After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs were ruled caliphs- military leaders elected by the entire community. The first four caliphs came from the inner circle of the prophet himself. Under them, the Arabs for the first time went beyond the borders of their ancestral lands. Caliph Omar, the most successful military leader, spread the influence of Islam throughout almost the entire Middle East. Under him, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine were conquered - lands that previously belonged to the Christian world. The closest enemy of the Arabs in the struggle for land was Byzantium, which was going through difficult times. The long war with the Persians and numerous internal problems undermined the power of the Byzantines, and it was not difficult for the Arabs to take a number of territories from the empire and defeat the Byzantine army in several battles.

In a sense, the Arabs were “doomed to success” in their campaigns. Firstly, superior light cavalry provided the Arab army with mobility and superiority over infantry and heavy cavalry. Secondly, the Arabs, having captured the country, behaved in it in accordance with the commandments of Islam. Only the rich were deprived of their property; the conquerors did not touch the poor, and this could not but arouse sympathy for them. Unlike Christians, who often forced the local population to accept a new faith, the Arabs allowed religious freedom. The propaganda of Islam in new lands was more of an economic nature. It happened as follows. Having conquered the local population, the Arabs imposed taxes on them. Anyone who converted to Islam was exempt from a significant part of these taxes. Christians and Jews, who had long lived in many Middle Eastern countries, were not persecuted by the Arabs - they simply had to pay a tax on their faith.

The population in most of the conquered countries perceived the Arabs as liberators, especially since they retained a certain political independence for the conquered people. In the new lands, the Arabs founded paramilitary settlements and lived in their own closed, patriarchal-tribal world. But this state of affairs did not last long. In rich Syrian cities, famous for their luxury, in Egypt with its centuries-old cultural traditions, noble Arabs became increasingly imbued with the habits of the local rich and nobility. For the first time, a split occurred in Arab society - adherents of patriarchal principles could not come to terms with the behavior of those who refused the custom of their fathers. Medina and the Mesopotamian settlements became the stronghold of the traditionalists. Their opponents - not only in terms of foundations, but also in political terms - lived mainly in Syria.

In 661, a split occurred between two political factions of the Arab nobility. Caliph Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, tried to reconcile traditionalists and supporters of the new way of life. However, these attempts came to nothing. Ali was killed by conspirators from the traditionalist sect, and his place was taken by Emir Muawiya, the head of the Arab community in Syria. Muawiyah decisively broke with the supporters of military democracy of early Islam. The capital of the caliphate was moved to Damascus, the ancient capital of Syria. During the era of the Damascus Caliphate, the Arab world decisively expanded its borders.

By the 8th century, the Arabs had conquered all North Africa, and in 711 they began an attack on European lands. What a serious force the Arab army was can be judged by the fact that in just three years the Arabs completely captured the Iberian Peninsula.

Muawiyah and his heirs - the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty - in a short period of time created a state, the likes of which history has never known. Neither the possessions of Alexander the Great, nor even the Roman Empire at its peak, extended as widely as the Umayyad Caliphate. The caliphs' dominions stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to India and China. The Arabs owned almost all of Central Asia, all of Afghanistan, and the northwestern territories of India. In the Caucasus, the Arabs conquered the Armenian and Georgian kingdoms, thereby surpassing the ancient rulers of Assyria.

Under the Umayyads, the Arab state finally lost the features of the previous patriarchal-tribal system. During the birth of Islam, the caliph - the religious head of the community - was elected by general vote. Muawiyah made this title hereditary. Formally, the caliph remained the spiritual ruler, but was mainly involved in secular affairs.

Supporters of a developed management system, created according to Middle Eastern models, won the dispute with adherents of old customs. Caliphate began to resemble more and more the eastern despotism of ancient times. Numerous officials subordinate to the caliph monitored the payment of taxes in all lands of the caliphate. If under the first caliphs Muslims were exempt from taxes (with the exception of the “tithe” for the maintenance of the poor, commanded by the prophet himself), then during the time of the Umayyads three main taxes were introduced. The tithe, which previously went to the income of the community, now went to the treasury of the caliph. Apart from her, all the residents caliphate had to pay a land tax and a poll tax, the jiziya, the same one that was previously levied only on non-Muslims living on Muslim soil.

The caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty cared about making the caliphate a truly unified state. For this purpose they introduced as state language Arabic in all territories under their control. Important role The Koran, the holy book of Islam, played a role in the formation of the Arab state during this period. The Koran was a collection of sayings of the Prophet, recorded by his first disciples. After the death of Muhammad, several texts-additions were created that made up the book of Sunnah. On the basis of the Koran and Sunnah, the caliph's officials conducted court; the Koran determined all the most important issues in the life of the Arabs. But if all Muslims accepted the Koran unconditionally - after all, these were sayings dictated by Allah himself - then religious communities treated the Sunnah differently. It was along this line that a religious split occurred in Arab society.

The Arabs called Sunnis those who recognized the Sunnah as a holy book along with the Koran. The Sunni movement in Islam was considered official because it was supported by the caliph. Those who agreed to consider only the Koran as the holy book formed the sect of Shiites (schismatics).

Both Sunnis and Shiites were very numerous groups. Of course, the schism was not limited to religious differences. The Shiite nobility was close to the family of the Prophet; the Shiites were led by relatives of the murdered Caliph Ali. In addition to the Shiites, the caliphs were opposed by another, purely political sect - the Kharijites, who advocated a return to the original tribal patriarchy and squad orders, in which the caliph was chosen by all the warriors of the community, and the lands were divided equally among everyone.

The Umayyad dynasty held power for ninety years. In 750, the military leader Abul Abbas, a distant relative of the Prophet Muhammad, overthrew the last caliph and destroyed all his heirs, declaring himself caliph. The new dynasty - the Abbasids - turned out to be much more durable than the previous one, and lasted until 1055. Abbas, unlike the Umayyads, came from Mesopotamia, a stronghold of the Shiite movement in Islam. Not wanting to have anything to do with the Syrian rulers, the new ruler moved the capital to Mesopotamia. In 762, the city of Baghdad was founded, becoming the capital of the Arab world for several hundred years.

The structure of the new state turned out to be in many ways similar to the Persian despotisms. The first minister of the caliph was the vizier; the whole country was divided into provinces, ruled by emirs appointed by the caliph. All power was concentrated in the palace of the caliph. Numerous palace officials were, in essence, ministers, each responsible for their own area. Under the Abbasids, the number of departments increased sharply, which initially helped manage the vast country.

The postal service was responsible not only for organizing the courier service (first created by the Assyrian rulers in the 2nd millennium BC). The duties of the postmaster general included maintaining state roads in good condition and providing hotels along these roads. Mesopotamian influence manifested itself in one of the most important branches of economic life - agriculture. Irrigation agriculture, practiced in Mesopotamia since ancient times, became widespread under the Abbasids. Officials from a special department monitored the construction of canals and dams, and the condition of the entire irrigation system.

Under the Abbasids, military power caliphate has increased sharply. The regular army now consisted of one hundred and fifty thousand warriors, among whom were many mercenaries from barbarian tribes. The caliph also had at his disposal his personal guard, warriors for which were trained from early childhood.

By the end of his reign, Caliph Abbas earned the title “Bloody” for his brutal measures to restore order in the lands conquered by the Arabs. However, it was thanks to his cruelty that the Abbasid Caliphate long term has become a prosperous country with a highly developed economy.

First of all, agriculture flourished. Its development was facilitated by the thoughtful and consistent policy of the rulers in this regard. The rare variety of climatic conditions in different provinces allowed the caliphate to fully provide itself with all the necessary products. It was at this time that the Arabs began to attach great importance to gardening and floriculture. Luxury goods and perfumes produced in the Abbasid state were important items of foreign trade.

It was under the Abbasids that the Arab world began to flourish as one of the main industrial centers in the Middle Ages. Having conquered many countries with rich and long-standing craft traditions, the Arabs enriched and developed these traditions. Under the Abbasids, the East begins to trade in steel highest quality, the like of which Europe did not know. Damascus steel blades were extremely highly valued in the West.

The Arabs not only fought, but also traded with the Christian world. Small caravans or brave single merchants penetrated far to the north and west of the borders of their country. Items made in the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th – 10th centuries were found even in the Baltic Sea region, in the territories of Germanic and Slavic tribes. The fight against Byzantium, which the Muslim rulers waged almost incessantly, was caused not only by the desire to seize new lands. Byzantium, which had long-established trade relations and routes throughout the known world at that time, was the main competitor of Arab merchants. Goods from the countries of the East, India and China, which had previously reached the West through Byzantine merchants, also came through the Arabs. No matter how badly Christians in the European West treated the Arabs, the East for Europe already in the Dark Ages became the main source of luxury goods.

