Execution of King Louis XVI. Execution of Louis XVI

Louis XVI. Born on August 23, 1754 in Versailles - executed on January 21, 1793 in Paris. King of France from the Bourbon dynasty.

Louis XVI was born on August 23, 1754 in Versailles. The first title is Louis Auguste Duke of Berry.

Son of the Dauphin Louis Ferdinand, succeeded his grandfather in 1774.

Mother - Maria Josepha of Saxony.

His upbringing and training (as well as his two younger brothers, who later became Louis XVIII and Charles X), was in charge of the Duke of Vaugillon, a religious man, old-fashioned and not very distant. The boys were persistently instilled with strict rules of Christian faith and morality.

Louis XVI was an exemplary Catholic, he was described as a man of a kind heart, but of little intelligence and an indecisive character.

His grandfather Louis XV did not like him for his negative attitude towards the courtly way of life and contempt for his favorite DuBarry and kept him away from state affairs.

He showed the greatest inclination towards physical activities, especially plumbing and hunting. Despite the debauchery of the court around him, he retained the purity of morals, was distinguished by great honesty, simplicity of manners and dislike of luxury.

Marriage to Marie Antoinette

On May 16, 1770, his wedding to Marie Antoinette took place. - youngest daughter Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

When the girl was ten years old, her father died, leaving his wife an empire and eight children. At the age of 14 she was sent to France. At the border, the bride was met by a magnificent wedding train led by the prince's grandfather, the living king, Louis XV. The latter, who was reputed to be a great expert on the fairer sex, was pleased with his own choice for his grandson.

On the wedding day of the future Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, a decorated cortege walked through the streets of Paris, an enthusiastic crowd of citizens shouted congratulations to the happy bride. But the grandiose fireworks display ended sadly: real pandemonium began - people rushed to the free treats, and many died in the crush. When the dead bodies were taken away for identification, ominous rumors spread throughout the city that the bloody omen would not bring happiness to the young.

Children of Louis XV and Marie Antoinette:

sons: Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France, Louis XVII;
daughters: Maria Teresa of France (Madame Royale), Sophia Beatrice.

Accession to the throne

Louis Auguste Duke of Berry ended up on the French throne in a sense by accident: he was not even 12 when his two older brothers and his father, Crown Prince Louis of France, died untimely. The grandfather of the future monarch, Louis XV the Beloved, following the example of his great predecessor - the Sun King, preferred to keep the family of his successors away from the Versailles court, from the most important affairs, intrigues and secrets of French politics. It lived in Meudon, located 11 km from Versailles and 9 km from Paris. The palaces, their decoration, the parks - everything here was magnificent, but as if marked by provincial inferiority and royal hostility.

With the kindest feelings, he ascended the throne with the desire to work for the benefit of the people and to eliminate existing abuses, but he did not know how to boldly move forward towards a consciously intended goal. He submitted to the influence of those around him, sometimes aunts, sometimes brothers, sometimes ministers, sometimes the queen (Marie Antoinette), canceled decisions made, and did not complete the reforms he had begun.

Towards the end of his days, his grandfather Louis XV earned the hatred and contempt of a considerable number of subjects. Even the most quiet and obedient ones impatiently awaited the death of the old and the accession of the new king. Someone from the nobility slyly and reverently asked the heir: “Some are already suggesting adding the word “Desired” to your name. Which nickname would you prefer?” The answer frightened the courtier: “Louis the Severe.” Panic gripped Versailles. Rumors spread, and France froze in anticipation of a dark, cruel and unpredictable reign.

But he never became a powerful sovereign, whose words and even hints would acquire the force of an unshakable law. The teachers were unable to overcome his natural lethargy or timidity of character. He was overly compliant, depressingly fickle, easily and somehow indifferently rejected his own decisions, as if knowing in advance that any of them was not of significant importance.

The rumor about his honesty and good intentions aroused the most optimistic hopes among the people. Indeed, Louis’s first action was to remove DuBarry and the previous ministers, but his choice of first minister was unsuccessful: the 72-year-old Count Maurepas, called out of retirement, reluctantly followed the path of reform and at the first opportunity turned away from it.

Reforms

The feudal duty of 40 million was abolished and the “droits de joyeux avènement”, that is, special royal privileges before the law, were eliminated, sinecures were destroyed, and court expenses were reduced.

Such talented patriots as Turgot And Malesherbes. The first, simultaneously with a number of financial reforms - the uniform distribution of taxes, the extension of the land tax to the privileged classes, the redemption of feudal dues, the introduction of freedom of grain trade, the abolition of internal customs, workshops, and trade monopolies - undertook transformations in all sectors of people's life, in which Malzerbe helped him , trying to destroy lettres de cachet, establishing freedom of conscience, etc.

But the nobility, parliament and clergy rebelled against the pioneers of new ideas, holding tightly to their rights and privileges.

Turgot fell, although the king spoke of him like this: “Only I and Turgot love the people.” With his characteristic indecisiveness, Louis wanted to mitigate the abuses, but not to eradicate them. When he was persuaded to abolish serfdom in his domains, he, “respecting property,” refused to extend this abolition to the lands of the lords, and when Turgot presented him with a draft for the abolition of privileges, he wrote in the margins of it: “what a crime was committed by the nobles, the provincial states and parliaments to destroy their rights."

Reaction

After Turgot's removal, real anarchy reigned in finances. To correct them, Jacques Necker, Sh.-A. were successively called upon. Calonne and Lomenie de Brienne, but in the absence of a definite plan of action, the ministers could not achieve any definite results, but took either a step forward or a step back, either fought with the privileged classes and stood for reforms, or yielded to the ruling classes and acted in the spirit of Louis XIV .

The first manifestation of the reaction was the regulations of 1781, which allowed the promotion to officers only of nobles who had proven the antiquity of their family (4 generations), with the exception of artillerymen and engineers.

Access to the highest judicial positions was closed to persons of the third estate. The nobility made every effort to free itself from paying not only the taxes created by Turgot, but also those that were established in 1772. They prevailed in a dispute with farmers over dîmes insolites - the extension of church tithes to potatoes, sown grass, etc. P.

Priests were forbidden to gather without the permission of their superiors, that is, those against whom they sought protection from the state.

The same reaction was noticed in feudal relations: the lords restored their feudal rights, presented new documents, which were taken into account. The revival of feudalism was evident even in the royal domains. Trust in royal power weakened.

Meanwhile, France's participation in the North American War increased the desire for political freedom.

Finances were increasingly in disarray: loans could not cover the deficit, which reached 198 million livres a year, partly due to mismanagement of finances, partly due to the extravagance of the queen and the generous gifts that the king, under pressure from others, lavished on the princes and courtiers.

The government felt that it was unable to cope with the difficulties and saw the need to turn to the public for help. An attempt was made to reform regional and local self-government: the power of intendants was limited, part of it was transferred to provincial assemblies while maintaining class differences - but they were introduced only in some places, as an experiment, and the reform did not satisfy anyone. A meeting of notables was convened, which, however, did not agree to the establishment of a general land tax, pointing out that such a serious tax reform could only be sanctioned by the States General.

Estates General

Parliament also refused to register edicts on new taxes, boldly pointing out the extravagance of the court and the queen and, in turn, demanding the convening of the Estates General. The king, in a lit de justice, forced Parliament to register the edicts and exiled him to Troyes, but then promised to convene the Estates General in five years if Parliament approved a loan to cover expenses during this time. Parliament refused. Then the king ordered the arrest of several of its members and issued an edict on January 8, 1788, abolishing parliaments and establishing in their place a cours plénières of princes, peers and high court, judicial and military officials.

This outraged the whole country: Brienne had to leave his post, and Necker was appointed in his place again. Parliament was restored. The new meeting of notables came to nothing; then the Estates General was finally convened.

The Estates General met on May 5, 1789 at Versailles. On the agenda was, first of all, the question of whether the States should retain their old, class form. The Third Estate resolved it in the sense of a break with the past, declaring itself the National Assembly on June 17 and inviting other estates to unite on this basis.

Louis, succumbing to the admonitions of the aristocracy, at a royal meeting on June 23, ordered the restoration of the old order and voting according to estates. The National Assembly refused to obey, and the king himself was forced to ask the nobility and clergy to unite with the third estate. Constantly hesitating, Louis took the side of the people, then the side of the courtiers, coming up with them always unsuccessful plans for coups d'etat. On July 11, he dismissed Necker, which greatly outraged the people.

Revolution

The concentration of 30,000 troops near Paris only added fuel to the fire: on July 14, an uprising broke out in Paris, the Bastille was taken by the people. In vain did Marshal Broglie persuade the monarch to become the head of the troops and retire to Lorraine. The king, fearing civil war, went on foot to the National Assembly on July 15 and declared that he and the nation were one and that the troops would be removed. On July 17, he went to Paris, approved the establishment of a national guard, and returned accompanied by a jubilant crowd.

On September 18, he approved the assembly's decree on the destruction of the remnants of feudalism. After the rebellion of October 5 and 6, he moved to Paris and fell into complete apathy, power and influence increasingly transferred to the constituent assembly. In reality, he no longer reigned, but was present, amazed and alarmed, as events changed, sometimes adapting to the new order, sometimes reacting against them in the form of secret appeals for help to foreign powers.

After the events of October 5, 1789, the king and his family were essentially prisoners in the Tuileries Palace in Paris under the watchful eye of Lafayette, commander of the National Guard. The departure of the royal family from Paris was constantly discussed among the king's entourage.

The king, who from the moment of his forced settlement in the Tuileries wanted to leave revolutionary Paris, postponed his departure for a long time for fear of causing a civil war.

The escape

Finally, two events prompted him to fulfill his intention. The first of these two events was the death of Mirabeau (2 April 1791), who used his influence with the revolutionaries to secretly provide services to the king. Von Fersen wrote of his death: "It is a great loss, since he worked for them [the royal family]." The second event was the so-called “unconstitutional Easter” (April 18, 1791).

