the relationship of the process to the person or object it defines. These meanings largely depend on the syntactic conditions of the use of reflexive verbs, due to which the same verb in different syntactic contexts can denote different relations of the process to the person or object it defines. The most important of these values are:
General return value, indicating that the process is designated in abstraction from the object, as occurring in the defined object itself, as a property, state of this object: he is angry, languishes, sulks, rejoices, gets scared, a cow butts, a dog bites, the problem is not solved, the material is easy to wash, paint etc.
Self-return value, showing that the action is directed at the actor himself, who is, as it were, his own object of action: I wash, get dressed, she puts on makeup, powder, smears, he defends himself etc. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are used with nouns denoting “animate” objects.
Mutual meaning denoting that an action occurs between two or more actors, each of whom, in relation to the other, is the object of the action: they bicker, kiss, fight, meet etc.
Passive meaning denoting that the action is directed by some actor to the object defined by the verb, which is thus the object of the action. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are used mainly with inanimate nouns, and the character in this case is expressed by animate nouns in the instrumental case: a house is painted by painters, a locomotive is driven by a driver, a problem is solved by students, a model is designed by engineers etc. It should be noted, however, that this kind of phrases with the instrumental case of the character are rather artificial book formations and are relatively little used. It is more common to use reflexive verbs in the passive meaning without indicating the producer of the action, in abstraction from it: Soon the fairy tale will tell, but not soon the deed will be done, The floors are washed once a week, New cities are built etc., but in this case the passive meaning is not so clearly identified and may be completely lost, cf.: The problem is solved by students And The problem is being solved(can be resolved) Linen is washed by a laundress And Linen is not washed well(does not become clean, white), etc.
By joining irreversible intransitive verbs, the reflexive particle forms reflexive verbs, which for the most part have an impersonal meaning, expressing the process in abstraction from both the object of the action and the person performing the action. They usually denote various states experienced by a person against his will and desire, and the person himself experiencing this or that state can be expressed with an impersonal verb by a noun in the dative case: I can’t sleep, I can’t sit at home, he didn’t work, he didn’t go out, I’m sad etc. Most often such impersonal verbs are used with negation (particle Not). Similar kinds of reflexive verbs with impersonal meaning can be formed from transitive verbs: I think, I want, I can’t wait to find out and etc.
Of the other meanings that are introduced by the reflexive particle into reflexive verbs when they are formed from intransitive verbs, the intensifying meaning should be noted. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are formed from intransitive verbs in -et(-eat), indicating a continuing state, for example: show red from blush(“to be, to be red”, but not from blush meaning “to turn red”), turn white from turn white, turn black from turn black etc. This also includes verbs such as: smoke from smoke, brag from brag etc. In these formations, the intransitive meaning, not grammatically expressed in the main verb, receives expression through a reflexive particle -xia, which thus emphasizes and enhances the intransitivity of the process.
In a number of cases, reflexive verbs differ from the corresponding non-reflexive ones not only in the meanings that are usually introduced by the reflexive particle, but also in greater or lesser differences in the actual meaning of the verbs, cf., for example: knock, call And knock, call(“make yourself known by knocking or ringing”), look And look(“look at your reflection”), forgive And say goodbye, tear And tear("pursuit"), carry And tinker etc. Many reflexive verbs do not have corresponding non-reflexive verbs at all: fear, be proud, be lazy, hunt, hope, laugh, doubt, try, boast and etc., unwell, getting dark. Some of them have irreflexive verbs only with prefixes: laugh - ridicule, fight - overcome, agree - determine, admire - admire and etc.
Types of verb
Depending on how the verb expresses the flow of the process in relation to its completeness, verbs in Russian are divided into categories called species. There are two such types: type perfect And imperfect.
Perfective verbs, denoting a particular process, express it as complete, completed: finish, start, decide, build, push, walk etc. In contrast, imperfective verbs express a process without indicating its completion, cf. with the above verbs: finish, begin, decide, build, push out, walk. Due to the absence of an indication of the completeness of the process, imperfective verbs can express this process in its very flow, as unfolding in time (he wrote, is writing a letter). On the contrary, perfective verbs, expressing a process in its completeness, show this process only at the moment it reaches a limit or result in abstraction from its flow (he wrote, will write a letter). This difference between perfective and imperfective verbs is clearly revealed, for example, in negative answers to a question like: “Have you written a letter?” - “No, I didn’t write”(the very fact of the action is denied) and “No, I didn’t write it”(it is not the action that is denied, but its result, the fact that it achieved its goal), cf. Also: write a letter(the motivation is aimed at performing the action itself) and write a letter(the motivation is directed not at the action, but at its result), etc. Perfective and imperfective verbs present a similar difference in meaning in all the forms they form.