The Abbasid Caliphate had many common features both with the European kingdoms of their era, and with the ancient Eastern despotisms. The caliphs, unlike European rulers, managed to prevent the emirs and other high-ranking officials from becoming too independent. If in Europe land, provided to local nobility for royal service, almost always remained hereditary property, then the Arab state in this regard was closer to the ancient Egyptian order. According to the laws of the caliphate, all land in the state belonged to the caliph. He allocated money to his associates and subjects for their service, but after their death, the allotments and all property returned to the treasury. Only the caliph had the right to decide whether to leave the lands of the deceased to his heirs or not. Let us remember that the reason for the collapse of most European kingdoms during the Early Middle Ages was precisely the power that the barons and counts took into their hands on the lands granted to them by the king as hereditary possession. Royal power extended only to lands that belonged personally to the king, and some of his counts owned much more extensive territories.

But there was never complete peace in the Abbasid Caliphate. Residents of countries conquered by the Arabs constantly sought to regain independence, raising riots against their co-religionists-invaders. The emirs in the provinces also did not want to accept their dependence on the favor of the supreme ruler. The collapse of the caliphate began almost immediately after its formation. The first to separate were the Moors - North African Arabs who conquered the Pyrenees. The independent Emirate of Cordoba became a caliphate in the mid-10th century, consolidating sovereignty at the state level. The Moors in the Pyrenees maintained their independence longer than many other Islamic peoples. Despite constant wars against Europeans, despite the powerful onslaught of the Reconquista, when almost all of Spain returned to Christians, until the middle of the 15th century there was a Moorish state in the Pyrenees, which eventually shrank to the size of the Granada Caliphate - a small area around the Spanish city of Granada, the pearl of the Arab world , which shocked its European neighbors with its beauty. The famous Moorish style came to European architecture through Granada, which was finally conquered by Spain only in 1492.

Starting from the middle of the 9th century, the collapse of the Abbasid state became irreversible. One after another, the North African provinces separated, followed by Central Asia. In the heart of the Arab world, the confrontation between Sunnis and Shiites has intensified even more sharply. In the middle of the 10th century, the Shiites captured Baghdad and for a long time ruled the remnants of the once powerful caliphate - Arabia and small territories in Mesopotamia. In 1055, the caliphate was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. From that moment on, the world of Islam completely lost its unity. The Saracens, who had established themselves in the Middle East, did not give up their attempts to take possession of Western European lands. In the 9th century they captured Sicily, from where they were later driven out by the Normans. In the Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries, European crusader knights fought against Saracen troops.

The Turks moved from their territories in Asia Minor to the lands of Byzantium. Over the course of several hundred years, they conquered the entire Balkan Peninsula, brutally oppressing its former inhabitants - Slavic peoples. And in 1453, the Ottoman Empire finally conquered Byzantium. The city was renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Interesting information:

• Caliph - the spiritual and secular head of the Muslim community and the Muslim theocratic state (caliphate).
• Umayyads - dynasty of caliphs that ruled from 661 to 750.
• Jiziah (jizya) - a poll tax on non-Muslims in the countries of the medieval Arab world. Only adult men paid jizya. Women, children, old people, monks, slaves and beggars were exempt from paying it.
• Koran (from Ar. “kur’an” - reading) - a collection of sermons, prayers, parables, commandments and other speeches delivered by Muhammad and which formed the basis of Islam.
• Sunnah (from the Arabic “way of action”) is a sacred tradition in Islam, a collection of stories about the actions, commandments and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. It is an explanation and supplement to the Koran. Compiled in the 7th – 9th centuries.
• Abbasids - a dynasty of Arab caliphs that ruled from 750 to 1258.
• Emir - a feudal ruler in the Arab world, a title corresponding to a European prince. He had temporal and spiritual power. At first, emirs were appointed to the post of caliph, later this title became hereditary.

The Arab Caliphate arose in the 7th century. in the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula as a result of the decomposition of the tribal system among the Arabs who inhabited this territory - settled farmers and nomads and their unification under the banner of the religion of Islam.