The king, who did not agree with the civil structure of the clergy, did not want to spend Easter in the revolutionary capital and wanted, as in the previous year, to go to Saint-Cloud for this time. However, the crowd that “spontaneously” gathered on Carruzel Square did not allow the royal carriages to leave. Only the intervention of Lafayette and Bailly allowed the royal family to return to the Tuileries Palace.

The first signs of preparations for flight date back to September 1790. The initial escape plan apparently belonged to the Bishop of Pamiers, Joseph-Mathieu d'Agu: "to leave his prison in the Tuileries and go to the place on the border where Monsieur de Bouillet commands. There the king will gather the troops that remained loyal to him and will try to return the rest of his a people confused by the rebels." Only if this plan was not fulfilled was it necessary to turn to the "allies" for help, that is, the Holy Roman Emperor.

The king, who retained the leadership of this operation, which he called the “trip to Montmédy,” appointed the following persons responsible for its organization: the Bishop of Pamiers, “the initiator of the escape plan”; Axel von Fersen, "intent"; Joseph Duruet and Jean-Baptiste Tourto de Seteuil, "bankers"; General de Bouillet, "military"; Baron de Breteuil, "diplomat"; Count Mercy-Argenteau, “mediator with the emperor”; Pierre-Jean de Bource, Knight of the Order of Saint Louis, former valet of the deceased Dauphin; Nicolas de Malbec, Marquis de Briget (1715-1795), coachman of the carriage upon its departure from the Tuileries.

According to historian André Castelot, secretly leaving the Tuileries was not an easy task. Numerous personnel spent the night in the palace. The National Guardsmen of Lafayette, who was personally responsible for the king, remained vigilant. Axel von Fersen took charge of organizing the departure of the royal family.

On the night of June 21, 1791, Louis and his entire family secretly left, accompanied by three bodyguards, in a carriage towards the eastern border. The escape was prepared and carried out by the Swedish Count Hans Axel von Fersen, who, one of the few, fulfilled his duty (noblesse oblige!).

In Saint-Menou, postmaster Drouet saw the king in the departing carriage, but to make sure of this, he jumped on his horse and set off in pursuit. In Varennes, recognizing the disguised Louis in the page, he sounded the alarm. People came running. The king and queen were detained and returned to Paris under escort. They were met by the deathly silence of the people crowded in the streets.

On September 14, 1791, Louis took the oath of the new constitution, but continued to negotiate with emigrants and foreign powers, even when he officially threatened them through his Girondin ministry, and on April 22, 1792, with tears in his eyes, he declared war on Austria.

Overthrow and execution

Louis's refusal to sanction a decree of assembly against emigrants and rebel priests and the removal of the patriotic ministry imposed on him gave rise to a movement on June 20, 1792, with a popular demonstration ending in the invasion of the royal palace of the Tuileries, and his proven relations with foreign states and emigrants led to the uprising of August 10 and the overthrow of monarchy (September 21).

Louis was imprisoned with his family in the Temple and accused of plotting against the freedom of the nation and a number of attacks on the security of the state.

On December 11, 1792, the trial of the king in the Convention began. Louis behaved with great dignity and, not content with the speeches of his chosen defenders, he himself defended himself against the charges brought against him, referring to the rights given to him by the constitution. After 24 hours, Louis was sentenced to death by a majority vote of 387 to 334, with 26 votes in favor of the death penalty subject to a suspended sentence.

“Should any decision made be submitted to the people for discussion?” (“No” by majority vote.) “What punishment does Louis XVI deserve?” (387 people voted for the death penalty without any conditions, 334 people voted for a suspended death penalty or imprisonment.)

Upon learning of the decision of the Convention, Louis asked that the priest Edgeworth de Fremont be allowed to see him. In his notes, Edgeworth spoke in detail about last hours king.

When he arrived at Louis, he motioned to the others to leave.

At first, Louis responded to the priest’s tears with his own tears, but soon the king gathered his strength.

“Forgive me, monsieur, forgive this moment of weakness,” he said, “if, however, it can be called weakness. I have been living among enemies for a long time, and habit has, as it were, made me akin to them, but the sight of a faithful subject tells my heart something completely different: this is the sight from which my eyes have become unaccustomed, and it touched me.”

The king affectionately raised the priest and asked him to follow him into the office. This office was not covered with wallpaper and had no decorations; a poor earthenware stove served as his fireplace, and all his furniture consisted of a table and three leather armchairs. Having seated Edgeworth opposite him, the king said: “Now I have only one great task left, which occupies me entirely. Alas, the only important thing I have left is. For what are all other things compared to this?

By chance the conversation turned to the Duke of Orleans, and the king turned out to be very well informed about the role that the Duke played in his death sentence.

He spoke about this without bitterness, more with pity than with anger.

“What have I done to my cousin,” he said, “that he should pursue me like this? He is more worthy of pity than I am. My situation is undoubtedly sad, but even if it were worse, I still wouldn’t want to be in his place.”

At this point, the conversation between the priest and the suicide bomber was interrupted by the commissars.

Louis listened to the verdict with great calm and on January 21, 1793, ascended the scaffold. His last words on the scaffold were: “I die innocent, I am innocent of the crimes of which I am accused. I am telling you this from the scaffold, preparing to appear before God. And I forgive everyone who is responsible for my death.".

Immediately upon receiving news of the execution of Louis XVI, the French envoy was removed from London. On February 1, 1793, ten days after the execution of Louis XVI, the French Convention responded by declaring war on England and the Netherlands, and on March 7, on Spain.

People of royal blood rarely managed to live a calm and serene life. Intrigues, conspiracies, murders of the closest people... And all in order to take the throne or a place next to it. And if ordinary people, tired of their monarchs, joined such an orgy, then the result was a revolution similar to the one that Louis XVI had to endure. Today we will talk about the circumstances under which the execution of King Louis 16 took place in France (date - January 21, 1793)

The monarch's childhood

Before you find out why Louis 16 was executed in France (you already know the date), it’s worth knowing his short biography. It must be said that Louis had no luck since childhood. Born on August 23, 1754 in the family of the Dauphin Louis Ferdinand, he was always in the shadow of one of his relatives. Being the third child and second son in the family, Louis did not claim the throne. However, fate would have it that his elder brother, the Duke of Burgundy, died of tuberculosis.

It would seem that now, when there is no older everyone’s favorite, all the tenderness of his parents will go to Louis... But no, the boy grew up without parental affection. Why? Hard to explain. Yes, he was clumsy and timid, but diligent and assiduous. In many ways, the Duke de Berry (Louis had such a title) was like his father, but he was the complete opposite of his grandfather, the brilliant King Louis XV.

The prince was mainly raised by the Count de Vaugillon, who managed to give the boy a very good and varied education. The future monarch was a very diligent and persistent student, but remained a frail and sickly child. Although he was being prepared for the future role of king, he was not loved at court, and Louis himself did not show any affection to anyone. Perhaps the inferiority complex that developed in childhood affected de Bery’s entire subsequent life. And not only there, but throughout France.

Marriage to Marie Antoinette. Life at court

As you know, kings cannot marry for love. So the marriage of the young Dauphin was dictated by dynastic interests. He was married at the age of 16 to the even younger Austrian princess Marie Antoinette.

It is difficult to imagine people so different from each other than young spouses. A pretty princess, flirtatious and greedy for entertainment, and her ugly husband, who does not like the glitz and luxury of the court... The couple did not go well with either their personal life or their children for a long time. The princess gave birth to her first child only 8 years after the wedding, and she had to wait 11 years for a male heir.

While Marie Antoinette was having fun with her many admirers and entourage, the Dauphin spent time with the artisans, doing carpentry and plumbing work. This caused misunderstanding among both the wife and the nobility. But for Louis, such work was the only opportunity to renounce the palace splendor and pomp, which he had not liked since childhood. Perhaps only simple work gave him the opportunity to feel like a significant person.

Accession to the throne

By the time of his execution, Louis 16 (the date of his death was not a tragedy for the people) had gained great dislike from the people. Although at first everyone was looking forward to when the Dauphin would replace his grandfather on the throne. They waited, and at the same time they were afraid. For it seemed to de Bery himself that he would become a harsh monarch, and he did not hide this thought from anyone.

In 1774, the king dies of smallpox. The Dauphin was only 19 years old at that time. Was he ready to become a ruler? Perhaps yes. Louis had brilliant knowledge, he knew how to work, and most importantly, he was full of hopes to work for the good of the country and people. But he clearly lacked the will, steadfastness and determination so necessary for a monarch.

If a person similar to Richelieu, or at least Fleury, had been next to the young king, then the whole history of France could have turned out differently. But life does not know subjunctive moods. Louis called Count Maurepas out of disgrace, making him his chief adviser. The count was a man of common sense and sharp mind, but just as weak-willed and indecisive as the king. The reforms that were so necessary for the country were clearly not to his liking.

Attempts at reform

The need for change in all spheres of life in French society was obvious. It was precisely while dreaming of transformation that Louis XVI appointed Jacques Turgot, an economist known for his commitment to liberalism, to the post of overseer of finances. First of all, Turgot abolished regulations in the grain trade. But opponents of free trade, who were losing huge incomes, managed to incite the people into riots, which went down in history as the “Flour War.”

This was followed by an edict on the introduction of an all-estate cash tax and the abolition of road corvee and an edict on the abolition of workshops in production. All innovations met fierce resistance in parliaments. The royal court also opposed Turgot, whose monetary receipts were cut. But Louis was unable to resist the pressure and dismissed Turgot in 1776, and after a short time all his reforms were abolished.

Reactionary politics

In order to at least sort out the disorder in finances, the Swiss banker Jacques Necker was invited to the post of overseer of finances, who was successively replaced by Calonne and de Brienne. None of them had any long-term strategy in governing the state. Everyone was just trying to stay in their seats.

