Instructions
Venus is the third brightest object in the sky after the Sun and the Moon; it has been seen by every person who has ever looked at the morning or evening sky. Venus is visible as bright Star, appearing early in the evening after sunset or in the morning, when dawn is already visible. For some time it is the only star visible to the naked eye in the sky; other stars are not visible in such lighting. Sometimes this planet can be seen even during daylight hours, when the Sun is shining in the sky - most often this happens in spring or summer, when Venus is higher above the horizon than in autumn and winter.
Jupiter is slightly less bright than Venus, but is also clearly visible. In appearance, it is a bright yellow large star, which is especially visible during opposition, that is, when the planet is closest to Earth. Jupiter appears almost immediately after dark, sometimes even at dusk. Two hours after sunset, this planet is best visible (besides the Moon), since Venus no longer shines. And late at night, Jupiter rises high in the sky from the southern side. Jupiter is difficult to confuse with an ordinary star; it is too large and bright and stands out with its characteristic yellow color.
Saturn and Mars are most often confused with stars when they are at their furthest distance from Earth. Saturn is simply too far away and Mars is not too big, making them difficult to spot in the sky. However, when they are closer to Earth, they can be seen. But don't try to find them close to dawn or just after sunset, their time is deep night.
Everything according to the zodiac constellations. It is well known that there are only twelve of these constellations. There is an unaccounted constellation Ophiuchus, in which our Sun resides at the end of autumn and beginning of winter, and bright planets can be found in it at this time. By the way, this is why you need to look for them in the zodiac constellations, but not in Orion, Ursa Major or Pegasus.
The planets of our system can be divided into external and internal. Inner planets are planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth. There are only two of them, Venus and Mercury. But all the rest are usually classified as outer planets. The inner planets can only be seen in the morning or evening sky, while the outer planets can be seen throughout the night.
The solar system is located at the very edge of the Galaxy and includes several large celestial bodies. Until recently, it was generally accepted that there were nine planets revolving around the Sun in different orbits. In 2006, Pluto was deprived of this status, moving to the category of dwarf planets. Earth is the third planet in the solar system, counting from the central luminary.
Structure of the Solar System
The planetary system, called the Solar system, includes the central luminary - the Sun, as well as many space objects with different sizes and status. This system was formed as a result of the compression of a cloud of dust and gas more than 4 billion years ago. Most of the solar planet's mass is concentrated in the Sun. Eight large planets orbit the star in nearly circular orbits located within a flat disk.
The inner planets of the solar system are considered to be Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (in order of distance from the Sun). These celestial bodies are classified as terrestrial planets. Next come the largest planets - Jupiter and Saturn. The series is completed by Uranus and Neptune, located farthest from the center. Orbiting the dwarf planet Pluto at the very edge of the system.
Earth is the third planet in the solar system. Like other large bodies, it revolves around the Sun in a closed orbit, subject to the gravitational force of the star. The sun attracts celestial bodies to itself, preventing them from approaching the center of the system or flying away into space. Together with the planets, smaller bodies - meteors, comets, asteroids - rotate around the central star.
Features of planet Earth
The average distance from Earth to the center of the solar system is 150 million km. The location of the third planet turned out to be extremely favorable from the point of view of the emergence and development of life. The Earth receives a tiny amount of heat from the Sun, but this energy is quite enough for living organisms to exist within the planet. On Venus and Mars, the closest neighbors of the Earth, conditions in this regard are less favorable.
Among the planets of the so-called terrestrial group, the Earth stands out for its greatest density and size. The composition of the local atmosphere, which contains free oxygen, is unique. The presence of a powerful hydrosphere also gives the Earth its originality. These factors have become one of the main conditions for the existence of biological forms. Scientists believe that the formation internal structure The Earth still continues due to tectonic processes occurring in its depths.
The Moon, its natural satellite, is located in close proximity to the Earth. This is the only space object that people have visited to date. The average distance between the Earth and its satellite is about 380 thousand km. The lunar surface is covered with dust and rocky debris. There is no atmosphere on the Earth's satellite. It is possible that in the distant future the territory of the Moon will be developed by earthly civilization.
Mars– fourth planet of the solar system: map of Mars, Interesting Facts, satellites, size, mass, distance from the Sun, name, orbit, research with photos.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the most similar to Earth in the solar system. We also know our neighbor by its second name – “Red Planet”. It received its name in honor of the Roman god of war. The reason is its red color, created by iron oxide. Every few years, the planet is closest to us and can be found in the night sky.
Its periodic appearance has led to the planet being featured in many myths and legends. And the external threatening appearance became the cause of fear of the planet. Let's find out more interesting facts about Mars.
Interesting facts about the planet Mars
Mars and Earth are similar in surface massiveness
- The Red Planet covers only 15% of the Earth's volume, but 2/3 of our planet is covered in water. Martian gravity is 37% of Earth's, which means your jump will be three times higher.