Before the formation of the Arab Caliphate, the vast majority of the population of Arabia were nomadic pastoralists who were at the stage of tribal relations. They inhabited vast areas of the Arabian steppes and semi-deserts, known as “Badawi”. This word passed into European languages ​​in the form of Arabic plural- Bedouin. The Bedouins were engaged in cattle breeding, mainly camel breeding.
Each tribe (depending on its size and the size of the territory it occupied) consisted of a large or small number of clans and clans.
At the head of each tribe was its leader - the seyid (lord); in a time closer to us, they began to call him a sheikh.
Separate clans and large groups nomads also had their sayyids. In peacetime, the seiyid was in charge of migrations, chose a place for the camp, was a representative of his tribe and negotiated on its behalf with other tribes. If there was no judge in the tribe, he would sort out the disputes and lawsuits of his fellow tribesmen, in special cases could perform the duties of a minister of religious worship. In raids and war, the Sayyid commanded the armed detachment of his tribe; then he was called rais (leader).
Each tribe, or even a large clan, was a completely independent organization, independent of anyone.
The main reason Since the emergence of the state, the Arabs had a class stratification. In addition, the economic crisis associated with overpopulation and the need to increase the area of ​​pastures was of no small importance. The Arabs needed new territories and sought to invade Iran and Byzantium. The crisis contributed to the unification of Arab tribes into alliances and the creation of a single Arab state throughout Arabia.
The desire for unification found its ideological expression in the teachings of the Hanifs, who preached faith in one god - Allah, and in Islam (“submission”) - Mohammedan religious teaching, whose founder is considered to be Muhammad, who lived from approximately 570 to 632.
Islam originated in Central Arabia. Its main center is Mecca, where the founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born and lived. The city of Mecca stood in the way of large trade caravans that were heading from Yemen and Ethiopia to Mesopotamia and Palestine. This point, which grew into a city large by Arabian standards, acquired ever-increasing religious significance in ancient times.

Muhammad belonged to the Hayshim family, which did not possess wealth and did not enjoy influence. Consequently, he and his inner circle could well be imbued with the interests and needs of the middle and small Meccan trading people.
The activities of the first Muslims in Mecca ended in complete failure. Having received no support either from the population of the city or from the Bedouins from the surrounding areas, the first Muslims decided to move to Yathrib Medina. There the Meccan settlers began to be called Muhajirs. They had to commit a formal act of voluntary dissolution of family ties with their fellow tribesmen.
Further, a special organization was formed in Medina - the ummah (community of believers). The Muslim Ummah, which united fellow believers, was a theocratic organization. The believers who entered it were convinced that they were ruled by Allah through his messenger. A few years later, the entire Arab population of Medina had already become part of the Muslim community, and the Jewish tribes were evicted and partially exterminated. As a religious teacher who constantly communicated with Allah, Muhammad served as the ruler of Medina, judge and military leader.
On January 13, 624, the first battle of Muslims led by Muhammad with the Meccans took place. The battle lasted only a few hours. The Muslims were victorious and captured rich booty. Muhammad acted wisely with the prisoners: he released the captive women and children. Muhammad's generosity did its job. A recent opponent, Malik Ibn Auf, who commanded a Bedouin tribe in a battle with Muhammad, himself converted to Islam. The Bedouin tribes under his control followed his example. So Muhammad expanded his influence step by step.
After this, Muhammad decided to push back the Jews. The latter could not withstand the siege and, starved to death, surrendered. They had to leave Arabia and settle in Syria. Over time, other tribes of Central Arabia surrendered to Muhammad, and he became the most powerful ruler in the region.
Muhammad died in Medina in 632. The death of Muhammad raised the question of his successor as the supreme head of the Muslims. By this time, Muhammad's closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among them they began to choose individual Muslim leaders.
Abu Bekr, Muhammad's closest ally, was proclaimed the head of the community. In accordance with the gradually developing Islamic law, the appointment of Abu Bekr as heir was made through elections and legitimized by an oath taken by shaking hands, with those present giving a solemn ceremony
a promise for those who were absent. Abu Bekr took the title of caliph, which means “deputy”, “successor”.
The caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) were called “righteous.” Their accession to the throne was still elective. During their reign, numerous territories in Asia and Africa were conquered, which were part of the Byzantine Empire and the Iranian kingdom. As a result of these conquests, the vast state of the Arab Caliphate was formed.