Perfective and imperfective verbs have a number of differences in the formation of conjugation forms. Thus, perfective verbs form two forms of tense: past (decided, said, pushed) And future(decides, says, pushes), while imperfective verbs have three forms: past (decided, spoke, pushed), the present (decides, speaks, pushes) And future (will decide, will talk, will push). At the same time, in imperfective verbs, the future tense is formed analytically, by combining the personal form of the auxiliary verb be with the infinitive of the conjugated verb (I will decide, you will decide, you will decide), and for perfective verbs, the future tense is a synthetic form that coincides with the present tense form of imperfective verbs, cf. perfect view decide, decide, decide and imperfect appearance knock, knock, knock etc.
Then the imperfective verbs form two forms active participles: read – reading, having read, while perfective verbs have only one past tense form: read - read. There are some other differences in the formation of conjugation forms, but these will be discussed below.
As a rule, each verb belongs to one type: either perfect or imperfect. However, some verbs in a literary language can be used in the meaning of both types, i.e. sometimes as perfect verbs, sometimes as imperfect. These are, first of all, many borrowed verbs that are introduced into the Russian language with the help of suffixes -ovat, -iz-ovat, -ir-ovat, -iz-ovat: attack, arrest, organize, mobilize, telegraph, subscribe, requisition, nationalize etc. (for example: “The troops attacked the bridgehead” can mean: “carried out attacks” and “carried out an attack”). In addition to them, some non-borrowed verbs also have the same indefinite aspectual meaning: bestow, command, influence, marry, execute, confess, use, pass, inherit, spend the night, form, examine, wound, investigate, give birth, combine.
Since all these verbs are used in the meaning of both perfective and imperfective forms, their personal forms (for example, I will arrest, organize, order, spend the night etc.) can mean both future and present tense, cf.: I order you, I tell you to do this And I will order the ax to be sharpened and sharpened, I will order the executioner to be dressed and dressed, I will order the big bell to be rung. (M. Lermontov) Therefore, in the meaning of the future tense, these verbs use two forms: I'm attacking And I will attack, I will telegraph And I'll telegraph, I'll spend the night And I'll spend the night etc. However, from some of them are analytical forms of the future tense, i.e. With auxiliary verb be, are not formed: I will arrest, order, form(you can't say: I will arrest, order, form).
Formation of verbs that differ in type
Verbs different types, no matter how close they are in meaning, are not forms of the same verb, but different words. A change in the aspectual meaning of verbs occurs when derivative verbs are formed from them through prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes and suffixes introduce additional semantic shades into the real lexical meaning of the verb, resulting in derived verbs with a meaning different from the meaning of the main verb, i.e. the verb from which they are derived.
There are 22 verb prefixes in the literary language. Of these 18: in-, up-, you-, up-, behind-, from-, on-, over-, about- (about-), from-, over-, over-, under-, at-, about-, times -, s-, u-- are productive, with the help of which derivative verbs can be re-formed. The remaining prefixes are Church Slavonic in origin: up-, down-, pre-, pre-,– unproductive; through them, derivative verbs are no longer formed again.
The meanings of the prefixes are very diverse. A common semantic feature of prefixes is that they complicate the real meaning of the verb with various adverbial features that limit the process in time and space or indicate the manner and degree of manifestation of the process. The same prefix can have different meanings for different verbs. Compare, for example, the additional meaning that the prefix introduces With-, on the one hand, into verbs go, go, fly and, on the other hand, into verbs walk, ride, fly. From the first verbs are formed: get off, move out, fly off, denoting movement from top to bottom, from the second - verbs: go, go, fly, denoting movement somewhere and returning back ( go to Crimea means “to go and come back”). But a prefix can have different meanings even when it is attached to the same verb, cf., for example: go to the co-op And go down the stairs, go down the mountain And move out of the apartment.
Not all verbs are equally capable of combining with prefixes. The easiest way to connect with them is non-derivative verbs. From many such verbs derivative verbs are formed with almost any prefix; cf., for example, from the verb take - take, select, pick up, pick up, select, dial, pick, select, sort out, pick up, tidy up, disassemble, collect, put away. On the contrary, other verbs, for example, intransitive, formed from other parts of speech, borrowed verbs, derived verbs, formed from the main ones by means of a suffix -well, or rarely connect to prefixes, or not connect to them at all: turn white, go berserk, rule, rob, arrest, liquidate, hit, come around etc.
To form verbs from the verbs themselves, as already mentioned, in addition to prefixes, suffixes are also used. These are, firstly, the suffix -well and secondly, synonymous suffixes -iva-t (-yva-t), -a-t, -va-t. The last two are always accented.
With suffix -well Usually, from verbs denoting a process that can consist of a number of separate acts following one after another, verbs are formed with the meaning of instantaneousness, one-time occurrence: push - push, jump - jump, prick - prick, gasp - gasp, speculate - speculate etc. Instead of this suffix it is often used, mainly in oral speech, suffix -anu-t, which has, in general, the same meaning as the suffix -well, but the formations with it are distinguished by a shade of rudeness and familiarity: Let's play how he pushes me.