Has the highest mountain in the system
- Mount Olympus (the highest in the solar system) stretches 21 km and covers 600 km in diameter. It took billions of years to form, but lava flows hint that the volcano may still be active.
Only 18 missions were successful
- There have been approximately 40 space missions to Mars, including flybys, orbital probes, and rover landings. Among the latter were Curiosity (2012), MAVEN (2014) and the Indian Mangalyaan (2014). Also arriving in 2016 were ExoMars and InSight.
Largest dust storms
- These weather disasters can go on for months and cover the entire planet. The seasons become extreme because the elliptical orbital path is extremely elongated. At the nearest point in the southern hemisphere, a short but hot summer begins, and the northern hemisphere plunges into winter. Then they change places.
Martian debris on Earth
- Researchers were able to find small traces of the Martian atmosphere in the meteorites that arrived to us. They floated in space for millions of years before reaching us. This helped to conduct a preliminary study of the planet before the launch of the devices.
The name comes from the god of war in Rome
- IN Ancient Greece used the name Ares, who was responsible for all military actions. The Romans copied almost everything from the Greeks, so they used Mars as their analogue. This trend was inspired by the bloody color of the object. For example, in China the Red Planet was called a “fiery star”. Formed due to iron oxide.
There are hints of liquid water
- Scientists are convinced that for a long time the planet Mars had water in the form of ice deposits. The first signs are dark stripes or spots on the crater walls and rocks. Given the Martian atmosphere, the liquid must be salty so as not to freeze and evaporate.
We are waiting for the ring to appear
- In the next 20-40 million years, Phobos will come dangerously close and be torn apart by planetary gravity. Its fragments will form a ring around Mars that can last up to hundreds of millions of years.
Size, mass and orbit of the planet Mars
The equatorial radius of the planet Mars is 3396 km, and the polar radius is 3376 km (0.53 Earth radius). Before us is literally half the size of the Earth, but the mass is 6.4185 x 10 23 kg (0.151 of the Earth’s). The planet resembles ours in its axial inclination – 25.19°, which means that seasonality can also be noted on it.
Physical characteristics of Mars |
| Equatorial | 3396.2 km |
|---|---|
| Polar radius | 3376.2 km |
| Average radius | 3389.5 km |
| Surface area | 1.4437⋅10 8 km² 0.283 earth |
| Volume | 1.6318⋅10 11 km³ 0.151 Earth |
| Weight | 6.4171⋅10 23 kg 0.107 earth |
| Average density | 3.933 g/cm³ 0.714 earth |
| Acceleration free falls at the equator |
3.711 m/s² 0.378 g |
| First escape velocity | 3.55 km/s |
| Second escape velocity | 5.03 km/s |
| Equatorial speed rotation |
868.22 km/h |
| Rotation period | 24 hours 37 minutes 22.663 seconds |
| Axis tilt | 25.1919° |
| Right ascension north pole |
317.681° |
| North pole declination | 52.887° |
| Albedo | 0.250 (Bond) 0.150 (geom.) |
| Apparent magnitude | −2.91 m |
The maximum distance from Mars to the Sun (aphelion) is 249.2 million km, and the proximity (perihelion) is 206.7 million km. This leads to the fact that the planet spends 1.88 years on its orbital passage.
Composition and surface of the planet Mars
With a density of 3.93 g/cm3, Mars is inferior to Earth and has only 15% of our volume. We have already mentioned that the red color is due to the presence of iron oxide (rust). But due to the presence of other minerals, it comes in brown, gold, green, etc. Study the structure of Mars in the bottom picture.
Mars is a terrestrial planet, which means it has high level minerals containing oxygen, silicon and metals. The soil is slightly alkaline and contains magnesium, potassium, sodium and chlorine.
In such conditions, the surface cannot boast of water. But thin layer The Martian atmosphere allowed the preservation of ice in the polar regions. And you can see that these hats cover a decent territory. There is also a hypothesis about the presence of underground water at mid-latitudes.
The structure of Mars contains a dense metallic core with a silicate mantle. It is represented by iron sulfide and is twice as rich in light elements as the earth's. The crust extends for 50-125 km.
The core covers 1700-1850 km and is represented by iron, nickel and 16-17% sulfur. Small size and mass mean that gravity reaches only 37.6% of Earth's. An object on the surface will fall with an acceleration of 3.711 m/s 2 .
It is worth noting that the Martian landscape is desert-like. The surface is dusty and dry. There are mountain ranges, plains and the largest sand dunes in the system. Mars also boasts the largest mountain, Olympus, and the deepest abyss, Valles Marineris.
In the photographs you can see many crater formations that have been preserved due to the slowness of erosion. Hellas Planitia is the largest crater on the planet, covering a width of 2300 km and a depth of 9 km.
The planet can boast of ravines and canals through which water could previously flow. Some stretch 2000 km long and 100 km wide.