It is no wonder that Louis, in such an environment, quickly fell under the influence of reactionaries. The king, who dreamed of improving the lives of the people, managed through his reign to further pit all classes of French society against each other.

The first sign was the Regulations of 1781, which prohibited the promotion to officers of anyone who did not belong to ancient noble families. This was followed by a ban on people from the third estate holding senior judicial positions. The obligation to pay taxes to the treasury, introduced by Louis XV, was removed from the nobles. The subsequent revival of feudalism absolutely undermined the people's faith in the new monarch.

Finding a way out of a financial impasse

By 1788, France found itself in a deep financial crisis. Against its background, the extravagance and splendor of the royal court looked simply defiant. All attempts to persuade Marie Antoinette to reduce expenses a little led to nothing. And Louis was completely dependent on the whims of his wife. Almost 200 million livres a year - such was the budget deficit.

The government, unable to at least smooth out the financial situation, decided to implement a number of reforms that affected provincial and local self-government: the powers of intendants were partially transferred to provincial assemblies. But such half-measures could no longer satisfy anyone.

A catastrophe is the exact definition of France's financial situation. The country was simply bankrupt. New taxes and new loans were not approved by parliaments, tax reform caused protest among the nobility. Under such conditions, the king was forced to give his consent to the convening of the Estates General.

Estates General

The last time this estate-representative body was convened was in 1614. Voting taxes is the main function of this organization. And now, by initiating the convening of the Estates General, the king hoped for their control and loyalty. Alas, hopes for the deputies' obedience turned out to be unrealistic.

Disputes began from the first day of convocation - May 5, 1789. The promoters of the third estate insisted on expanding their representation. A whole month passed in bickering between the classes about the form of verification of the legality of the assembly and the need to change its class form.

Without waiting for joint decisions, on June 17, the deputies of the Third Estate proclaimed the Estates General as the National Assembly. All attempts by Louis to bring together representatives of different classes or force them to vote according to the old principle led nowhere.

The beginning of the revolution

On June 19, Louis attempted to suspend the participation of Third Estate nominees in the Estates General. In response, they adopted a law on the immunity of deputies. Feeling an approaching tragedy, the king began to gather troops towards Paris.

But that didn't save him. On July 12, Parisians began an uprising. The troops tried to disperse the rioters, but this only seemed to embolden the protesters. In addition, some of the soldiers went over to the side of the rebels. In just one day, the Parisians captured the city. On July 14, the Bastille fell.

On July 15, Louis appeared at the National Assembly, where he declared that the king was united with the French people, and then ordered the withdrawal of troops from Paris. On August 4, deputies of the National Assembly approved a series of decrees that abolished all privileges of the nobility and clergy.

Strengthening the revolution

Meanwhile, hunger was growing in Paris. Due to the government crisis, there were disruptions to the capital's food supply. On October 6, dissatisfied Parisians laid siege to the Palace of Versailles, where the royal family lived at that time. Louis and Marie Antoinette had to move to Paris. On February 4, 1790, the king was forced to approve the constitution, according to which the monarch remained in the hands of the highest executive power, and the legislative power passed into the hands of the Legislative Assembly.

It should be noted that in this situation the queen played a rather unsightly role. Considering all revolutionaries to be scammers, she tried to influence the development of events through bribery and blackmail. And when these plans failed, it was the crowned wife who began to insist on the need to ask for armed assistance from other powers.

Escape attempt

Marie Antoinette encouraged the king not only to cooperate with foreign powers. The thought of escaping from Paris and the country took hold of her mind. The royal family made their first attempt to escape in October 1790, but then their carriage was stopped in Saint-Cloud and the monarchs returned to their Tuileries castle in Paris.

The royal couple made a second attempt in June 1791. But they only managed to get to Varenie. The angry crowd returned Louis to the capital. The king's authority in the eyes of ordinary French people completely fell after his escape.

On September 14, the final text of the constitution was approved, and on October 1, the Legislative Assembly began its work.

It would seem that a compromise was found between all branches of government. But Louis's secret negotiations with foreigners and attempts to regain power shook this fragile truce. Thus, Louis 16 and Marie Antoinette did not escape execution.

The path to the scaffold

The time has come to find out under what circumstances the execution of Louis 16 took place in France. The date of this event has gone down in history forever. On June 20, a new uprising began in Paris, caused by Louis's opposition to some revolutionary decrees. In particular, the monarch vetoed the decree expelling from France priests who had not sworn allegiance to the revolution. In addition, the war with Austria had been going on for two months already, and this also fueled hysteria in the capital, because Austrian troops were very quickly moving towards Paris.

The people believed that Louis was on the side of the enemy army. The commander of the Austrian army, the Duke of Brunswick, added fuel to the fire by promising to deal with the rebels if they encroached on the king’s life.

On September 21, the Legislative Assembly declared the monarch deposed, and France was proclaimed a Republic. And on November 20, documents were found proving the king’s connections with other countries.

The day of the execution of Louis 16 in France was approaching. On December 3, the Convention decides to begin a trial against the now former king. And just two months later he was sentenced to death. On the Place de la Revolution the execution of King Louis 16 (date January 21, 1793) took place under the knife of the guillotine. And on October 16 of the same year, Marie Antoinette was executed.

Execution of LouisXVI

(From the unpublished book “The Occultism of the Great French Revolution”)

220 years ago, on January 21, 1793, Louis XVI (1754-1793), the sixty-sixth king of France, was executed. His reign lasted 6666 days.

He was, if not brilliant, then quite an attractive monarch: educated, moderate in his demands, not inclined, like his predecessors, to constant entertainment, striving for the benefit of the kingdom and making the life of his people easier. But, nevertheless, after the revolution, the punitive justice (is it justice?) of France fell upon him and his family. The king himself and his wife Marie Antoinette were executed, the heir to the throne Charles-Louis died under unclear circumstances, Louis's sister, Elizabeth, and several princes and princesses were executed.

Getting acquainted with many strange events preceding the fall of the French monarchy, you involuntarily come to the conclusion that the financial disorder and personal indecision of Louis XVI, despite all the assurances of historians, were not the main reasons that led to the revolution. The true reason for the destruction of the monarchy lies elsewhere - in the widespread spread of Freemasonry. It was the Masons, who for decades disguised their activities with educational goals, calling for universal brotherhood and freedom from religious shackles, persistently undermined the spiritual foundations of the kingdom, striving for a violent change in society based on certain occult principles.

What were these beginnings, and what was it like in pure form This is an occult teaching (or religion) - one can only guess, since the French Freemasons at that time failed to fully implement their undertakings. Too quickly they were swept away by the turbulent events of their century. But their appearance, even for a brief moment, marked the beginning of a new era in the history of not only France, but all of humanity - the era of occultism. The Masonic morning was breaking out over the world. And its beginning, contrary to the slogan of its leaders - “freedom, equality, brotherhood!” - brought with it suffering and tyranny to entire nations. And the most characteristic feature construction of a new Masonic world order - freedom, equality and brotherhood were necessarily sprinkled with streams of human blood.

In 1765, after the death of his father, he became heir to the throne, and nine years later - king. By this time, three distinctive features of his character had already clearly emerged: shyness, secrecy and charity. As much as he was reserved with the king, his grandfather, and the persons of the royal house, he was just as sociable with his subordinates. He was especially pleased when meeting workers in the palace courtyard or in the garden. I asked him about lime, about carpentry work, there was no end to the pavements. If it happened, he willingly helped move logs or drag stones. The Dauphin achieved particular success in the arts of blacksmithing and metalworking. He also had a strong passion for hunting. Games, noisy pleasures and theatrical performances occupied him little. His favorite pastimes were drawing geographical maps and turning various iron products.

The furnishings of his chambers spoke a lot about the character of the king. In the gilded hall were hung drawings of the canals dug by his order, there was a model of the Burgundy Canal and a description of the work in the port of Cherbourg. IN next room a collection of geographical maps and globes was kept. Here were also maps, very skillfully made by the king himself or just begun by him. Nearby there was a carpenter's hall, in which, in addition to lathe, there were many different instruments (he inherited them from Louis XV). The library, located on the floor above, contained all the books published during his reign. Next was a large library, where publications and manuscripts were kept that had belonged to previous kings since the time of Francis I. In two separate adjacent rooms there were many other interesting books collected by him. By the way, here was located a large number of English works, which Louis always read with pleasure (including reports on parliamentary meetings). Separate cabinets contained papers related to each of the European ruling houses: Habsburg, Hanover, Romanov and others. Above the library was the king's favorite refuge. It was a workshop with a forge and two anvils, many locks and various iron tools. Even higher was a belvedere with a special lead floor, where the king, sitting in an armchair, with the help of an excellent telescope, watched everything that happened in Versailles, as well as along the road leading to Paris, and in Paris itself, as far as possible. Duret was almost the only servant who carried out all the personal orders of the king. He helped Louis in cleaning the carpentry room, sharpened and cleaned tools, washed the anvil and covered geographical maps.

Although Louis was born with rather poor health, the work and movement to which he constantly indulged developed sufficient strength in him. The king had a wonderful memory. He stored countless names and place names in his head. The numbers and their meanings were imprinted in his memory with amazing clarity. One day, the report presented to him included an item that had already been paid for the previous year. “This is written for the second time,” said Louis, “bring me last year’s report, I will prove it to you.” The report was presented, and the king found what he wanted without difficulty. Justice and honesty were the inalienable virtues of Louis. He became strict to the point of rudeness if he dealt with someone suspected of deception. Then he got angry, shouted, stamped his feet and demanded obedience. His thinking was always distinguished by consistency and clarity: everything he wrote was always correctly divided into articles.

The king was immensely bored at the theater, did not like balls, went to bed at eleven in the evening and got up at six in the morning. His day was mostly filled with prayer and work. Drinking in the morning lemon juice and after eating the dry bread, he took a short walk. At eight in the morning there was a public rise. Louis then went to his office and worked with his ministers. At one o'clock in the afternoon he listened to mass and went to lunch. As a rule, the dishes were the simplest. The king drank ordinary water.