Through suffixes -iva-t, -a-t, -va-t from perfective prefixed verbs, imperfective verbs are formed, usually with the meaning of duration. In modern language, of these three suffixes, only -iva-t And -a-t, the third suffix is unproductive: with its help, formations of this kind no longer occur. Of the productive suffixes, the most common is the suffix -iv-th: push out - push out, beat - beat, appropriate - appropriate, dispossess - dispossess, skip - skip etc. Another suffix -a-th, as a productive one it is currently used exclusively for the formation of verbs from prefixed verbs with a stressed suffix -it, For example: deepen - deepen, ground - ground, land - land, sharpen - sharpen, degraph - degraph etc., but even in this case there may be formations with -iva-t. Non-productive suffix -va-th found mostly in verbs formed from verbs with a non-derivative vowel stem, for example: za-du-t - blow-out, shoe-t - shoe-t, set-t - set, lag-sta-t - lag behind, get-stuck - get stuck(written get stuck), sing - sing, put on - put on, get on - get on, float - float, but see also: to inspire - to evoke, to sow - to sow, to take possession - to take possession of, to be stunned - to be stunned and etc.
With the same suffixes -iva-t, -a-t And -va-th from unprefixed verbs, so-called multiple verbs are also formed, denoting the indefinite repetition of a process, usually the repetition is not in the near past, since these verbs are used mainly in the past tense: Flew to where the raven did not sew bones, We went to my sister to dispel boredom. (N. Nekrasov), I pulled his ears, but apparently not enough. (A. Griboyedov), What a miracle mice have been: we also caught ruffs. (I. Krylov), I have often taken in battle what in my opinion was rightfully due to me.. (A. Pushkin) Currently, only the suffix serves as a productive means of forming multiple verbs -iva-t, the other two, -a-t And -va-th, are unproductive.
Forming verbs using suffixes -iva-t And -A-t sometimes accompanied by alternation of phonemes in stems. So, when formed through the suffix -iva-t in derived verbs there is a replacement of the vowel O to a vowel A, cf.: asks - asks, wears - wears out, appropriates - appropriates, doubles - doubles. However, such alternation is not necessary, cf.: outlines, defers, agrees etc. For verbs with a suffix -a-t in certain cases the root is a vowel and(s), which in the verb from which the verb is formed -a-t, correspond to vowels – e(fluent), O or zero sound, cf.: pick up (will pick up) - pick up, rip off (rip off) - rip off, erase (erase) - wash, dry up - dry out, rest - rest, oversleep - wake up, wait - wait, see also: begin (will begin) – begin, clamp down (will clamp down) – clamp down, occupy (will occupy) – occupy etc. When forming verbs with suffixes -iva-t, -a-t from verbs to -it, in which the stem of the present tense ends in a consonant, alternation of consonants occurs. Namely, the consonants before these suffixes are replaced: dental ones with hissing ones: twist - twist, clear - clear, plant - plant, taste - taste, immerse - immerse; labials – for combinations of labials with l’: flood - flood And to flood, to feed - to feed, to carry out - to carry out, to deplete - to degraft etc. In words of Church Slavonic origin T is replaced by sch, A d- on railway: transform - transform, illuminate - illuminate, plant - plant, excite - excite.
Prefixes and suffixes, in addition to changing the real meaning of the verb, resulting in a different verb with a different meaning, at the same time change its specific meaning. At the same time, the roles of prefixes in changing the appearance, on the one hand, and suffixes, on the other, are different. Prefixes are the main means of converting imperfective verbs into perfective verbs. Suffixes -iva-t, -a-t, -va-t, i.e., therefore, all suffixes serving verbal word formation, except -well, are a means of changing perfective verbs into imperfective verbs. The only exception, therefore, is the suffix -well, which has the same function in this regard as prefixes.
Most of the non-derivative verbs in the Russian language are imperfective. There are very few non-derivative perfective verbs. These are some monosyllabic verbs: give, give, lie down, fall, sit down, become; a series of verbs in -it: throw, finish, buy, deprive, forgive, let, decide, step, suffice, reveal etc. All other verbs of the perfect form, even those for which it is impossible to find corresponding non-derivative verbs, can have a prefix, and, therefore, these verbs are derivatives. So, for example, the verb get stuck prefix stands out behind- by comparing it with a verb butt in, or in verbs clothe, clothe prefix stands out about- by comparing them, on the one hand, with verbs that have the same prefix with same meaning: put on, put on, wrap etc., and on the other hand, with verbs such as: entice, attract, entice, seduce etc.
When formed from non-derivative verbs in a certain sequence of derivative verbs, verbs are obtained that differ from each other in the form:
1. From non-derivative verbs imperfect. type, perfect verbs are formed through prefixes. type: push - push out, play - beat, draw - paint, prick - pin, mark - mark, draw - draw, get wet – get wet, sing - sing etc. Also committed. looks like verbs, if they are formed using a suffix -well or -anu-t: push – push(or colloquial push), prick - prick, shoot - shoot, play - play(colloquial), etc.