Moons of Mars
Two of its moons revolve near Mars: Phobos and Deimos. In 1877, they were found by Asaph Hall, who named them after characters from Greek mythology. These are the sons of the god of war Ares: Phobos - fear, and Deimos - horror. Martian satellites are shown in the photo.
The diameter of Phobos is 22 km, and the distance is 9234.42 – 9517.58 km. It takes 7 hours for an orbital passage and this time is gradually decreasing. Researchers believe that in 10-50 million years the satellite will crash into Mars or will be destroyed by the planet’s gravity and form a ring structure.
Deimos has a diameter of 12 km and rotates at a distance of 23455.5 – 23470.9 km. The orbital route takes 1.26 days. Mars may also have additional moons with a width of 50-100 m, and a dust ring can form between two large ones.
It is believed that previously the satellites of Mars were ordinary asteroids that succumbed to planetary gravity. But they exhibit circular orbits, which is unusual for captured bodies. They could also have formed from material torn from the planet at the beginning of creation. But then their composition should have resembled that of a planet. A strong impact could also occur, repeating the scenario with our Moon.
Atmosphere and temperature of the planet Mars
The Red Planet has a thin atmospheric layer, which is represented by carbon dioxide (96%), argon (1.93%), nitrogen (1.89%) and admixtures of oxygen and water. It contains a lot of dust, the size of which reaches 1.5 micrometers. Pressure – 0.4-0.87 kPa.
The long distance from the Sun to the planet and the thin atmosphere mean that Mars has a low temperature. It fluctuates between -46°C to -143°C in winter and can warm up to 35°C in summer at the poles and at midday at the equatorial line.
Mars is characterized by the activity of dust storms that can simulate mini-tornadoes. They are formed thanks to solar heating, where warmer air currents rise and form storms that extend thousands of kilometers.
When analyzed, traces of methane with a concentration of 30 parts per million were also found in the atmosphere. This means that he was released from specific territories.
Research shows that the planet is capable of creating up to 270 tons of methane per year. It reaches the atmospheric layer and persists for 0.6-4 years until complete destruction. Even a small presence indicates that a gas source is hidden on the planet. The bottom figure indicates the concentration of methane on Mars.
Speculations included hints at volcanic activity, comet impacts, or the presence of microorganisms beneath the surface. Methane can also be created in a non-biological process - serpentinization. It contains water, carbon dioxide and the mineral olivine.
In 2012, we carried out several calculations on methane using the Curiosity rover. If the first analysis showed a certain amount of methane in the atmosphere, then the second showed 0. But in 2014, the rover encountered a 10-fold spike, which indicates a localized release.
The satellites also detected the presence of ammonia, but its decomposition period is much shorter. Possible source: volcanic activity.
Dissipation of planetary atmospheres
Astrophysicist Valery Shematovich on the evolution of planetary atmospheres, exoplanetary systems and the loss of the atmosphere of Mars:
History of the study of the planet Mars
Earthlings have been watching their red neighbor for a long time, because the planet Mars can be found without the use of instruments. The first records were made in Ancient Egypt in 1534 BC. e. They were already familiar with the retrograde effect. True, for them, Mars was a bizarre star, whose movement was different from the rest.
Even before the advent of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (539 BC), regular records of planetary positions were made. People noted changes in movement, brightness levels, and even tried to predict where they would go.
In the 4th century BC. Aristotle noticed that Mars hid behind the earth's satellite during the period of occlusion, which indicated that the planet was located further than the Moon.
Ptolemy decided to create a model of the entire Universe in order to understand planetary motion. He suggested that there are spheres inside the planets that guarantee retrograde. It is known that the ancient Chinese also knew about the planet back in the 4th century BC. e. The diameter was estimated by Indian researchers in the 5th century BC. e.
Ptolemy's model (geocentric system) created many problems, but it remained dominant until the 16th century, when Copernicus came with his scheme where the Sun was located at the center (heliocentric system). His ideas were reinforced by Galileo Galilei's observations with his new telescope. All this helped to calculate the daily parallax of Mars and the distance to it.
In 1672, the first measurements were made by Giovanni Cassini, but his equipment was weak. In the 17th century, parallax was used by Tycho Brahe, after which it was corrected by Johannes Kepler. The first map of Mars was presented by Christiaan Huygens.
In the 19th century, it was possible to increase the resolution of instruments and examine the features of the Martian surface. Thanks to this, Giovanni Schiaparelli created the first detailed map of the Red Planet in 1877. It also displayed channels - long straight lines. Later they realized that this was just an optical illusion.
The map inspired Percival Lowell to create an observatory with two powerful telescopes (30 and 45 cm). He wrote many articles and books on the subject of Mars. The canals and seasonal changes (shrinking polar ice caps) brought to mind thoughts of Martians. And even in the 1960s. continued to write research on this topic.