After resting a little, Louis returned to business and worked until seven in the evening. Then, until nine, a meeting of the State Council took place. After dinner, Louis went to bed around eleven.

Marie Antoinette with children

(From the book: Konstantin Ryzhov. All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. Moscow, 1999).

What gives reason to assume that the execution of King Louis was ritual?

Let us dwell on the events preceding this execution.

The events that soon followed the victory of the 1792 revolution are filled with bloody dramas. On August 17, an Extraordinary Tribunal was created to combat counter-revolution. By decision of this punitive body, arrests were made of the royalists, i.e. supporters of the monarchy, as a rule, representatives of the nobility and aristocracy. On the night of September 2, their executions began - or rather, a brutal massacre that lasted until the 5th. Several thousand people, practically the entire flower of the French nobility, were executed in these three days.

September murders in Paris

It was a cruel and senseless destruction that had no serious political motives for its implementation. More than three years have passed since the storming of the Bastille and the restriction of royal power, during which the royalists did not take a single step in defense of the monarchical regime. Even the noble society during this time completely agreed with the idea that royal power was unnecessary. Therefore, the revolution of August 10 is unlikely to have caused a powerful counter-revolutionary movement among the upper class of the kingdom. As subsequent events showed, there were not so many determined defenders of absolutism in France.

Therefore, the events of September 2-5 must be viewed in a different light. I am sure that this was nothing more than a bloody sacrifice to certain Masonic idols, whose names remained unknown.

This is difficult to believe, since the human mind refuses to perceive the thoughtful, cold rationality of such actions. It is psychologically easier for us to explain crimes by an explosion of mass indignation, accumulated hatred of the people, etc. Therefore, historians, describing this massacre of prisoners, which for some reason began at night, seek an explanation and justification for it in the inability of the crowd to restrain their passions. But someone raised this crowd and led it to the prisons at night, opened the prison gates and cell doors, pointed out to the crowd its real (or imaginary!) enemies...

One can see in all this only the unbridled passions of the crowd, submitting to the moods of outright fanatics and sadists. But it is noteworthy that all the murderers and executioners who participated in the September massacre were hired in advance and received a set payment for their atrocities! In 1795, after the destruction of the Jacobin dictatorship, an investigation was conducted into the September events, which established the facts of hiring such fanatics. In particular, it was established that 13 pre-hired people took part in the murder of Princess de Lamballe, the favorite of Queen Marie Antoinette, who also died these days. It is also very interesting that the Princesse de Lamballe was a member of the Masonic lodge.*

*Marie-Thérèse-Louise, Duchess of Savoy, Princess de Lamballe (1749-1792), a descendant of French kings, one of the most noble and wealthy women in France, was elected in 1781 as a grand master of one of the Masonic lodges. Subsequently, she served as chief chamberlain at the court of Marie Antoinette and was her close friend. After revolutionary performances in Paris in 1789, she left for London, but, driven by sincere affection for Marie Antoinette and compassion for her fate, she returned to support the queen in difficult times. After the coup on August 10, she was arrested, sent to the Temple along with the royal family, but on August 20 she was transferred to La Force prison, where a large number of prostitutes, thieves and several French aristocrats were already being held. Two weeks later, on September 3, their executions began.

The murder of the Princesse de Lamballe

They killed her in the most brutal way and her body was dismembered into several parts. At the same time, many aristocrats were killed, but their bodies were not subjected to such mockery.

We can conclude that the murder of the princess was prepared in advance and was most likely of a ritual nature. She was killed because she belonged to the royal family. Another reason was that she, as a great craftswoman, could expose Masonic secrets. She was not shot, not guillotined, not handed over to the crowd, which could have spared her, but given into the hands of pre-paid executioners, who put her to death in compliance with some terrible ritual. And the latter was especially important to her judges. This is evidenced by the next episode.

After the murder of the princess, drummer Ervelen delivered to the Legislative Assembly the wallet of the murdered woman, which he found in the scraps of her dress. He was sent to the Public Safety Supervisory Committee, where he handed over his find. Here he was interrogated, and asked the following very strange questions:

“Who held the head or any other parts of the princess’s body at the end of a pike?

Was the aforementioned woman's head lying on the counter of the tavern where they were drinking?

Wasn't the heart of the former Princess Lamballe fried at the request of people and even himself in a hot stove in this establishment and then didn't he eat this heart?

Did he not carry Lamballe's genitals on the point of his saber?

Did he not take part in the procession that walked through the streets with the head and other parts of the body of the murdered woman?”

From the nature of these questions, it can be understood that the person who interrogated Ervelen was interested in the ritual of killing the princess and observing a certain order of mocking her body. Apparently, every detail of the murder had been discussed in advance with the fanatical mercenaries, and now the commissioner confirmed them through witnesses.

The crowd demands that Marie Antoinette kiss de Lamballe's head

The words about the princess’s heart, which was supposed to be eaten, sound especially scary. It’s hard to believe in such fanaticism, but in the history of the Great French Revolution we find similar examples. Robespierre visited a certain Jean-Jacques Arthur, a member of the Commune, famous for the fact that he ordered to roast and ate the heart of a Swiss defender of the Tuileries Palace, whom he executed on August 10, 1792. Perhaps this was part of some terrible ritual of secret satanic cults introduced by the revolution.

After these massacres of aristocrats, it was the king's turn.

On November 7, the question of the trial was resolved in the affirmative. On December 3, the Convention formed a special commission of 21 people to prepare an indictment report. It was presented on December 10, the indictment on the 11th. Louis, brought to the Convention, had to answer 33 questions concerning his behavior during the main events of the revolution. He calmly denied all the accusations brought against him.

The debate about the king's guilt continued until January 15, 1793. On this day, three questions were posed to the deputies. To the first of them: “Is Louis Capet guilty of conspiracy against public freedom and an attack on the security of the state?” - The Convention almost unanimously answered in the affirmative. A second question was then proposed: “Should the sentence pronounced by the Convention on Louis Capet be submitted to the approval of the people?” The majority of deputies responded negatively. Sentencing was postponed for two days. On January 17, in response to the question: “What punishment should Louis Capet be subjected to,” 387 deputies voted for the death penalty, and 334 for imprisonment.

The question of how many deputies voted for the death penalty for the king is rather obscure. There is serious evidence that this decision did not pass in the first votes. Certain forces who wanted the death of the king used bribery, manipulation, and even secret murders of some deputies. Ultimately, the death penalty was approved by a narrow margin. Some contemporaries of those events left evidence that the decision was made by a margin of just one vote!

According to Malzerbe, Louis, having learned about the decision of the Convention, remained calm and said: “Death does not frighten me, I trust in the mercy of God.”

He wrote a will, as well as posthumous letters to family and friends. Then he said goodbye to his wife and son, consoling whom he said: “Calm down, friends. Let us better thank Providence for bringing me to the end of my suffering.”

The day before his death, he attended the liturgy and partook of the holy mysteries.

On the morning of January 21, Louis was taken to the place of execution. As he was led to the scaffold, he turned to the crowd and said in a firm voice: “I die innocent of all the crimes of which I am accused, and I pray God to forgive my enemies.” However, his words did not make any impression on the mob. A minute later, the guillotine knife cut off his head. When it was shown to the crowd, the square shook with frantic cries: “Long live the nation! Long live the republic!”

The king takes communion before his execution

The head of the executed King Louis is shown to the crowd

The ritual nature of the king's execution is indicated by one episode that is usually never mentioned by historians. When the head of the monarch fell into a basket of sawdust under the knife of the guillotine, a man in black jumped onto the platform, wet his hands with the royal blood and shouted into the crowd: “Jacques de Molay! You are avenged!

Here it is necessary to explain that the distant ancestor of Louis XVI, Philip the Fair, destroyed the Templar Order in France. After several years of imprisonment, on March 18, 1314, the highest ranks of the order were executed, along with the Grand Master Jacques de Molay. The king ordered them to be burned. Subsequently, many mystically colored legends appeared related to the activities and secrets of this order.

Freemasons of modern times, fascinated by such mysticism, willingly included the Order of the Templars and Jacques de Molay in their initiations. It is characteristic that the adherents of this initiation were consciously instilled with an undying hatred of thrones and altars. Apparently, even centuries did not soften in the hearts of the new Templars the thirst for revenge that they inherited from their predecessors. It is noteworthy that the main slogan of revolutionary France became the words of the Masons of the Templar initiation - “death to thrones and altars.”

Jacques de Molay

One can, of course, assume that it was not a high-ranking Freemason appointed specially for this occasion who rose to the scaffold where the king’s execution had just taken place, but just an overly exalted admirer of mystical teachings. And he spontaneously uttered words about the accomplished revenge, which do not at all reflect either the mood or the official position of the Masonic lodges...

And really, what is the connection between these executions?..

If the Masons wanted to emphasize the ritual nature of the king’s murder, they could have guillotined him, say, on October 13 (on this day in 1307, the arrests of the Templars began), or on March 18, the day of the burning of Jacques de Molay.

This execution would have looked more expressive if the Masons had attributed it to the following year, 1794. Then it would have taken place in the year of the 480th anniversary of the death of the Grand Master.

In the same year, 1794, another remarkable anniversary occurred - the 666th anniversary of the official approval of the Templar Order (approved on January 14, 1128 at a council in the city of Troyes). It would seem that if the French Freemasons were fans of dark cults, then they should have executed the king in January 1794. And thereby demonstrate your commitment to Satanism. But he was executed in January 1793. Thus, the accusation of Satanism seems to disappear. The accusation of the ritual nature of the king's execution also becomes untenable.

And here it’s worth asking: how accurate are the chronological dates in the history of the Templar Order?