2. From derived verbs perfect. type with prefixes, you can again form imperfect verbs. type through suffixes -iva-t, -a-t, -va-t: push - push out, beat - beat, paint - paint, pin - pin, mark - mark, graph - graph, get wet - get wet, sing - sing, blow - blow etc.
3. Finally, in some cases it is possible from prefixed verbs to imperfect. kind with suffixes -iva-t, -a-t, -va-t form verbs again. view using prefixes po-, re-: push out - push out, beat - beat out.
Thus, the change in the aspectual meaning of verbs can be represented schematically in the form of a chain and a ladder, on the steps of which there are verbs formed sequentially from each other, differing in appearance:
The formation of derivative verbs is not limited to the indicated sequence, but this is where the change in their specific meaning ends. With any other way of forming verbs, their form remains the same as it was. This follows from the very method of changing the aspectual meaning of verbs. Namely, through suffixes (except -well) Perfective verbs change their form to imperfect. Therefore, if these suffixes are attached to imperfect verbs. type, then, naturally, the form of such verbs will remain the same, i.e. derived verbs will be imperfect. same type. So, for example, from non-derivative verbs imperfect. species can be formed using the suffix -iva-t (-iv-t) derived verbs with multiple meanings: push - push, read - read, sit - sit, walk - walk etc. However, the type of verbs does not change: verbs with multiple meanings are imperfect. species, like those from which they are derived. In turn, prefixes (together with the suffix -well) serve as the main means by which the imperfect form of verbs changes to the perfect form. Therefore, the form of verbs does not change when prefixes are attached to perfect verbs. type, for example, to verbs of the 1st stage of verbal production with a suffix -well, cf.: push And push, push, push; shout And scream, scream etc.; or to verbs of the 1st stage, formed by prefixes: push - push out, beat - beat, beat and etc.
Not all verbs can form the entire chain of aspectual changes. In non-derivative verbs perfect. type, it begins with a form corresponding to the 1st stage of derivative verbs formed from imperfect verbs. type: quit(St. V.) – 1st stage abandon(St. V.), 2nd stage throw(new century), 3rd stage throw away(St. V.). A chain of aspectual changes is also formed in the derivative verbs perfect. types formed from nouns or adjectives using prefixes: bazaar– 1st stage squander(St. V.), 2nd stage squander(new century), 3rd stage squander(St. V.); or: 1st stage to land(St. V.), 2nd stage land(new century), 3rd stage land(St. V.). In this case, therefore, the change in species occurs as if the formation of derivative verbs began with a non-existent prefixed verb to bazaar, to dwell. On the contrary, verbs are imperfect. species, formed from nouns and adjectives (with or without prefixes), form a chain of aspectual changes similar to non-derivative imperfect verbs. type: soap - to lather(new century) – 1st stage lather(St. V.), 2nd stage lather(NSV. v.). Finally, some verbs may often lack a form corresponding to the 1st stage of verbal production: sing– 2nd stage chorus(1st stage chorus- No), dance– 2nd stage dance(verb dance- No), to swallow– 2nd stage swallow (swallow- No), bite– 2nd stage bite through (bite through- No).
Changing the aspectual meaning of verbs of motion
Some features in the formation of species are observed in verbs denoting movement. They form two parallel rows that differ in meaning. Some of them denote movement performed in a certain direction or at a certain time, for example: run, fly, go. These are the so-called verbs of definite movement. They correspond verbs of indefinite motion: run, fly, ride, which indicate movement in different directions or movement at different times. Verbs of definite and indefinite motion form correlative semantic pairs: run - run, wander - wander, carry - carry, drive - drive, go - ride, walk - walk, roll - roll, climb - climb, fly - fly, carry - carry, swim - swim, crawl - crawl, drag - carry.
When forming derivative verbs from verbs of a certain movement, the result is, as usual, verbs of perfection. type: climb - climb, walk - pass etc. The situation is different with verbs of indefinite motion. Derivative verbs formed from most of them through prefixes in the same meanings are perfect. type, in others - imperfect. For example: drive- committed view: I'm spending(home), I'm mixing(to the theatre); imperfect view: I'm spending(time), I'm mixing(accounts); fly- committed view: I'm flying off(to somewhere and back), I'll fly(on an airplane); imperfect view: I'm flying off(from the mountain), gonna fly Now(on an airplane) I'm flying by(past Moscow); walk- committed view: I proceed(all up and down) I'll go(to a friend) I'm leaving(someone); imperfect view: I proceed(from premises), I'll go(from the mountain), getting in(around the corner), I'm going out(from home), etc.