Exploration of the planet Mars
More advanced exploration of Mars began with the exploration of space and the launch of vehicles to other solar planets in the system. Space probes began to be sent to the planet at the end of the 20th century. It was with their help that we were able to get acquainted with an alien world and expand our understanding of the planets. And although we were unable to find Martians, life could have existed there before.
Active study of the planet began in the 1960s. The USSR sent 9 unmanned probes that never made it to Mars. In 1964, NASA launched Mariner 3 and 4. The first failed, but the second arrived at the planet 7 months later.
Mariner 4 managed to obtain the first large-scale photographs of an alien world and transmitted information about atmospheric pressure, the absence magnetic field and the radiation belt. In 1969, Mariners 6 and 7 arrived at the planet.
In 1970, a new race began between the USA and the USSR: who would be the first to install a satellite in Martian orbit. The USSR used three spacecraft: Cosmos-419, Mars-2 and Mars-3. The first one failed during launch. The other two were launched in 1971, and they took 7 months to arrive. Mars 2 crashed, but Mars 3 landed softly and became the first to succeed. But the transmission lasted only 14.5 seconds.
In 1971, the United States sent Mariner 8 and 9. The first fell into the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, but the second successfully gained a foothold in Martian orbit. Together with Mars 2 and 3, they found themselves in a period of Martian storm. When it ended, Mariner 9 took several images hinting at liquid water that may have been observed in the past.
In 1973, four more devices were sent from the USSR, where all, except Mars-7, delivered useful information. The biggest benefit was from Mars-5, which sent 60 images. The US Viking mission began in 1975. These were two orbitals and two landers. They had to track biosignals and study seismic, meteorological and magnetic characteristics.
The Viking survey showed that there was once water on Mars, because large-scale floods could carve deep valleys and erode depressions in the rock. Mars remained a mystery until the 1990s, when Mars Pathfinder launched with a spacecraft and probe. The mission landed in 1987 and tested a huge amount of technology.
In 1999, Mars Global Surveyor arrived, tracking Mars in a near-polar orbit. He studied the surface for almost two years. We managed to capture ravines and garbage flows. The sensors showed that the magnetic field is not created in the core, but is partially present in areas of the cortex. It was also possible to create the first 3D views of the polar cap. We lost contact in 2006.
Mars Odysseus arrived in 2001. He had to use spectrometers to detect evidence of life. In 2002, huge hydrogen reserves were discovered. In 2003, the Mars Express arrived with a probe. Beagle 2 entered the atmosphere and confirmed the presence of water and carbon dioxide ice on the territory of the South Pole.
In 2003, the famous rovers Spirit and Opportunity landed, which studied rocks and soil. MRO reached orbit in 2006. Its instruments are configured to search for water, ice and minerals at/below the surface.
MRO studies Martian weather and surface features daily to find best places for landing. The Curiosity rover landed in Gale Crater in 2012. His instruments are important because they reveal the planet's past. In 2014, MAVEN began studying the atmosphere. In 2014, Mangalyan arrived from the Indian ISRO
In 2016, active study of the internal composition and early geological evolution began. In 2018, Roscosmos plans to send its device, and in 2020 the United Arab Emirates will join.
Government and private space agencies are serious about crewed missions in the future. By 2030, NASA expects to send the first Martian astronauts.
In 2010, Barack Obama insisted on making Mars a priority target. ESA plans to send humans in 2030-2035. There are a couple of non-profit organizations that are going to send small missions with a crew of up to 4 people. Moreover, they receive money from sponsors who dream of turning the trip into a live show.
Launched global activities CEO SpaceX Elon Musk. He has already managed to make an incredible breakthrough - a reusable launch system that saves time and money. The first flight to Mars is planned for 2022. We are already talking about colonization.
Mars is considered the most studied alien planet in the solar system. Rovers and probes continue to explore its features, each time offering new information. It was possible to confirm that the Earth and the Red Planet converge in characteristics: polar glaciers, seasonal fluctuations, an atmospheric layer, running water. And there is evidence that previously there could have been life there. So we keep going back to Mars, which is likely to be the first planet to be colonized.
Scientists have still not lost hope of finding life on Mars, even if it is primitive remains and not living organisms. Thanks to telescopes and spacecraft, we always have the opportunity to admire Mars online. You will find a lot on the site useful information, high-quality photos Mars in high resolution and interesting facts about the planet. You can always use a 3D model of the Solar System to follow the appearance, characteristics and orbital motion of all known celestial bodies, including the Red Planet. Below is a detailed map of Mars.
Click on the image to enlarge it
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the last of the terrestrial planets. Like the rest of the planets in the solar system (not counting Earth), it is named after the mythological figure - the Roman god of war. In addition to its official name, Mars is sometimes called the Red Planet, due to the brownish-red color of its surface. With all this, Mars is the second smallest planet in the solar system after.