European chronology is a very confusing and dark thing. And the point is not even that in medieval Europe they did not know how to keep track of time. The fact is that the beginning of the year in European chronology has changed several times. According to some chronology, the year began on September 1st, according to others on March 1st (or March 25th), and on December 1st. The starting point of the era also changed. The beginning of chronology was carried out, imitating the Romans, from the founding of Rome (753 BC), from the beginning of the reign of Augustus (43 BC), etc. Then they began to count from the “creation of the world”, but this account did not bring order to the chronology. In Europe, there were about 200 variants of counting years from the beginning of this era!

Although the counting of years “from the Nativity of Christ” was developed in the 6th century AD, it began to be widely used much later. In the 8th century, the first documents with a date from the “Nativity of Christ” began to appear. Secular calendars in the XII–XIII centuries. This new dating was already widely used, but not everywhere. It was only from the time of Pope Eugene IV (1431) that this era began to be regularly used in the documents of the papal office. Around the same time, Portugal was the last country in Western Europe to begin counting the years since the “Nativity of Christ.”

Now imagine the situation faced by the chroniclers of medieval Europe. Let's say on January 1st they started counting down the new year 1100. After some time, a papal edict follows, ordering the beginning of the year to be counted from March 25. The question immediately arises: what year is March 25th? 1100 or 1101?

The next papal edict orders the beginning of the year to be counted from the 1st day of September. And this is where the situation gets completely confusing. It seems that the new year 1101 should be considered from September 1st. But then the previous year 1100 is reduced to 8 months. If we assume that the year 1100 begins again on September 1, then the previous year increases to 20 months.

This is precisely the situation that can be traced in Russian chronology. The March counting of years changed to September, which led to confusion in the dates. Now most historians have little doubt that the Battle of Kulikovo took place not in 1380, as we were taught at school, but in 1379. You can, of course, correct this date, but this single correction will only aggravate the problem. Doesn't this mean that we must correct all the dates of Russian history, starting with The Tale of Bygone Years?

The great Transformer of Russia, Peter I, also made his contribution to the domestic chronological confusion. By his decree, he ordered that January 1, 7208 “from the creation of the world” be counted as January 1, 1700 “from the Nativity of Christ.” Since in Russia at that time the calendar era was in use, starting on September 1, the year 7208 turned out to be the shortest - only four months (September-December).

Let’s add here two more March epochs of time counting, which were used by Russian chroniclers, and as a result we get such a complicated situation with time counting that historical science still cannot cope with. And until now, scientists constantly stumble and make a lot of mistakes when translating Russian chronicle dates into European chronology.

Joseph Scaliger (1540-1609), an Italian who lived in France, introduced some order into European chronology. He proposed keeping track of time from noon on January 1, 4713 BC, and called this account Julian. The Julian period of Scaliger is 7980 years.

J.J. Scaliger, father of scientific chronology.

Modern historical dating of events in world history is based on Scaliger's chronology. But does this mean that she is flawless? Already during Scaliger’s lifetime, many pamphlets were published criticizing and mocking his system. This criticism continues today. Here's just one quote:

Therefore, it is quite appropriate to assume that the official dating of events related to the history of the Order of the Templars is not entirely correct. And French scientists, such as the famous mathematician and astronomer Laplace, could correct it in the 18th century. It was his revolutionary (read, Masonic) government of France who attracted him to work on a new calendar, and then to work on calculating the length of a meter. And Laplace, together with other members of the commission, calculated this meter. And he received a frankly satanic standard of length. French academics managed in the most amazing way to combine the latest scientific achievements of their century with outright Satanism. But more on that later...

Pierre-Simon Laplace

Therefore, we can assume with a fair amount of confidence that the Council of Troyes took place not in 1128, but in 1127. Consequently, January 1793 marked the 666th anniversary of the official approval of the Templar Order. It was on this day (subject to amendments to Gregorian calendar) and King Louis XVI was executed.

Strange coincidences in the life of the executed monarch also attract attention. It has already been mentioned that he was the sixty-sixth king of France and his reign lasted 6666 days, if we count from the day of the death of King Louis XV (May 10, 1774) to the day of the revolution on August 10, 1792. It was on this day that he was removed from the throne.

Perhaps this is an accident that should not be paid attention to special attention. But the following coincidence can hardly be attributed to chance.

In astronomy there is such a thing as precession, i.e. displacement of the vernal equinox point relative to the stars. This value is measured both in seconds of time and in degrees. The precessional shift of the vernal equinox between two events (the execution of Jacques de Molay and the execution of King Louis XVI) on January 21, 1793 reached a value of 6.66°.

Precession is a very interesting and very complex phenomenon that can be likened to the clock of the universe. For thousands of years, the vernal equinox point silently glides along the celestial equator, counting down the seconds, minutes and hours of eternity. Essentially, this is the most accurate chronometer that was given to us by the unknown creator of the Cosmos.

The only drawback of these watches is that the magnitude of the precessional shift in astronomy has not yet been finally determined. It depends on those reference stars from which the countdown is carried out. In our part of the visible universe, all stars are constantly moving, which affects the results of determining the precessional shift.

During the years of the French Revolution, it was Laplace who began studying precession. He needed this not only for scientific, but also for applied purposes - to calculate a new revolutionary chronology. It is possible that Laplace determined the moment when the precessional shift (counting from the execution of Jacques de Molay) would reach a value of 6.66°.

It was on this day that Louis XVI was executed. More precisely, he was sacrificed to the unknown gods of dark Masonic cults.

In the future, we will more than once encounter other similar cases in the history of the Great French Revolution, in which remarkable astronomical phenomena were marked by human casualties. All this makes us suspect that the French Freemasons created a secret cult, which in the most bizarre way combined the latest achievements of science with dark occultism. This phenomenon can be called scientific occultism. Or scientific Satanism.

Vladimir Kukovenko

There is a story that when King Louis XVI of France was still a child,
The astrologer warned him to always be on alert on the 21st of every month.
The gloomy forecast frightened the king so much that he never planned
no business on the 21st.

Joseph Duplessis. King Louis XVI in coronation robes. 1777.
Paris, Musee de Carnavalet

There may have been such a prophecy, but it was more likely that it was invented later. However.

Has arrived French revolution, there was no time for habits and planning, but according to
By some evil will, it was on the 21st that the greatest things happened to Louis XVI
troubles.
On the night of June 21, King Louis XVI of France and his family undertook an unsuccessful
an attempt to escape from the Tuileries castle to the eastern border in order to lead the campaign
counter-revolutionary forces with the involvement of Austria and Prussia against the outbreak of war
France bourgeois revolution.

The arrest of Louis XVI and his family, disguised as bourgeois. Varennes (1854)

But the vigilance of the revolutionary masses was at its best - and two days later the king was
identified in the town of Varennes while changing horses, arrested and taken under escort of soldiers
National Guard in Paris. The prestige of royal power was completely undermined,
the people demanded a trial, but constituent Assembly, in which the majority belonged
representatives of the royal party, spread the version about the kidnapping of the king
<злонамеренными лицами>and justified him.

On September 3, 1791, the first French constitution was adopted.
The Constitution will grant voting rights to only 20% of the population, which will cause
dissatisfaction with the Jacobin revolutionaries, who would go into opposition to the government.

The constitutional act was proposed to the king, who, after much hesitation and deliberation,
On September 14, he took the oath of allegiance to the nation and the law.
At the head of this constitution was the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.” Supreme
power, “single, indivisible, inalienable and inalienable,” belongs to the nation:
all powers are delegated by the nation; its representatives are the legislative assembly and the king.

Engraving "Adoption of the French Constitution"

The king was forced to swear allegiance to the Constitution. But his “reliability” even then caused
Republicans have big doubts. It soon became clear that Louis maintained close
relations with French emigrants who fled the country after the events of July 1789,
and apparently was planning, sooner or later, to escape.
After the opening of such correspondence, the king was deprived of his powers and arrested.

On September 21, 1792, the monarchy was overthrown
and France was proclaimed a republic.
First French Republic, officially the "French Republic" period of French
history from 1792 to 1804. The Republic was proclaimed on September 21, 1792
during the French Revolution, and on this day Louis XVI was deposed.
Officially, the republic existed until the formation of the First French Empire
in 1804 by the acting first consul Napoleon Bonaparte, who proclaimed himself
emperor.

On September 21, 1792, the National Convention opened its meetings in Paris.
The convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

Louis XVI was deposed and placed under heavy guard in the Temple. Finding a secret safe in
The Tuileries on November 20, 1792 made the trial of the king inevitable. The documents found in it
proved beyond any doubt the king's treason

Trial of the King at the Convention

Louis behaved with great dignity at the trial and, not content with speeches,
the defenders he had chosen, he himself defended himself against the charges brought against him,
citing the rights given to him by the constitution.
Voting on the punishment began on January 16 and continued until the next morning.
Of the 721 deputies present, 387 spoke in favor of the death penalty.

On the morning of January 21, Louis XVI was beheaded on the Place de la Revolution
By order of the Convention, the entire National Guard of Paris was lined up
on both sides of the path to the scaffold..

Execution of Louis XVI. Reproduction

His last words on the scaffold were:
“I die innocent, I am innocent of the crimes of which I am accused.
I am telling you this from the scaffold, preparing to appear before God.
And I forgive everyone who is responsible for my death.”

Wife of King Louis XVI of France since 1770. After the start of the French Revolution
was declared the inspirer of counter-revolutionary conspiracies and interventions.
Condemned by the Convention and executed by guillotine.

Marie Antoinette with a Rose, Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, 1783

The trial of 37-year-old Marie Antoinette began at 8 a.m. on October 15, 1793.
The next day, October 16 at 4 a.m., the unanimously adopted
sentence to death.
Queen Marie Antoinette was guillotined on October 16, 1793

Marie Antoinette before her execution. Reproduction

Before her execution, Marie Antoinette behaved with pride and complete self-control and nothing
did not lose her royal dignity. She climbed the scaffold herself and went under the knife herself.
guillotine, although there were often cases when even men sentenced to death did not
coped with feelings, fainted and could not live without outside help rise
up the steps.