Arab Empire

The history of the Arab Caliphate can be represented by the following main periods: period - the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of the state (VI-VII centuries); The period is Damascus, or the period of Umayyad rule, during which the heyday of the state falls. The Caliphate becomes a feudal state (661-750); The period is Baghdad, or the period of Abbasid rule. The creation of a vast Arab empire, its further feudalization and the collapse of the state (750-1258) are associated with it.
The collapse of the Caliphate began in the 8th century. In 756, the Emirate of Cordoba in Spain separated from it, which in 929 became an independent caliphate. Later, Tunisia and Morocco, and then other parts of the empire, seceded from the Caliphate. In the middle of the 9th century. Egypt separated. The power of the caliph was preserved by the middle of the 10th century. only in Arabia and part of Mesopotamia adjacent to Baghdad.

In 1055, after the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad, the Arab Caliphate lost its independence.
In 1257-1258 As a result of the invasion of Genghis Khan, the remnants of the once powerful state - the Arab Caliphate - were destroyed.

Caliphate as a medieval state formed as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, the center of settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula (located between Iran and North-East Africa).

A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century. there was a religious connotation to this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam (Islam translated from Arabic means “surrendering oneself” to God). The political movement for the unification of tribes under the slogans of renouncing paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the trends in the emergence of a new system, was called "Hanif".

The Hanif preachers' search for a new truth and a new god, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, is associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Muhammad (c. 570-632), who became rich as a result of have a good marriage A shepherd, an orphan from Mecca, upon whom “revelations descended”, later recorded in the Koran, proclaimed the need to establish the cult of a single god - Allah and a new social order that excluded tribal strife. The head of the Arabs was to be a prophet - “the messenger of Allah on earth.”

Early Islam's calls for social justice (limiting usury, establishing alms for the poor, freeing slaves, fair trade) caused dissatisfaction among the tribal merchant nobility with the "revelations" of Muhammad, which forced him to flee with a group of close companions in 622 from Mecca to Yathrib (later Medina). , "city of the Prophet"). Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including Bedouin nomads. The first mosque was built here, and the order of Muslim worship was determined. From the moment of this migration and separate existence, which received the name “Hijra” (621-629), the summer reckoning according to the Muslim calendar begins.

Muhammad argued that Islamic teachings do not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirm and clarify them. However, already at that time it became clear that Islam also contained something new. His rigidity and, at times, fanatical intolerance in some matters, especially in matters of power and authority, were quite clearly evident. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is inseparable from secular power and is the basis of the latter, and therefore Islam demanded equally unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and “those who have power.”

For ten years, in the 20-30s. VII century The organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina into a state entity was completed. Muhammad himself was its spiritual, military leader and judge. With the help of the new religion and military units of the community, the struggle against opponents of the new socio-political structure began.

Muhammad's closest relatives and companions gradually consolidated into a privileged group that received exclusive right to power. From its ranks, after the death of the prophet, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs ("deputies of the prophet"). Some groups of Islamic tribal nobility formed an opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only by inheritance and only by the descendants (and not the companions) of the prophet.

The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteously guided" caliphs, quelled discontent with Islam among certain sections and completed the political unification of Arabia. In the 7th - first half of the 8th century. Vast territories were conquered from former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain. The Arab army entered French territory, but was defeated by the knights of Charles Martell at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.

In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, they usually distinguish two periods, which correspond to the main stages of development of Arab medieval society and state:

• Damascus, or the period of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750);
• Baghdad, or the period of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258).

Umayyad dynasty(from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the next one after them Abbasid dynasty(from the descendants of a prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.

The most famous of the Abbasids were the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who was included in the characters of the Arabian Nights, as well as his son al-Mamun. These were enlightened autocrats who combined concerns for spiritual and secular enlightenment. Naturally, in their role as caliphs, they were also occupied with the problems of spreading the new faith, which they themselves and their subjects perceived as a commandment to live in equality and universal brotherhood of all true believers. The duties of the ruler in this case were to be a fair, wise and merciful ruler. Enlightened caliphs combined concerns about administration, finance, justice and the army with support for education, art, literature, science, as well as trade and commerce.

Organization of power and administration in the Arab Caliphate

The Muslim state for some time after Mohammed remained a theocracy in the sense of recognizing it as the true possession of God (state property was called God's property) and in the sense of striving to govern the state according to the commandments of God and the example of his Messenger (the prophet was also called rasul, that is, messenger).

The first entourage of the prophet-ruler consisted of mujahirs(exiles who fled with the prophet from Mecca) and Ansar(assistants).

Characteristic features of the Muslim social system:

1. 1. the dominant position of state ownership of land with the widespread use of slave labor in the state economy (irrigation, mines, workshops);
   2. state exploitation of peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite;
   3. religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life;
   4. the absence of clearly defined class groups, special status for cities, any freedoms and privileges.