For almost the entire nineteenth century, it was believed that life existed on Mars. The reason for this belief is partly error and partly human imagination. In 1877, astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli was able to observe what he thought were straight lines on the surface of Mars. Like other astronomers, when he noticed these stripes, he assumed that such directness was associated with the existence of intelligent life on the planet. A popular theory at the time about the nature of these lines was that they were irrigation canals. However, with the development of more powerful telescopes in the early twentieth century, astronomers were able to see the Martian surface more clearly and determine that these straight lines were just an optical illusion. As a result, all earlier assumptions about life on Mars remained without evidence.
Much of the science fiction written during the twentieth century was a direct consequence of the belief that life existed on Mars. From small green men to towering invaders with laser weapons, Martians have been the focus of many television and radio programs, comic books, films and novels.
Despite the fact that the discovery of Martian life in the eighteenth century ultimately turned out to be false, Mars remained for scientific circles the most life-friendly planet (not counting Earth) in the solar system. Subsequent planetary missions were undoubtedly dedicated to the search for at least some form of life on Mars. Thus, a mission called Viking, carried out in the 1970s, conducted experiments on Martian soil in the hope of finding microorganisms in it. At the time, it was believed that the formation of compounds during experiments could be the result of biological agents, but it was later determined that the compounds chemical elements can be created without biological processes.
However, even these data did not deprive scientists of hope. Having found no signs of life on the surface of Mars, they suggested that all the necessary conditions could exist below the surface of the planet. This version is still relevant today. At the very least, such planetary missions of the present as ExoMars and Mars Science involve testing everyone possible options the existence of life on Mars in the past or present, on the surface and below it.
Atmosphere of Mars
The composition of the atmosphere of Mars is very similar to that of Mars, one of the least hospitable atmospheres in the entire solar system. The main component in both environments is carbon dioxide (95% for Mars, 97% for Venus), but there is a big difference - Greenhouse effect is absent on Mars, so the temperature on the planet does not exceed 20°C, in contrast to 480°C on the surface of Venus. This huge difference is due to the different densities of the atmospheres of these planets. With comparable densities, Venus's atmosphere is extremely thick, while Mars has a rather thin atmosphere. Simply put, if the atmosphere of Mars were thicker, it would resemble Venus.
In addition, Mars has a very thin atmosphere - Atmosphere pressure is only about 1% of the pressure at . This is equivalent to a pressure of 35 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
One of the earliest directions in the study of the Martian atmosphere is its influence on the presence of water on the surface. Despite the fact that the polar caps contain solid water and the air contains water vapor resulting from frost and low pressure, all research today indicates that the “weak” atmosphere of Mars does not support the existence of liquid water on the surface planets.
However, based on the latest data from Mars missions, scientists are confident that liquid water exists on Mars and is located one meter below the surface of the planet.
Water on Mars: speculation / wikipedia.org
However, despite the thin atmospheric layer, Mars has quite acceptable by earthly standards weather conditions. The most extreme forms of this weather are winds, dust storms, frost and fog. As a result of such weather activity, significant signs of erosion have been observed in some areas of the Red Planet.
Another interesting point about the Martian atmosphere is that, according to several modern scientific studies, in the distant past it was dense enough for the existence of oceans of liquid water on the surface of the planet. However, according to the same studies, the atmosphere of Mars has been dramatically changed. The leading version of such a change at the moment is the hypothesis of a collision of a planet with another sufficiently voluminous one. cosmic body, which led to Mars losing most of its atmosphere.
The surface of Mars has two significant features, which, by an interesting coincidence, are associated with differences in the planet's hemispheres. The fact is that the northern hemisphere has a fairly smooth topography and only a few craters, while the southern hemisphere is literally dotted with hills and craters of different sizes. In addition to topographical differences, which indicate differences in the relief of the hemispheres, there are also geological ones - studies indicate that areas in the northern hemisphere are much more active than in the southern.
On the surface of Mars is the largest known volcano, Olympus Mons, and the largest known canyon, Mariner. Nothing more grandiose has yet been found in the Solar System. The height of Mount Olympus is 25 kilometers (that's three times higher than Everest, the tallest mountain on Earth), and the diameter of the base is 600 kilometers. The length of the Valles Marineris is 4000 kilometers, the width is 200 kilometers, and the depth is almost 7 kilometers.
The most significant discovery about the Martian surface to date has been the discovery of canals. The peculiarity of these channels is that, according to NASA experts, they were created by flowing water, and thus are the most reliable evidence of the theory that in the distant past the surface of Mars was significantly similar to the earth's.
The most famous peridolium associated with the surface of the Red Planet is the so-called “Face on Mars”. The terrain actually closely resembled a human face when the first image of the area was taken by the Viking I spacecraft in 1976. Many people at the time considered this image to be real proof that intelligent life existed on Mars. Subsequent photographs showed that this was just a trick of lighting and human imagination.
Like other terrestrial planets, the interior of Mars has three layers: crust, mantle and core.