Execution of Marie Antoinette

At 12:15 p.m., the queen was beheaded in what is now the Place de la Concorde.

Tombstone of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette in the royal tomb of Saint-Denis.

Louis XVI

Louis XVI (23.VIII.1754 - 21.I.1793) - king (1774-1792), from the Bourbon dynasty. During the reign of Louis XVI, in conditions of the extreme aggravation of the crisis of absolutism, the French bourgeois revolution began on July 14, 1789. Together with his wife Marie Antoinette (daughter of the Austrian emperor), Louis XVI secretly fought against the revolution and sought an armed uprising by Austria and Prussia against revolutionary France. In June 1791 he tried to flee the country (see Flight of Varenna). After the outbreak of war between France, on the one hand, and Austria and Prussia, on the other (April 1792), Louis XVI helped the enemy obtain the most important information about the armed forces and military plans of France. As a result of a popular uprising on August 10, 1792, Louis XVI was overthrown from the throne and, together with his family, was imprisoned in the Temple. On January 11, 1793, for counter-revolutionary and treasonous actions, Louis XVI was put on trial by the Convention, condemned by a majority vote (of the Jacobins and some other deputies) to death and guillotined.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 8, KOSSALA – MALTA. 1965.

Louis XVI (1754 - 1793) - French king (in 1774-1792), from the dynasty Bourbons , succeeded his grandfather Louis XV in 1774, at the very time when the ferment in France was becoming more and more intense. The dominance of the two upper classes, the nobility and the clergy, caused acute discontent among the growing bourgeoisie (the so-called third estate). The opposition became stronger and more dangerous for the absolutist state every year. Under the ever-growing influence of this opposition, Louis XVI resorted to a last resort - the convening of the States General, which had not been convened for 175 years. The right to vote was given to all French people who had reached the age of 25 and paid a certain amount of tax. The Estates General was opened on May 5, 1789 at Versailles. The first weeks were spent in heated debate over the issue of voting. The Third Estate proposed joint meetings and voting; the privileged estates did not agree to this. The disputes came to nothing. On June 17, the Third Estate declares itself, as representatives of 96% of the French people, the National Assembly. On June 23, Louis XVI orders the old order to be restored and voting to be carried out according to estates. The National Assembly refuses to comply. After the uprising of July 14, which ended with the capture of the Bastille, Louis XVI approved the decree of the National Assembly on the destruction of feudal orders. Since that time, he no longer actually rules. Alarmed by the rapid change of events, he either adapts to the new order or fights against it by sending secret appeals to foreign powers. In June 1791, Louis XVI and his family tried to escape to Lorraine, but were detained in Varennes and returned back. September 14, 1791 Louis XVI takes the oath of the new constitution developed by the National Assembly, but continues to secretly negotiate with foreign states and with French emigrants. Louis's refusal to sanction a decree of the National Assembly directed against emigrants and rebel priests, and the revelation of his connections with foreigners, causes an uprising on August 10, 1792. On September 21, the National Convention opens in Paris. His main decision was to declare France a republic. The Girondins then raise the question of the fate of the king.

On January 16, 1793, by a huge majority of votes (715 out of 748), Louis XVI is found guilty of conspiracy against the freedom of the nation and public safety. Votes were divided on the issue of punishment. 387 deputies voted for the death penalty, 334 voted for shackles, imprisonment or a suspended death penalty. A majority of 380 votes to 310 rejected the reprieve of the death penalty. On January 21, at eleven o'clock in the morning, Louis XVI was beheaded by a guillotine installed on the Place de la Revolution. The severed head of the king was shown to the people who surrounded the place of execution in a dense crowd.

Reprinted from the site
The French Revolution

http://liberte.da.ru/

Louis XVI - King of France from the Bourbon dynasty, who reigned from 1774-1792. Son of the Dauphin Louis and Maria Josepha of Saxony.

Wife: from April 19 1774 Marie Antoinette, daughter of Emperor Franz I (b. 1755 + 1793).

Louis, who received the title of Duke de Berry at birth, was the second son of the Dauphin Louis (his elder brother died in 1761). Father and mother were very demanding in raising their children. Louis studied Latin, history, and mathematics seven hours a day. Twice a week his father meticulously checked his progress. The strict upbringing given to the Dauphin did not please his grandfather Louis XV, and it seemed excessive to many others. Moreover, Louis was not at all distinguished by either good health or special abilities. He grew up as a frail, sickly teenager with large blue eyes and uneven teeth, a distrustful, timid and unhappy expression on his face, a waddling gait and a high, nasal voice. In 1765, after the death of his father, he became heir to the throne, and nine years later - king. By this time, three distinctive features of his character had already clearly emerged: shyness, secrecy and charity. As much as he was reserved with the king, his grandfather, and the persons of the royal house, he was just as sociable with his subordinates. He was especially pleased when meeting workers in the palace courtyard or in the garden. There was no end to his questions about lime, carpentry work, and pavements. If it happened, he willingly helped move logs or drag stones. The Dauphin achieved particular success in the arts of blacksmithing and metalworking. He also had a strong passion for hunting. Games, noisy pleasures and theatrical performances occupied him little. His favorite pastimes were drawing geographical maps and turning various iron products.

The furnishings of his chambers spoke a lot about the character of the king. In the gilded hall were hung drawings of the canals dug by his order, found. There was a model of the Burgundy Canal and a description of the work in the port of Cherbourg. A collection of geographical maps and globes was kept in the next room. Here were also maps, very skillfully made by the king himself or just begun by him. Nearby there was a carpentry room, in which, in addition to a lathe, there were many different tools (he inherited them from Louis XV). The library, located on the floor above, contained all the books published during his reign. Next was a large library, where publications and manuscripts were kept that had belonged to previous kings since the time of Francis I. In two separate adjacent rooms there were many other interesting books collected by him. By the way, there was a large number of English works here, which Louis always read with pleasure (including reports on parliamentary sessions). Separate cabinets contained papers related to each of the European ruling houses: Habsburg, Hanover, Romanov and others. Above the library was the king's favorite refuge. It was a workshop with a forge and two anvils, many locks and various iron tools. Even higher was a belvedere with a special lead floor, where the king, sitting in an armchair, with the help of an excellent telescope, watched everything that happened in Versailles, as well as along the road leading to Paris, and in Paris itself, as far as possible. Duret was almost the only servant who carried out all the personal orders of the king. He helped Louis in cleaning the carpentry room, sharpened and cleaned tools, washed the anvil and covered geographical maps.

Louis was born in rather poor health, but the work and movement to which he constantly indulged developed sufficient Strength in him. The king had a wonderful memory. He stored countless names and place names in his head. The numbers and their meanings were imprinted in his memory with amazing clarity. One day, the report presented to him included an item that had already been paid for the previous year. “This is written for the second time,” said Louis, “bring me last year’s report, I will prove it to you.” The report was presented, and the king found what he wanted without difficulty. Justice and honesty were the inalienable virtues of Louis. He became strict to the point of rudeness if he dealt with someone suspected of deception. Then he got angry, shouted, stamped his feet and demanded obedience. His thinking was always distinguished by consistency and clarity: everything he wrote was always correctly divided into articles.

Louis did not pay the slightest attention to women. All his life he sincerely loved his wife, but for a long time she had only a moral influence on him. There was a huge difference between the usual lifestyle of the spouses. The Queen was madly in love with pleasure and was constantly at the theatre, at balls and masquerades. She went to bed after midnight and got up late. The king was immensely bored at the theater, did not like balls, went to bed at eleven in the evening and got up at six in the morning. His day was mostly filled with prayer and work. After drinking lemon juice in the morning and eating dry bread, he took a short walk. At eight in the morning there was a public rise. Louis then went to his office and worked with his ministers. At one o'clock in the afternoon he listened to mass and went to lunch. As a rule, the dishes were the simplest. The king drank ordinary water.

After resting a little, Louis returned to business and worked until seven in the evening. Then, until nine, a meeting of the State Council took place. After dinner, Louis went to bed around eleven. Meanwhile, Marie Antoinette is almost all free time spent time in the company of her beloved friends: Madame de Polignac and Madame Lamballe. In fact, after the king's grant, she did not have a single free minute left. The queen's obvious affection for young girls caused a lot of talk in society, very unfavorable for her. For his part, Louis neglected conjugal rights so much that for the first seven years after the wedding he was not even the real husband of Marie Antoinette. The king's natural weakness as a man was well known. Therefore, everyone was very surprised when, at the beginning of 1778, a rumor suddenly spread that Marie Antoinette was pregnant. Evil tongues blamed this on the Duke of Coigny, who had long and persistently courted the queen. But this suspicion is hardly grounded. It is known that the king’s inability was only accidental and that an insignificant operation could restore his husband’s rights to him. He, however, did not achieve this due to his cold temperament. His wife had to take on all the troubles about this delicate matter. At her request, Minister Morena convinced Louis of the need to decide on an operation. After normal marital relations were established between the king and queen, he began to fall more and more under her influence. From that time on, the queen never refused money, and the luxury of the court became especially provocative.