Civilizations of the East. Islam.

Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages

Arab Caliphate

Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages

The term “Middle Ages” is used to designate the period in the history of the Eastern countries of the first seventeen centuries of the new era.

Geographically, the Medieval East covers the territory of North Africa, the Near and Middle East, Central and Central Asia, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Asia And Far East.

In the historical arena during this period appeared peoples, like Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Mongols. New religions were born and civilizations arose on their basis.

The countries of the East in the Middle Ages were connected with Europe. Byzantium remained the bearer of the traditions of Greco-Roman culture. The Arab conquest of Spain and the Crusaders' campaigns in the East contributed to the interaction of cultures. However, for the countries of South Asia and the Far East, acquaintance with Europeans took place only in the 15th-16th centuries.

The formation of medieval societies of the East was characterized by the growth of productive forces - iron tools spread, artificial irrigation expanded and irrigation technology was improved,

The leading trend of the historical process both in the East and in Europe was the establishment of feudal relations.

Re-odization of the history of the medieval East.

I-VI centuries AD – the birth of feudalism;

VII-X centuries – period of early feudal relations;

XI-XII centuries – pre-Mongol period, the beginning of the heyday of feudalism, the formation of the estate-corporate system of life, cultural takeoff;

XIII centuries - the time of the Mongol conquest,

XIV-XVI centuries – post-Mongol period, conservation of the despotic form of power.

Eastern civilizations

Some civilizations in the East arose in ancient times; Buddhist and Hindu - on the Hindustan Peninsula,

Taoist-Confucian - in China.

Others were born in the Middle Ages: Muslim civilization in the Near and Middle East,

Hindu-Muslim - in India,

Hindu and Muslim - in the countries of Southeast Asia, Buddhist - in Japan and Southeast Asia,

Confucian - in Japan and Korea.

Arab Caliphate (V – XI centuries AD)

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the 2nd millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples.

In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, and was engaged in crafts and trade. The other part roamed the deserts and steppes and was engaged in cattle breeding.

Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. In this oasis lived the Arab tribe Quraysh, whose tribal nobility, using the geographical location of Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

Besides Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. An ancient pre-Islamic temple was located here Kaaba. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Qureish tribe Allah(from Arabic ilah - master).

REASONS for the emergence of Islam: In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, due to the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade decreases. The population, having lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to seek sources of livelihood in agriculture. But suitable for Agriculture there was little land. They had to be conquered. This required strength and, therefore, the unification of fragmented tribes, who also worshiped different gods. More and more clearly defined the need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Muhammad(c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam.

This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity. : belief in one God and his prophet,

the Last Judgment,

afterlife reward,

unconditional submission to the will of God (Arabic: Islam - submission).

The Judaic and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced are common for these religions the names of prophets and other biblical characters: biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Elijah (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus ( Isa), Mary (Maryam), etc.

Islam shares common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, prohibit depicting God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

At the first stage of development, the new religious worldview of Islam was not supported by the majority of Muhammad's fellow tribesmen, and primarily by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of income.

In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina). This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

However, only in 630, having gathered the required number of supporters, he was able to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, especially since they were satisfied that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650) after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected in a single book Koran(translated from Arabic means reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who accepted the Koran and Sunnah began to be called Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran - Shiites.

Shiites recognize as legitimate caliphs(vicars, deputies) of Muhammad, spiritual and secular heads of Muslims only his relatives.

Economic crisis Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the movement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This is reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight the infidels, exterminate them and take their property (Koran, 2: 186-189; 4: 76-78, 86).

Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, began a series of conquests. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem.

Until the end of the 7th century. The countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia came under Arab rule.

In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, and North-West Africa were captured.

In 711, Arab troops led Tariqa swam from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from the name of Tariq came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tariq). Having quickly conquered the Pyrenees, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel. By the middle of the 9th century. The Arabs captured Sicily, Sardinia, the southern regions of Italy, and the island of Crete. At this point, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. The Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The main Arab conquests were carried out under the caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the Umayyad caliphs (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the caliphate was moved to Syria to the city of Damascus.

The victories of the Arabs and their seizure of vast areas were facilitated by many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant hostility between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries captured by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators who reduced the tax burden primarily for those who converted to Islam.