Although precise measurements have not yet been made, scientists have made certain predictions about the thickness of the crust of Mars based on data on the depth of Valles Marineris. The deep, extensive valley system located in the southern hemisphere could not exist unless the crust of Mars was significantly thicker than that of Earth. Preliminary estimates indicate that the thickness of the crust of Mars in the northern hemisphere is about 35 kilometers and about 80 kilometers in the southern hemisphere.
Quite a lot of research has been devoted to the core of Mars, in particular to determining whether it is solid or liquid. Some theories have pointed to the absence of a strong enough magnetic field as a sign of a solid core. However, in last decade The hypothesis that the core of Mars is at least partially liquid is gaining increasing popularity. This was indicated by the discovery of magnetized rocks on the planet's surface, which may be a sign that Mars has or had a liquid core.
Orbit and rotation
The orbit of Mars is remarkable for three reasons. Firstly, its eccentricity is the second largest among all the planets, only Mercury has less. With such an elliptical orbit, Mars' perihelion is 2.07 x 108 kilometers, which is much further than its aphelion of 2.49 x 108 kilometers.
Secondly, scientific evidence suggests that such a high degree of eccentricity was not always present, and may have been less than Earth's at some point in the history of Mars. Scientists say the reason for this change is the gravitational forces of neighboring planets acting on Mars.
Thirdly, of all the terrestrial planets, Mars is the only one on which the year lasts longer than on Earth. This is naturally related to its orbital distance from the Sun. One Martian year is equal to almost 686 earthly days. A Martian day lasts approximately 24 hours and 40 minutes, which is the time it takes for the planet to complete one full revolution around its axis.
Another notable similarity between the planet and Earth is its axial tilt, which is approximately 25°. This feature indicates that the seasons on the Red Planet follow each other in exactly the same way as on Earth. However, the hemispheres of Mars experience completely different, different from those on Earth, temperature conditions for every season. This is again due to the much greater eccentricity of the planet’s orbit.
SpaceX And plans to colonize Mars
So we know that SpaceX wants to send people to Mars in 2024, but their first Mars mission will be the Red Dragon capsule in 2018. What steps is the company going to take to achieve this goal?
- 2018 Launch of the Red Dragon space probe to demonstrate technology. The goal of the mission is to reach Mars and do some survey work at the landing site on a small scale. Possibly delivery additional information for NASA or space agencies of other countries.
- 2020 Launch spaceship Mars Colonial Transporter MCT1 (unmanned). The purpose of the mission is to send cargo and return samples. Large-scale demonstrations of technology for habitat, life support, and energy.
- 2022 Launch of the Mars Colonial Transporter MCT2 spacecraft (unmanned). Second iteration of MCT. At this time, MCT1 will be on its way back to Earth, carrying Martian samples. MCT2 is supplying equipment for the first manned flight. MCT2 will be ready for launch once the crew arrives on the Red Planet in 2 years. In case of trouble (as in the movie “The Martian”) the team will be able to use it to leave the planet.
- 2024 Third iteration of Mars Colonial Transporter MCT3 and first manned flight. At that point, all technologies will have proven their functionality, MCT1 will have traveled to Mars and back, and MCT2 will be ready and tested on Mars.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the last of the terrestrial planets. The distance from the Sun is about 227940000 kilometers.
The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. To the ancient Greeks he was known as Ares. It is believed that Mars received this association due to the blood-red color of the planet. Thanks to its color, the planet was also known to other ancient cultures. Early Chinese astronomers called Mars the “Star of Fire,” and ancient Egyptian priests referred to it as “Ee Desher,” meaning “red.”
The land masses on Mars and Earth are very similar. Despite the fact that Mars occupies only 15% of the volume and 10% of the mass of the Earth, it has a comparable land mass to our planet as a consequence of the fact that water covers about 70% of the Earth's surface. At the same time, the surface gravity of Mars is about 37% of the gravity on Earth. This means that you could theoretically jump three times higher on Mars than on Earth.
Only 16 of 39 missions to Mars were successful. Since the Mars 1960A mission launched by the USSR in 1960, a total of 39 landers and rovers have been sent to Mars, but only 16 of these missions have been successful. In 2016, a probe was launched as part of the Russian-European ExoMars mission, the main goals of which will be to search for signs of life on Mars, study the surface and topography of the planet, and map potential environmental hazards for future manned missions to Mars.
Debris from Mars has been found on Earth. It is believed that traces of some of the Martian atmosphere were found in meteorites that bounced off the planet. After leaving Mars, these meteorites for a long time, for millions of years, flew around the solar system among other objects and space debris, but were captured by the gravity of our planet, fell into its atmosphere and crashed to the surface. The study of these materials allowed scientists to learn a lot about Mars even before space flights began.
In the recent past, people were sure that Mars was home to intelligent life. This was largely influenced by the discovery of straight lines and grooves on the surface of the Red Planet by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. He believed that such straight lines could not be created by nature and were the result of intelligent activity. However, it was later proven that this was nothing more than an optical illusion.