Contemporaries judged Louis very harshly. His bourgeois virtues seemed ridiculous and worthless to many, especially since he did not have the character traits necessary for a king. His main shortcomings were weak will, timidity, indecisiveness, eternal hesitation and lack of energy. The era demanded a sovereign with completely different qualities. Louis took power at a difficult time: the treasury was empty, the kingdom was burdened with a debt of four billion livres, the people were weighed down by duties and lived in terrible poverty. Louis was very well aware that the poverty of the people was the main misfortune of his time. He had a kind heart and a sincere desire to end the plight of his subjects, but he had neither the skills nor the talents to choose the right path for this. The main problem of France, which the government unsuccessfully fought during the entire reign of Louis, was a severe financial disorder. Although the king had good financiers at his disposal (perhaps the best of those who were in France throughout the entire 18th century), this misfortune was never corrected. At the very beginning of his reign, the controller general of finances, Turgot, tried to establish a regime of brutal austerity and significantly cut court expenses. With his severity, he soon made powerful enemies for himself: first of all, the queen, who loved a luxurious life and endless holidays; other ministers whose budgets were significantly reduced; the nobility, whose privileges he began to carefully limit. In the end, the Parisian poor rose up against him, dissatisfied with the sharp increase in bread prices. Then, in 1776, the king dismissed Turgot and in the same year appointed the Genevan banker Necker in his place. The new controller of finance tried to cover the needs of the state through loans. Under him, the state's debt reached a colossal amount, so that almost all tax revenues were spent on interest payments. Nevertheless, thanks to the restoration of the monarchy's credit, the situation in the country improved, and Necker was very popular in all levels of society. But he also began to strive to reduce court expenses, so he soon became hated by the queen and her entourage. Under their pressure, Louis dismissed Necker in 1781. The successors of the Genevan banker had great difficulty in raising money and making new loans. In 1786 this opportunity dried up. Calonne, who was then at the head of finances, was faced with a choice - either to declare the state bankrupt, or to carry out a radical tax reform and destroy the tax privileges of the first two classes (nobility and clergy). But as soon as Calonne started talking about this, all the rage of the upper classes turned against him. Only the king could support him, but Louis did not dare to do this and again sent the minister to resign. In 1788, when the lack of money reached extremes and state bankruptcy seemed inevitable, the Ministry of Finance was again entrusted to Necker. However, he was already powerless to do anything. The financial crisis has grown to catastrophic proportions. The government was unable to introduce new taxes, obtain new loans, or reform the tax system. In these circumstances, the king, under pressure from Necker, had to yield to public opinion and agree to the convening of the Estates General, which had not met since 1614. The corresponding decree was signed in September 1788. Neither the king nor Necker thought about deep reforms and, above all, wanted to achieve states of new appropriations. But their hopes that the deputies would obediently carry out the will of the king turned out to be unrealistic.

According to ancient laws, elections of deputies and their meetings were supposed to take place according to estates, and when voting, each estate had one vote. The deputies of the third estate from the very beginning showed their intention to break this feudal order and assert the decisive word for themselves. The opening of the States took place on May 4, 1789, in a vast building called the Menu. When, at the beginning of the meeting, the king covered his head, the nobility and clergy exercised their right to do the same. The deputies of the third estate, although they did not have such rights, demonstratively put on their hats. At the sight of this, the king took off his hat, and then everyone, involuntarily, had to follow his example. The French Revolution began with this petty struggle. On May 6, all three classes settled in their respective premises. But the very first protocol question - about checking the legality of the election of each deputy - gave rise to bickering. The deputies of the third estate announced that the verification of credentials should be universal and that they would not begin it except together with the nobility and clergy. The deputies of the first two estates were invited to join the third. A whole month was spent in arguments and bickering. Finally, without waiting for the nobles and priests, the deputies of the third estate on June 7 proclaimed themselves a plenipotentiary National Assembly and began to legislate. With their first decree, they declared illegal many taxes and obligations levied in France without the approval of the people. This decision was accepted everywhere with delight. Far-sighted people saw in this self-will the beginning of a revolution. On June 19, the Duke of La Rochefoucauld and the Archbishop of Paris suggested that Louis immediately dissolve the meeting. But the king decided only on half measures - he ordered the meeting room of the third estate to be locked. However, the deputies gathered in the ballroom and swore that they would not disperse until they established a constitution. It was soon announced that the king could not repeal the laws passed by the assembly. At the same time, a law on the personal immunity of deputies was adopted.

Louis could no longer silently endure these unheard-of insolences and ordered the troops to be gradually drawn up to Versailles. By the beginning of July, up to 30 regiments were stationed here.

This was enough to begin decisive action, but the king hesitated and again lost the initiative from his hands. Events began to unfold with unexpected speed. On July 12, Paris learned of Necker's resignation and his departure to Brussels. The news of this excited the capital. The call sounded: “To arms!” Troops were sent to disperse the crowd, but this only intensified the rebellion. Many soldiers left the ranks and merged with the people. Soon the decision came to strike at the Swiss, who still remained loyal to the king. But they retreated from the city before the crowd appeared. The city fell into the hands of the rebels. On July 14, crowds of people moved to the Bastille and took it after a bloody battle. The next day, Louis remarked to the head of his wardrobe, Liancourt, that this “can be called a real indignation.” “In my opinion, this is an understatement,” Liancourt objected, “this is a revolution.” The king had to admit defeat. On July 15, he appeared before the deputies without an escort, accompanied only by his brothers, and made a speech, standing with his head bare and without any ceremony. He said that he had already ordered the troops to retreat from Versailles. On July 16, he promised to return Necker, and on the 17th, he went to the Paris City Hall and accepted there the tricolor cockade, which then became a symbol of the revolution. During these days, the National Guard was created, and the Marquis of Lafayette was elected its commander. Inspired by the support of the people, the deputies at a night meeting on August 4 adopted a number of revolutionary decrees. All feudal rights and privileges were now declared abolished, the nobility and clergy were taxed on an equal basis with the third estate. At the same time, judicial taxes, the privilege of hunting, and all privileges and duties developed by feudal law were destroyed. Military and administrative positions were declared available to any citizen. The king approved all these decrees only on September 21. In the following days, the vigorous legislative activity of the deputies continued: the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” and the main provisions of the constitution were voted on.

Meanwhile, the crisis intensified. Signs of famine appeared in the capital. On October 5-6, a crowd of women, who were later joined by armed men, moved from Paris to Versailles. Some of the dissatisfied broke into the palace and tried to capture the queen. Several people were killed in the dump. Only the appearance of the guard somewhat cooled the ardor of the attackers. To calm the people, the king and queen had to go out onto the balcony. The next day, at the request of the rebels, the king moved to Paris and settled in the Tuileries. On February 4, 1790, Louis solemnly approved a constitution in the National Assembly, according to which the king received supreme executive power. Legislative power was vested in the highest Legislative Assembly.

At this time, Louis was already completely obsessed with the idea of escaping, but for a long time an opportunity did not present itself for him. In October, Louis and Marie Antoinette tried to secretly go to Montmédy, but were stopped by the people in Saint-Cloud. In June 1791, the royal family tried to leave Paris for the second time. The Count of Provence then managed to safely reach the border, but the king himself was recognized in Varenie and returned to the capital under escort. His prestige fell very low after that. The assembly returned power to him only on September 14, when Louis swore to confirm the finally approved constitution. Following this, the National Assembly dispersed, and on October 1, according to the constitution, the Legislative Assembly opened its sessions.

It seemed that after the introduction of the constitution a compromise had been found in society. But mutual bitterness led France to external and internal war. Many royalists emigrated abroad, where the Prince of Condé formed them into an army. Austria and Prussia were preparing to support her in the most decisive manner. An armed clash with them became inevitable. Ahead of events, the Legislative Assembly took the initiative into its own hands. On April 20, 1792, Louis, at the request of the deputies and against his will, declared war on the “King of Bohemia and Bohemia” (as Emperor Francis II was called after his hereditary possessions). The fighting started unsuccessfully. The enemies were advancing. In addition, treason was discovered everywhere. In May-June, the assembly adopted revolutionary decrees on the exile of priests who had not taken the oath and on the formation of a military camp of 20 thousand national guards near Paris. Louis vetoed these laws and thus caused a new uprising in Paris. On June 20, a huge crowd of armed Parisians surrounded the Tuileries. Part of the people broke into the hall where the king was sitting. Louis was showered with threats and abuse. They pressed him to take back his veto. The king responded to this that he complied with the constitution. In this difficult situation, he behaved courageously - he accepted a glass of wine handed to him from the crowd and drank it to the health of the Parisian people. They responded with applause, the crowd flowed away, leaving Louis alone. However, despite the king’s prohibition, volunteers from all departments moved to the capital and the notorious military camp formed by itself. These days, the people became more confident that the king was on the side of the interventionists. The prestige of his power fell as low as never before. The indignation became especially strong and general after the Duke of Brunswick, who stood at the head of the German army, published a declaration stating that the national guards, taken in arms, would be punished as rebels against their king. He also threatened the Parisians that he would destroy their city if the Tuileries were attacked again. This declaration did a very disservice to Louis, who from then on was considered the main ally of the Prussians. Immediately after the publication of the manifesto (June 28), the Paris Commune began to prepare the overthrow of the king. On August 3, the mayor of Paris, Pétion, appeared before the Legislative Assembly and, on behalf of all sections, demanded the overthrow of Louis. The deputies did not dare to openly commit such a violation of the constitution. Then the commune began to act independently. The main force for carrying out the coup was the Marseille battalion of the National Guard, which arrived in Paris on July 30. On the night of August 10, the rebels sounded the alarm. At dawn, the royal family secretly fled from the Tuileries to the hall of the Legislative Assembly. At about six in the morning, the rebels surrounded the palace and tried to break inside. The Swiss Guard opened brutal fire on them. An extremely bloody battle ensued. Finally, the people took possession of the palace and began to break, ruin and burn everything that came to hand. Seeing that the victory remained with the people, the deputies adopted an emergency resolution on the transformation of the highest authorities and on the temporary removal of the king. At the request of the commune to the royal family an "apartment" was allocated in the Temple.