Aspect pairs of verbs
When forming verbs, imperfect. type through suffixes -iva-l/-ivaj-ut, -a-l/-aj-ut And -va-l/vaj-ut(i.e. verbs of the 2nd stage of production) from prefixed verbs perfect. type (i.e. verbs of the 1st stage of production), derivative verbs differ from the main ones only in their appearance, since their real meaning remains essentially the same. Thanks to this, prefixed verbs are perfect. type (1st stage) and imperfect verbs formed from them. species (2nd stage) are combined into relative species pairs. Each of these pairs contains verbs that have the same real meaning and differ only in aspectual meaning, cf., for example: push out(St. V.): push out(NSV. v.) = beat(St. in): beat(NSV. v.) = wash(St. V.): wash(NSV. v.) = warm up(St. V.): warm(NSV. v.) = get wet(St. V.): get wet(NSV. v.) = bake(St. V.): bake(NSV. v.), etc.
The same correlative aspectual pairs are formed by the few non-derivative verbs perfect in the Russian language. kind<....>, since almost each of them has a corresponding verb imperfect. species with the same real meaning. So, to non-derivative verbs perfect. view of -it there are corresponding paired verbs in -at, cf.: quit(St. V.): throw(NSV. v.) = to finish(St. V.): finish(NSV. v.) = deprive(NSV. v.): deprive(NSV. v.) = forgive(St. V.): forgive(NSV. v.) = let in(St. V.): let in(NSV. v.) = decide(St. V.): decide(NSV. v.) = step(St. V.): step(NSV. v.) etc. To monosyllabic non-derivative verbs perfect. kind give, give, lie down, fall, sit down, become imperfect verbs act as pairs in appearance. kind give, give, lie down, fall, sit down, become, i.e. give(St. V.): give(NSV. v.) = children(St. V.): what to do(NSV. v.) = lie down(St. V.): go to bed(NSV. v.) = mouth(St. V.): fall(NSV. v.) = sit down(St. V.): sit down(NSV. v.) = become(St. V.): become(NSV. v.).
Aspectual pairs of verbs are mainly obtained as a result of the formation of imperfect verbs. type from verbs perfect. kind. On the contrary, when forming verbs perfect. form from verbs imperfect. The appearance of such pairs for the most part does not work out. This is explained by the fact that when forming verbs, perfect. type (and they are formed by prefixes and suffix -well) not only the aspectual, but also the real meaning of verbs changes, since prefixes and suffixes -well add additional semantic nuances to the real meaning of verbs. Therefore, verbs are imperfect. types and perfect verbs formed from them. species differ from each other not only in their appearance, but also in their real meaning, and therefore are not combined into species pairs, cf., for example: push(NSV. v.) and push out(St. V.), play(NSV. v.) and beat(St. V.), wash(NSV. v.) and wash(St. V.), warm(NSV. v.) and warm(St. V.); or: push(NSV. v.) and push(St. V.), prick(NSV. v.) and prick(St. V.), etc.
However, in a number of cases, some prefixes, when attached to a verb, hardly or do not change its real meaning at all, so the verbs are completely types with a prefix differ from the corresponding unprefixed verbs imperfect. species solely or mainly by its appearance. In this case, therefore, the verbs are imperfect. types and verbs formed from them through prefixes. species can form species pairs similar to those indicated above.
The most common way to change the aspectual meaning of a verb without changing its real meaning is prefixes s-, po-, o- (about), cf., for example, aspectual pairs consisting of non-derivative verbs imperfect. type and corresponding derivative verbs with the prefix With-: do(NSV. v.): do(st. v.) = sing(NSV. v.): sing(st. v.) = hide(NSV. v.): hide(st. v.) = play(NSV. v.): play(st. v.) = sew(NSV. v.): sew(St. V.) etc.; or with prefix po-: to drown(NSV. v.): drown(st. v.) = turn gray(NSV. v.): turn gray(st. v.) = ruin(NSV. v.): destroy(st. v.) = build(NSV. v.): build(st. v.) = lunch(NSV. v.): have lunch(St. V.) etc.; or with prefix o-: go numb(NSV. v.): go numb(st. v.) = stall(NSV. v.): go deaf(st. v.) = grow stronger(NSV. v.): get stronger(st. v.) = weaken(NSV. v.): weaken(sv. v.), etc. Much less often they form aspectual pairs with non-derivative verbs imperfect. type verbs perfect species having some other prefixes, for example, the prefix for- (to stir up - to stir up, to become moldy - to become moldy), from- (to torment - to torment, to spoil - to spoil), from- (to steal - to steal, to drown - to drown, to sting - to sting), to infuriate - to infuriate, to boil - to boil ), on- (write – write, print – print).
Since all these verbs with prefixes form aspectual pairs with non-derivative imperfect verbs. type, from them, as a rule, derivative imperfect verbs are not formed. type (2nd stage), which would otherwise be simple synonyms of non-derivative imperfect verbs. kind.