The highest planetary mountain known in the solar system is on Mars. It is called Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus) and rises 21 kilometers in height. It is believed that this is a volcano that was formed billions of years ago. Scientists have found quite a lot of evidence that the age of the object's volcanic lava is quite young, which may be evidence that Olympus may still be active. However, there is a mountain in the solar system to which Olympus is inferior in height - this is the central peak of Rheasilvia, located on the asteroid Vesta, whose height is 22 kilometers.
Dust storms occur on Mars - the most extensive in the solar system. This is due to the elliptical shape of the planet's orbit around the Sun. The orbital path is more elongated than many other planets and this oval shape orbit results in ferocious dust storms that cover the entire planet and can last for many months.
The Sun appears to be about half its visual Earth size when viewed from Mars. When Mars is closest to the Sun in its orbit, and its southern hemisphere faces the Sun, the planet experiences a very short but incredibly hot summer. At the same time, a short period occurs in the northern hemisphere, but Cold winter. When the planet is farther from the Sun, and the northern hemisphere points towards it, Mars experiences a long and mild summer. In the southern hemisphere, a long winter sets in.
With the exception of Earth, scientists consider Mars the most suitable planet for life. Leading space agencies are planning a series of space missions over the next decade to find out whether there is potential for life on Mars and whether it is possible to build a colony on it.
Martians and aliens from Mars have been the leading candidates for extraterrestrials for quite a long time, making Mars one of the most popular planets in the solar system.
Mars is the only planet in the system, other than Earth, that has polar ice. Solid water has been discovered beneath the polar caps of Mars.
Just like on Earth, Mars has seasons, but they last twice as long. This is because Mars is tilted on its axis at about 25.19 degrees, which is close to Earth's axial tilt (22.5 degrees).
Mars has no magnetic field. Some scientists believe that it existed on the planet about 4 billion years ago.
The two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, were described in the book Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. This was 151 years before they were discovered.
Mars is one of the planets closest to us. In this indicator, only Venus surpasses it. In the summer of 2018, the Red Planet can be found in the night sky without any problems.
Experts from the portal nplus1.ru report that closer to the beginning of August 2018, it will be possible to observe a special phenomenon - the closest approach of Mars to the Earth. In astronomy this is called opposition. This is a rare event because it occurs approximately once every 15 years.
Why will Mars become visible?
In its normal state, Mars is very poorly visible because it reflects very little sunlight. At the end of July and beginning of August it will be visible even to the naked eye simply because it will be very close to us. This will be a great opportunity to look at the red planet, and without resorting to special equipment.
Finding a planet in the night sky is not difficult if you follow the rules. According to astronomers' calculations, the convergence will occur on July 27. Best visibility will continue until the 31st of the same month. At the beginning of August it will still be possible to see big Mars, but it will gradually “fade out”.
July 27 - day lunar eclipse, so we can see two interesting events at once in one day. As for the astrological meaning of the opposition of Mars, not everything is as rosy as we would like. In its energy, Mars is the ruler of aggression, strength, cruelty, and dynamics. Even his constant companions are called “Fear” and “Horror”. July 27 and the week or week and a half following this day will be extremely dangerous for those who cannot restrain their emotions. It is better for impulsive people to stay close to calm ones. It is better to devote these days to physical activity and solitude.
How to find Mars in the night sky
Usually Mars is very dim, but already in June it will be almost as bright as Jupiter, which is video with the naked eye. By July 27, Mars will be almost twice as bright and will overtake Jupiter. It will be difficult to confuse Mars with another object in the sky because it will have a noticeable reddish tint.
The further north you live, the closer Mars will be to the horizon for you and, accordingly, it will be more difficult to see it. Alas, near the Arctic Circle you will not see the red planet at all. In mid-latitudes, Mars will be quite low to the horizon, but quite visible and distinguishable. The further south you go, the better the visibility of the planet will be. The best time to observe is after one in the morning.
The easiest way to find Mars is to use a compass. You need to accurately determine which direction is east and which direction is south. Between these directions will be the brightest point in the sky. She is precisely Mars. The planet will be located closer to the south, especially during the period of opposition. Once again, we remind you that in mid-latitudes Mars is very low to the horizon, so do not look for it high above your head.
Mars will be retrograde until the end of summer. This period is very important from the point of view of astrology and astronomy. The planet will move in the opposite direction just starting from the day of the great opposition - July 27. This movement will be valid until August 27. You can find out more about the influence retrograde Mars in 2018 from our other article.
There is something magical about the planet Mars, named after the ancient god of war. Many scientists have a great interest in it because of its similarity to the Earth. Perhaps in the future we will even live there; it will become our second home. A human landing on Mars is planned for 2023.
Gravity on Mars is much less than on our planet. Martian gravity is 62% lower than what it is on our globe, that is, 2.5 times weaker. With such gravity, a person weighing 45 kg on Mars will feel 17 kg.