The unification of many formerly separate and warring states into single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts and trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture quickly developed, incorporating Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage. Through the Arabs, Europe became acquainted with the cultural achievements of the eastern peoples, primarily with achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In 750, the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the caliphate was overthrown. The Abbasids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas, became caliphs. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.

In the western part of the caliphate, Spain continued to be ruled by the Umayyads, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Cordoba Caliphate with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab Caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were the rulers of the provinces - emirs.

The Abbasid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbasid state ceased to exist.

The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab caliphate as a state ended.

The caliphate as an institution for the spiritual leadership of the Arabs and all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function passed to the Turkish Sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, dating back only six centuries, was complex, controversial and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution of human society on the planet.

Difficult economic situation population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone, it became necessary to search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here took the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for the fight against infidels (non-believers). Guided by the ideology of Islam, the caliphs carried out a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of formerly scattered tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Being one of the youngest in the east, occupying the most offensive position among them, having absorbed the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on spiritual life Western Europe, posing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages.

Along with Byzantium, the most prosperous state in the Mediterranean throughout the Middle Ages was the Arab Caliphate, created by the Prophet Mohammed (Muhammad, Mohammed) and his successors. In Asia, as in Europe, military-feudal and military-bureaucratic state formations arose sporadically, as a rule, as a result of military conquests and annexations. This is how the Mughal empire arose in India, the empire of the Tang dynasty in China, etc. A strong integrating role fell to the Christian religion in Europe, the Buddhist religion in the states of Southeast Asia, and the Islamic religion in the Arabian Peninsula.

The coexistence of domestic and state slavery with feudal-dependent and tribal relations continued in some Asian countries during this historical period.

The Arabian Peninsula, where the first Islamic state arose, is located between Iran and Northeast Africa. During the time of the Prophet Mohammed, born around 570, it was sparsely populated. The Arabs were then a nomadic people and, with the help of camels and other beasts of burden, provided trade and caravan connections between India and Syria, and then North African and European countries. The Arab tribes were also responsible for ensuring the safety of trade routes with oriental spices and handicrafts, and this circumstance served as a favorable factor in the formation of the Arab state.

1. State and law in the early period of the Arab Caliphate

Arab tribes of nomads and farmers have inhabited the territory of the Arabian Peninsula since ancient times. Based on agricultural civilizations in southern Arabia already in the 1st millennium BC. early states similar to the ancient eastern monarchies arose: the Sabaean kingdom (VII–II centuries BC), Nabatiya (VI–I centuries). In large trading cities, urban self-government was formed according to the type of the Asia Minor polis. One of the last early South Arab states, the Himyarite kingdom, fell under the blows of Ethiopia and then Iranian rulers at the beginning of the 6th century.

By the VI–VII centuries. the bulk of the Arab tribes were at the stage of supra-communal administration. Nomads, traders, farmers of oases (mainly around sanctuaries) united family by family into large clans, clans - into tribes. The head of such a tribe was considered an elder - a seid (sheikh). He was the supreme judge, the military leader, and the general leader of the clan assembly. There was also a meeting of elders - the Majlis. Arab tribes also settled outside Arabia - in Syria, Mesopotamia, on the borders of Byzantium, forming temporary tribal unions.

The development of agriculture and livestock breeding leads to property differentiation of society and to the use of slave labor. Leaders of clans and tribes (sheikhs, seids) base their power not only on customs, authority and respect, but also on economic power. Among the Bedouins (inhabitants of the steppes and semi-deserts) there are Salukhi who have no means of subsistence (animals) and even Taridi (robbers) who were expelled from the tribe.

The religious ideas of the Arabs were not united into any ideological system. Fetishism, totemism and animism were combined. Christianity and Judaism were widespread.

In the VI Art. On the Arabian Peninsula there were several independent pre-feudal states. The elders of the clans and tribal nobility concentrated many animals, especially camels. In areas where agriculture was developed, a process of feudalization took place. This process engulfed the city-states, particularly Mecca. On this basis, a religious and political movement arose - the caliphate. This movement was directed against tribal cults for the creation of a common religion with one deity.

The Caliphic movement was directed against the tribal nobility, in whose hands there was power in the Arab pre-feudal states. It arose in those centers of Arabia where the feudal system acquired greater development and significance - in Yemen and the city of Yathrib, and also covered Mecca, where Muhammad was one of its representatives.

The Mecca nobility opposed Muhammad, and in 622 he was forced to flee to Medina, where he found support from the local nobility, who were dissatisfied with competition from the Mecca nobility.