In some cases, verbs with completely different roots are combined into aspect pairs. So, to the verb committed. kind take the verb imperfect acts as a paired verb. kind take(or an obsolete verb used mainly in clerical language charge). Similar pairs, differing only in appearance, form verbs: catch(St. V.) and catch(NSV. v.), put(St. V.) and put(NSV. v.), say(St. V.) and speak(NSV. v.).
The difference in types in the Russian language is associated with differences in the meaning of verb forms. Thanks to the presence in the Russian language of a huge number of verbs that differ only in their appearance, it is possible to express the same process in the entire set of forms with their features in meaning, which are characteristic of perfect verbs. and imperfect species separately. So, for example, in verbs perfect. there are two forms of time (decided, will decide), and verbs are imperfect. types – three (decided, decides, will decide), each with its own special shade of meaning. With the help of verbs that have the same real meaning and differ only in their aspectual meaning, the process denoted by these verbs is expressed with those temporal meanings that the tense forms of verbs of both types have (decided, decided, decides, will decide, will decide). The same can be said for other forms of the verb.
In a number of languages, for example, in some Western European ones, verbs have a significantly larger number of forms, for example, tense forms, than verbs in Russian. Thanks to this, a larger number of formal meanings can be expressed in them with the same verb. In Russian, as well as in some other Slavic languages, similar (although not identical) meanings are expressed not by forms of the same verb, but by forms of different verbs. This is possible due to the fact that in the Russian language most verbs are combined into aspectual pairs.
To be continued
* From the book: Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. Essay on the grammar of the Russian literary language. Part I. Phonetics and morphology. M.: Uchpedgiz, 1945.
Basic meanings of postfix – xia
IN depending on the presence or absence of the return postfix -sia- verbs are divided into returnable and non-refundable.
Refundable- these are verbs that have a postfix -sya- (-s-).
For example:
swim, smile, hope
Non-refundable- these are verbs that do not have a postfix -sya- (-s-).
Some verbs in modern Russian have correlative pairs according to the category of reflexivity - non-reflexivity.
Exercise:
Compare:
dress - get dressed, bathe - swim, see - see
Other verbs do not have such correlative pairs.
Exercise:
Compare:
smile, hope, tumble;
go, sit down, freeze
Return postfix -sya- (-s-) can give different verb forms semantic meanings :
1) Self-return value , when the subject and the object to which the action is directed coincide in one person ( wash, bathe, dress).
For example:
I wash my face
2) Reciprocal value , when each of the two actors acts simultaneously as both a subject and an object.
For example:
1. Friends met and hugged brotherly.
2. And new friends, well, hug, well, kiss
3) Return value , when the action does not transfer to anyone, but is confined to the subject himself.
For example:
He got angry.
We're offended
Such verbs, as a rule, express the internal mental state of a person.
4) Objectless return value e, when the action being spoken of is a property of the given subject.
For example:
The dog bites.
The cow is butting.
The cat is scratching.
Nettle stings
End of work -
This topic belongs to the section:
Grammatical classes of words in modern Russian language
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Explanatory note
In the section “Modern Russian language: Morphology”, according to the State educational standard, the following topics should be studied: - introduction to modern morphology
Disciplines
Type of work Labor intensity, hours Total labor intensity Classroom work
Discipline
Grammar is one of the oldest sciences on Earth (like mathematics, geometry, physics, logic). It originated in the 4th century BC. (over 2500 years ago) in Ancient
In Russian
In traditional Russian grammar, it was customary to distinguish 10 parts of speech: 6 independent, 3 auxiliary and a special part of speech - interjection. Part of speech is characterized by: 1) general meaning, 2) morphological
Grammar (from the Greek Grammatike) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of words and sentences of a particular language. Grammar consists of two parts: morphologist
A noun is a word that has a lexical and grammatical meaning of objectivity. For example: house, horse, youth, walking, sleeping, whiteness
Meaning
In my own way lexical meaning Nouns in the Russian language are usually divided into four categories: - specific; - real; - collect
The concept of a noun as a part of speech
Exercise 1 Rewrite, inserting the necessary nouns instead of dots. 1. Ceremonial celebrations were held for those leaving for the army.
Classifications of nouns by lexical meaning
Exercise 5 Find nouns of a certain category among these words and distribute them into groups: - specific; - thing
Common and proper nouns
Exercise 6 Explain why the names of the months: January, February, March, etc. are not proper names. Exercise 7 Mars has two lu
A noun is a word that has a lexical and grammatical meaning of objectivity. Specific nouns
Qualitative adjectives and their features
Qualitative adjectives denote the qualities and properties of objects directly. For example: wide river, capable student
Relative adjectives and their features
Relative adjectives denote the characteristics of objects not directly, but by their relationship to other objects. They can have different semantic meanings
Their signs
Possessive adjectives denote that an object belongs to a specific person or animal. For example: fathers (house), mothers
Transition of adjectives from one category to another
Adjectives can move from one category to another. For example: relative adjectives can become qualitative: stone house
Their signs
Qualitative adjectives can have two forms - full and short. Short form
Qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. Positive degree - e
And their signs
Exercise 5 It is not always easy to draw a clear line between qualitative and relative adjectives, since relative adjectives, when used figuratively
Possessive adjectives and their signs
Exercise 8 Find possessive adjectives with the suffixes -in, -ov. Indicate in what case and what number they are, what ending they have. Is it similar to the endings of a being
Full and short adjectives and their characteristics
Exercise 21 Read and indicate the short and full adjectives used in the compound nominal predicate. Mark cases of inappropriate use
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
Exercise 33 Rewrite, forming from the adjectives given in brackets, forms of degrees of comparison, simple or compound. (When doing this exercise, keep in mind that simple shapes compare
An adjective is a part of speech that denotes any attribute of an object (color, quality, size, age, material from which the object is made, etc.