On September 20, the Legislative Assembly dissolved itself, giving way to the National Convention, elected by law on August 10, which had unlimited powers of both legislative and executive power. At the second meeting on September 21, the Convention adopted a law “on the abolition of royal power in France.” A special commission was tasked with examining the king's papers found in the Tuileries and his correspondence with his brother, the Count of Provence, who was in the royalist army. On November 6, the commission reported that it had found enough evidence to accuse the king of treason and put him on trial (indeed, letters were found from which it was clear that Louis called on foreign armies to attack France). On November 7, the question of the trial was resolved in the affirmative. On December 3, the Convention formed a special commission of 21 people to prepare an indictment report. It was presented on December 10, the indictment on the 11th. Louis, brought to the Convention, had to answer 33 questions concerning his behavior during the main events of the revolution. He calmly denied all the accusations leveled against him, but his laconic answers could not satisfy even those who were disposed towards him. It was decided to give the king lawyers so that they could build a more thoughtful defense. Louis himself chose three, and among them the clever de Seza. On December 26, in a skillful speech, he refuted many of the accusations raised. After this, the debate continued until January 15, 1793. On this day, three questions were posed to the deputies. To the first of them: “Is Louis Capet guilty of conspiracy against public freedom and an attack on the security of the state?” - The Convention almost unanimously answered in the affirmative. A second question was then proposed: “Should the sentence pronounced by the Convention on Louis Capet be submitted to the approval of the people?” The majority of deputies responded negatively. Sentencing was postponed for two days. On January 17, in response to the question: “What punishment should Louis Capet be subjected to,” 387 deputies voted for the death penalty, and 334 for imprisonment. The execution was scheduled for January 21.

According to Malzerbe, Louis, having learned about the decision of his fate, remained calm and said: “Death does not frighten me, I trust in God’s mercy.” He wrote a will, as well as posthumous letters to family and friends. Then he said goodbye to his wife and son, consoling whom he said: “Calm down, friends. Let us better thank Providence for bringing me to the end of my suffering.” The day before his death, he attended the liturgy and partook of the holy mysteries. On the morning of January 21, Louis was taken to the place of execution. As he was led to the scaffold, he turned to the crowd and said in a firm voice: “I die innocent of all the crimes of which I am accused, and I pray God to forgive my enemies.” However, his words did not make any impression on the mob. A minute later, the guillotine knife cut off his head. When it was shown to the crowd, the square shook. from frantic cries: “Long live the nation! Long live the republic!”

All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 1999

Reproduction from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/

King of France
Louis XVI
Years of life: August 23, 1754 - January 21, 1793
Reign: May 10, 1774 - September 21, 1792
Father: Dauphin Louis
Mother: Maria Josepha of Saxony
Wife: Marie Antoinette of Austria
Sons: Louis, Louis XVII
Daughters: Maria Teresa

Louis, who received the title of Duc de Berry at birth, was the second son of the Dauphin Louis. From his parents he received a good education and strict upbringing. True, he was not distinguished by any special abilities or good health. After the death of his father in 1765, Louis became heir to the throne (his older brothers died even earlier), and after the death of his grandfather in 1774, he became king.

Louis was a frail young man with an unhappy expression on his face. His main character traits were timidity, shyness and secrecy. As much as he was reserved in his interactions with members of the royal family, he was so relaxed with his subordinates. He especially loved to talk with workers who worked in the yard or garden. The king could often be seen carrying logs and stones; he achieved great success in blacksmithing and metalworking. In addition, Louis loved hunting and was fond of drawing geographical maps, but noisy entertainment and theatrical performances did not interest him at all. His chambers were filled with books and globes, and geographical maps hung on the walls, including those drawn by Louis himself. In the library one could find not only all the books published during his reign, but also many ancient manuscripts. In a separate room was Louis's favorite refuge - a metalworking workshop with a small forge. Only one servant had access there - a faithful Duret, who helped the king in cleaning the room and cleaning instruments. Louis had a phenomenal memory for names and numbers. His thinking was always distinguished by consistency and clarity: everything he wrote was always correctly divided into articles.

Louis was indifferent to women. Perhaps it was a small physical defect that did not allow him to be sexually active. Even after marrying Marie Antoinette in 1774, the king neglected his marital duties, so the queen had to insist that Louis undergo a simple operation to restore his masculine abilities. After this, Louis fell completely under the influence of his wife. Unlike her husband, Marie Antoinette was very fond of noisy entertainment, theaters and balls. Louis was bored by all this, but the queen did not refuse money. Despite the country's poor economic situation, the luxury of her court was provocative.

Louis's main shortcomings were timidity and lack of energy in state affairs. The crisis in which France found itself required a strong-willed and decisive sovereign. Louis was aware of the plight of the people, but could not decide on radical reforms. The main problem of the French state was its disorganized finances. Despite the presence of good financiers, this problem could not be solved. The controller general of finance, Turgot, tried to introduce a strict regime of saving money, including at court, but thereby made many enemies, primarily the queen, who was accustomed to luxury. Eventually, after a rise in bread prices in 1776, the Parisian poor rose up against him and he was fired. The Geneva banker Necker, who took his place, began to cover the budget deficit through loans, although the public debt was already huge, and all taxes were spent on paying interest. But when he began to strive to reduce court expenses, he was fired under pressure from the queen. Necker's successors found it more and more difficult to take out loans, until finally in 1786 this opportunity dried up completely. Calonne, who was then at the head of finances, was faced with a choice - either declare the state bankrupt, or carry out a radical tax reform and destroy the tax privileges of the first two classes (nobility and clergy). Without the support of the king, such a reform was impossible, but Louis did not dare to do this and sent Calonne to resignation. In 1788, when the lack of money reached its extreme and the bankruptcy of the state was inevitable, Necker was returned again, but he was already powerless to do anything.

The king was forced to convene the States General for the first time since 1614. According to ancient laws, parliamentary elections were to be held according to estates. Representatives of the third estate, the common people, who were in a losing position compared to the nobility and clergy, demanded the right to a decisive vote. During the opening of the first meeting on May 4, 1789, deputies from the third estate demonstratively put on their hats during the king's speech, although they did not have such a right. The French Revolution began with this little thing.

The first meeting was supposed to begin with checking the credentials of the elected deputies. However, this resulted in bickering that lasted whole month and ended with the representatives of the third estate seceding from the States General and on June 7 proclaiming themselves the National Assembly. With their first decree, they declared illegal many taxes and obligations levied in France without the approval of the people. Louis did not dare to dissolve the meeting and limited himself to locking the hall in which the meetings were held. However, the deputies gathered in the ballroom and swore that they would not disperse until they established a constitution. It was soon announced that the king could not repeal the laws passed by the assembly. At the same time, a law on the personal immunity of deputies was adopted. In response, Louis began to gather troops at Versailles.

Then events began to unfold with unprecedented speed. On July 12, Necker was dismissed. The residents of Paris began to arm themselves, and many soldiers joined them. The Swiss guards, still loyal to the king, retreated from the city, and Paris fell into the hands of the rebels. On July 14, after a bloody battle, the Bastille was taken. Louis was forced to admit defeat and ordered his troops to retreat from Versailles. On July 17, he appeared at the city hall and accepted a three-color cockade - a symbol of the revolution. On these same days it was created National Guard, and the Marquis of Lafayette was elected its leader. On the night of August 4, the National Assembly adopted a number of revolutionary decrees: all feudal benefits and privileges were destroyed, the nobles and clergy had to pay taxes on an equal basis with everyone. Military and administrative positions were declared available to any citizen. The king approved all these decrees only on September 21. In the following days, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” and the main provisions of the constitution were adopted.

Meanwhile, the crisis intensified. The first signs of famine appeared in the capital. On October 5-6, a crowd of dissatisfied people moved to Versailles. To calm the people, the king and queen went out onto the palace balcony. The next day, at the request of the rebels, the king moved to Paris and settled in the Tuileries. On February 4, 1790, Louis solemnly approved a constitution in the National Assembly, according to which the king received supreme executive power. Legislative power was vested in the highest Legislative Assembly.

By this time, Louis had already thought more than once about escape. The first attempt in October 1790 ended in failure. In June 1791, the king's brother Louis, Count of Provence, managed to reach the border, but the king himself was detained and returned to the capital under escort. After this, his prestige fell as never before. On September 14, Louis swore to confirm the already approved constitution, and on October 1, the Legislative Assembly began its work.

It seemed that after the introduction of the constitution a compromise had been found in society, however, many royalists who managed to flee abroad began to incite the governments of states neighboring France to war. The Prince of Condé formed an army composed of emigrants, but the Legislative Assembly was ahead of events. On April 20, 1792, against his will, Louis declared war on the “King of Bohemia and Bohemia,” the German Emperor Franz II. The fighting began for the revolutionaries. Here and there, pockets of treason flared up. In May-June, Louis vetoed the revolutionary decrees on the exile of unsworn priests and on the formation of a military camp of 20 thousand national guardsmen near Paris, but despite the king’s ban, crowds of volunteers from all over the country moved to Paris, and a military camp formed by itself. The Duke of Brunswick, head of the German army, declared the National Guards rebels and promised to destroy the city if they tried to attack the Tuileries. The Paris Commune began to prepare for the overthrow of Louis, who was considered an accomplice of the interventionists. The Legislative Assembly did not dare to violate the constitution, and then the Communards began to act at their own peril and risk. On the night of August 10, the Tuileries was surrounded. Louis and his family managed to escape to the hall where the Legislative Assembly was meeting. To avoid bloodshed, the deputies made an emergency transformation of the supreme authorities and temporarily removed the king from power. Louis and his family were placed in the Temple.

Louis accepted the news of his fate calmly. He wrote a will, posthumous letters to his family and friends and said goodbye to his wife and son. On the morning of January 21, 1793, he was executed by guillotine.

Material used from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/

Read further:

Literature:

Berkova K.N. Trial of Louis XVI. M. 1923. (In an abbreviated version published in the collection: The Crown and the Scaffold: Historical Essays. M. Politizdat. 1991)

Hartman P.K. Louis XVI. In the book: French kings and emperors. Rostov-on-Don. "Phoenix" (Historical silhouettes). 1997.

Pimenova L.A. Louis XVI is the French king of the Age of Enlightenment. In the book: Man of the Enlightenment. M. "Science". 1999.