A few years later, the Arab population of Medina became part of the Muslim community, led by Muhammad. He performed not only the functions of the ruler of Medina, but also was a military leader.

The essence of the new religion was to recognize Allah as one deity, and Muhammad as his prophet. It is recommended to pray every day, count out a fortieth part of your income for the benefit of the poor, and fast. Muslims must take part in the holy war against the infidels. The previous division of the population into clans and tribes, from which almost every state formation began, was undermined.

Muhammad proclaimed the need for a new order that excluded inter-tribal strife. All Arabs, regardless of their tribal origin, were called upon to form a single nation. Their head was to be the prophet-messenger of God on earth. The only conditions for joining this community were recognition of the new religion and strict compliance with its instructions.

Mohammed quickly gathered a significant number of followers and already in 630 he managed to settle in Mecca, whose inhabitants by that time had become imbued with his faith and teachings. The new religion was called Islam (peace with God, submission to the will of Allah) and quickly spread throughout the peninsula and beyond. In communicating with representatives of other religions - Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians - Mohammed's followers maintained religious tolerance. In the first centuries of the spread of Islam, a saying from the Koran (Sura 9.33 and Sura 61.9) about the prophet Mohammed, whose name means “gift of God”, was minted on Umayyad and Abbasid coins: “Mohammed is the messenger of God, whom God sent with instructions to the right path and with true faith, in order to elevate it above all faiths, even if the polytheists are dissatisfied with this.”

New ideas found ardent supporters among the poor. They converted to Islam because they had long ago lost faith in the power of tribal gods, who did not protect them from disasters and devastation.

Initially the movement was popular in nature, which scared off the rich, but this did not last long. The actions of the adherents of Islam convinced the nobility that the new religion did not threaten their fundamental interests. Soon, representatives of the tribal and trading elites became part of the Muslim ruling elite.

By this time (20–30 years of the 7th century) the organizational formation of the Muslim religious community, headed by Muhammad, was completed. The military units she created fought for the unification of the country under the banner of Islam. The activities of this military-religious organization gradually acquired a political character.

Having first united the tribes of two rival cities - Mecca and Yathrib (Medina) - under his rule, Muhammad led the struggle to unite all Arabs into a new semi-state-semi-religious community (umma). In the early 630s. a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the power and authority of Muhammad. Under his leadership, a kind of proto-state emerged with the spiritual and political power of the prophet at the same time, relying on the military and administrative powers of new supporters - the Muhajirs.

By the time of the death of the prophet, almost all of Arabia had fallen under his rule, his first successors - Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, nicknamed the righteous caliphs (from "caliph" - successor, deputy) - were in friendly and family ties with him. Already under Caliph Omar (634 - 644), Damascus, Syria, Palestine and Phenicia, and then Egypt, were annexed to this state. In the east, the Arab state expanded into Mesopotamia and Persia. Over the next century, the Arabs conquered North Africa and Spain, but failed twice to conquer Constantinople, and were later defeated in France at Poitiers (732), but maintained their dominance in Spain for another seven centuries.

30 years after the death of the prophet, Islam was divided into three large sects, or movements - the Sunnis (who relied in theological and legal issues on the Sunna - a collection of legends about the words and deeds of the prophet), the Shiites (considered themselves more accurate followers and exponents of the views of the prophet, as well as more accurate executors of the instructions of the Koran) and the Kharijites (who took as a model the policies and practices of the first two caliphs - Abu Bakr and Omar).

With the expansion of the borders of the state, Islamic theological and legal structures came under the influence of more educated foreigners and people of other faiths. This affected the interpretation of the Sunnah and the closely related fiqh (legislation).

The Umayyad dynasty (from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the Abbasid dynasty that followed them (from the descendants of the prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.

The emerging state solved one of the most important tasks facing the country - overcoming tribal separatism. By the middle of the 7th century. the unification of Arabia was largely completed.

Muhammad's death raised the question of his successors as supreme leader of the Muslims. By this time, his closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among her, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs (“deputies of the prophet”).

After the death of Muhammad, the unification of the Arab tribes continued. Power in the tribal union was transferred to the spiritual heir of the prophet - the caliph. Internal conflicts were suppressed. During the reign of the first four caliphs (“righteous”), the Arab proto-state, relying on the general armament of the nomads, began to rapidly expand at the expense of neighboring states.

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