A numeral is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of quantity (number). For example: one, one hundred, forty, seven Number the names
In grammar, there are two categories of numerals: quantitative and ordinal. Cardinal numbers
Declension of numerals
The cardinal numeral one, which displays a number of grammatical features that bring it closer to the adjective as a part of speech, is declined using the ending
The concept of a numeral as a part of speech
Exercise 1 Which of the highlighted words are numerals? 1. Witty, my dear fellow, hands down! Have a full glass of leisure! And pour a hundred epigrams on foe and friend
Lexico-grammatical categories of numerals
Exercise 5 Task: Read the following Note and comment on it. Note: B
Declension of numerals
Exercise 8 Prove that the seventh changes in the same way as gray, big, blue. Exercise 9 Rewrite, choosing the necessary numerals and putting them in
A numeral is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of quantity (number); these are words that answer the question how many?) or the order of objects when counting (answer n
The problem of pronouns is one of the most difficult problems in grammar. Pronouns are traditionally defined as parts of speech that indicate objects, when
Pronouns
Based on the nature of the functions they perform (i.e., by meaning), pronouns are divided into eight functional-semantic categories: 1.
According to their grammatical properties, pronominal words are usually divided into three categories: 1. Subject-personal pronouns (m
Declension of pronouns
Pronominal adjectives are declined like ordinary adjectives (which - like old; which - like factory). Pronominal numerals are inflected
The concept of a pronoun as a part of speech
Exercise 1 Read and indicate what mistakes were made in the use of 3rd person pronouns. Correct and rewrite. 1. Kalashniko
Functional-semantic categories of pronouns
Exercise 9 Read and indicate whether the plural forms of 3rd person personal pronouns are used correctly. Rewrite with necessary corrections. &n
Grammatical grades of pronouns
Exercise 14 Who, what are pronominal nouns; which, which, whose are pronominal adjectives. Prove it. Exercise 15 How many and
Declension of pronouns
Exercise 17 Negative pronouns are combined with prepositions like this: there was no one - was not with anyone, did not tell anyone - did not go to anyone, was not noticed by anyone -
Pronouns are traditionally defined as a part of speech that indicates objects, signs and quantities, but does not name them (who, you, this, some, several).
Topic plan
1. . 2. . 3. Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs. Basic postfix values
The concept of a verb as a part of speech
The term “Verb” itself is of Old Slavonic origin. In the Old Russian language, the verb means “Word”. The verb is the largest part
Infinitive as the initial form of a verb
If the initial form of a noun is the nominative singular form, then the initial form of the verb is the infinitive
The category of transitivity-intransitivity is a constant grammatical category of the verb. It expresses the relationship of the action denoted by the verb to the object. All
Verb mood category
Unlike the verbal categories we have considered, the mood category is an unstable grammatical category of the verb, i.e. by mood verb in Russian language izm
Verb person category. Impersonal verbs
The person category of the verb expresses the relationship of the action performed by the subject to the speaking person. Only verbs of the present and future tenses change by person. Past verbs
Conjugation of verbs
Changing verbs of the present and future tense according to persons in the singular and plural person called conjugation. In the past tense verbs in s
In addition to the infinitive, special inconjugated forms of the verb are participles and gerunds. Participle
The concept of a verb as a part of speech
Exercise 1 Explain why it is necessary to consider that skill is an adjective (short form), and skill is a verb. Compare:
Infinitive as the initial form of a verb
Exercise 5 Read the joke fairy tale “Infinitive”. The Infinitive looks at how the verbs are conjugated and says: “Oh, is it really necessary to conjugate this way?” - And to
Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs.
The main meanings of the postfix - xia Exercise 10 Phrases with the instrumental case of the character are sometimes stylistically incongruous
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Exercise 21 Read the text. From hunting stories It happened on the river bank. My dog stumbled upon a hare. The shore was steep
Verb aspect category
Exercise 25 Grammatical meaning The type will become clearer if it is connected with the phenomena of reality. A pupil (student) will understand what the meaning of the perfect form is if it is clear to him
Verb tense category
Exercise 99 Compare the formation of the past tense form in different groups of verbs. From what basis are they formed? Using what affixes? What verbs have a past tense meaning?
Conjugation of verbs
Exercise 109 The verbs want, run have most endings of the II conjugation. What endings violate this order for the verbs want and run?
Participle as an inconjugated form of a verb
Exercise 115 Find participles in the text. Choose one of them and prove that it has the characteristics of a verb and an adjective. Make up a sentence with this participle to change
The participle as an inconjugated form of a verb
Exercise 150 For each participle with explanatory words, two sentences are given. Choose which of these sentences can be associated with a gerund. Make a sentence and write it down.
The verb is the largest part of speech in the grammatical system of the modern Russian language. This is a significant part of speech, denoting an action or state of being.
The concept of an adverb as a part of speech
An adverb is a part of speech that expresses the grammatical general categorical meaning of a sign of an action, state or other sign (write quickly and beautifully,
Lexico-grammatical categories of adverbs
When classifying adverbs, two features are taken into account: - function in a sentence; - type of adverb meaning.
Degrees of comparison of adverbs
Like adjectives, the category of degrees of comparison of adverbs is formed by contrasting three forms: positive, comparative and superlatives. Forms of degrees of comparison
Exercises for independent work
Note: exercises are performed at the choice of the teacher, can be used in practical classes and are recommended for homework. Up
An adverb is a part of speech that expresses the grammatical general categorical meaning of a sign of an action, state or other sign (to write quickly and beautifully, a child is very
Features of the state category as a part of speech
The category of state (impersonal predicative words) is a part of speech that expresses the general categorical meaning of the state of living beings, nature, environment in grammatical
Condition categories
Qualitative impersonal predicative words denote the state of living beings and the environment: the emotional and mental state of a person (sad,
Unchangeable parts of speech
In the modern Russian language, along with the previously discussed seven variable independent parts of speech, which have a more or less developed inflectional paradigm (including nare
Pretext
Particles
Particles are usually called the auxiliary part of speech, conveying shades of lexical and syntactic meanings, clarifying and specifying the meaning of lexical and
Pretext
Exercise 1 Think about why the words but or cannot be considered prepositions. Exercise 2 Prepositions are used with the dative case:
Particles
Exercise 14 Read. Select the particles that serve: a) to form word forms; b) to convey different shades of meaning of the entire sentence or its members
A preposition is an auxiliary part of speech used as a means of syntactic subordination of nouns (as well as pronouns) with other words in a sentence and phrase
Unproductive part of speech
Interjections are a relatively unproductive part of speech, which in itself, like modal words, constitutes a special structural-semantic type of words and expresses (n
Modal words are special part speech, the general categorical meaning of which comes down to the transfer of various subjective-modal relations of the speaker to what and how
Students
The final form of control of knowledge, skills and abilities in the discipline “Modern Russian Language: Morphology” is an exam. The exam is conducted orally, the student is offered two
Fund of control tasks for the discipline
“Modern Russian language: Morphology” (for students of the specialty “Journalism”) Note: The fund of control tasks is intended for control
List of abbreviations
Abr. – F. Abramov Already. – V. Azhaev Ax. – S.T. Aksakov A.K.T. – A.K. Tolstoy Andr. – L. Andreev A.N.S. – A.N. Co
Information about Russian language researchers
Fyodor Ivanovich BUSLAEV (13 (2514.1818, Kerensk, now the village of Vadinsk, Penza region, - 31.7 (12.8).1897, village of Lyulino, Moscow province, now within Moscow) - Russian philologist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Main stages of studying morphology
In the study of the morphological structure of the Russian language, four periods can be roughly distinguished. The first period (mid-18th - mid-19th centuries) is associated with the name
V. V. Vinogradov
“Russian language (Grammatical doctrine of words)” (excerpt) 1. It is necessary to pay attention to the subordination of some parts of speech to others, which in school
Parts of speech problem
(From the book by P.S. Kuznetsov “On the principles of studying grammar”) 1. An essential issue in morphology is the question of parts of speech,
Adjective
I. In modern Russian, short forms of qualitative adjectives are used only in the nominal part of a compound nominal predicate and are an accessory
Yuri Dolin
“Insidious” part of speech in the speech of television journalists First, it should be said that in last decades the problem of “Russian language on air” itself has become one of the pressing issues
The problem of pronouns as a special part of speech
Considering the obvious grammatical heterogeneity of pronouns, F.F. Fortunatov, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba and many other scientists came to the conclusion that pronouns were not composed at all.
How many categories of faces are there in modern Russian?
1. The system of grammatical categories, their content and structure, the methods and forms of their expression reflect the essence and specificity of the grammatical structure of the language.
Yu.T. Dolin
On the question of the grammatical nature of forms like “klop” in modern Russian Forms like klop, hvat, bam both in Russian and in other Slavic languages attracted etc.
Some tips on how to improve your
literacy Both jokingly and seriously 1. Check your literacy according to the talk book. 2. Between us, the place case