Just imagine how interesting and fun it is to bounce there. After all, on Mars you can jump 3 times higher than on Earth, with the same amount of effort expended.
Already today, hundreds of Martian meteorites are known, which are scattered across the surface of the entire Earth. Moreover, only very recently scientists were able to prove that the composition of the meteorites found on the earth’s surface is identical to the atmosphere of Mars. That is, they are truly of Martian origin. These meteorites can fly in the solar system for many years until they fall on some planet, including our Earth.
Scientists have identified only 120 Martian meteorites on Earth, which, for various reasons, once broke away from the red planet, spent millions of years in orbit between Mars and Earth, and landed in different places on our planet.
The oldest meteorite from Mars is ALH 84001, found in 1984 in the Alan Hills (Antarctica). Scientists have proven that it is about 4.5 billion years old.
The largest meteorite from the red planet was found on Earth in 1865 in India, near the village of Shergotti. Its weight reaches 5 kg. Today it is kept in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington.
One of the most expensive Martian meteorites is the Tissint meteorite, which got its name after a small village. It was there in 2011 that an almost kilogram “pebble” from Mars was found, the cost of which in 2012 was 400 thousand euros. That's almost as much as Rembrandt's paintings cost. Today this second largest Martian meteorite is housed in the Natural History Museum in Vienna.
Change of seasons
Just like our Earth, the planet Mars has four seasons, which is due to the tilt of its rotation. But unlike our planet, the seasons on Mars vary in length. The southern summer is hot and short-lived, while the northern summer is cool and long. This is due to the elongated orbit of the planet, due to which the distance to the Sun varies from 206.6 to 249.2 million km. But our planet remains almost the same distance from the Sun all the time.
During the Martian winter, polar caps form on the planet, the thickness of which can range from 1 m to 3.7 km. Their change creates the overall landscape on Mars. At this time, the temperature at the planet’s poles can drop to –150°C, then the carbon dioxide that is part of the planet’s atmosphere turns into dry ice. During this period, scientists observe various patterns on Mars.
In the spring, according to NASA experts, dry ice breaks up and evaporates, and the planet takes on the familiar red color.
In summer, at the equator the temperature rises to +20°C. In mid-latitudes these indicators range from 0°C to –50°C.
Dust storms
The Red Planet has been proven to host some of the most violent dust storms in the solar system. This phenomenon was first noticed by NASA scientists thanks to photographs of Mars sent in 1971 by Mariner 9. When this spacecraft sent back images of the Red Planet, scientists were horrified to see a raging giant dust storm hitting the planet.
This storm never stopped whole month, after which Mariner 9 was able to take clear photographs. The reason for the appearance of storms on Mars is still not clear. Because of them, human colonization of this planet will be significantly difficult.
In fact, sandstorms on the red planet are not so harmless. Small particles of Martian dust are quite electrostatic and tend to attach to other surfaces.
NASA experts claim that after each dust storm, the Curiosity rover becomes very dirty, as these particles penetrate into all the mechanisms. And this is a big problem for the future settlement of Mars by people.
These dust storms form as a result of intense heating from sunlight on the surface of Mars. The heated ground warms the air close to the surface of the planet, and the upper layers of the atmosphere continue to remain cool.
Changes in air temperatures, like on Earth, form large hurricanes. But when everything around is covered with sand, the storm exhausts itself and disappears.
Most often, dust storms on Mars occur in the summer in the southern hemisphere of the planet.
Where does the color red come from?
Even in ancient times, people called Mars the fiery planet because of its characteristic red hue. Modern research allow you to take a large number of photos directly on the surface of Mars.
And in these photographs we also see that the soil of the neighboring planet has a terracotta color. Researchers have always been interested in the reason for this phenomenon, and scientists from Oxford University tried to explain it.
They claim that in ancient times the entire planet was covered by a huge ocean, which subsequently disappeared, leaving Mars as an arid desert planet. But that is not all. It turns out that not all the liquid evaporated from the surface of Mars into space; some of it remains today in the bowels of the planet, which is why it is colored purple.
But NASA planetary scientists have found that there is a lot of iron oxides in the planet’s soil. This is what caused the liquid to disappear from Mars. Due to frequent dust storms, the planet's atmosphere contains large amounts of iron oxide dust, which gives the planet's sky a pinkish tint.
Martian sunset through the eyes of the Spirit rover In fact, Mars is not all covered in rusty dust. In some places on the planet there are even a lot of blue color. Sunsets and sunrises are also blue on Mars. This is due to dust scattered in the planet's atmosphere, which is the complete opposite of the terrestrial illustrations of this diurnal phenomenon.
There are many theories explaining the dissimilarity between the hemispheres of Mars. One very plausible version, recently expressed by scientists, comes from the fact that a huge asteroid fell on the surface of Mars, changing it appearance, making her two-faced.
Based on information provided by NASA, scientists were able to identify a huge crater in the northern hemisphere of the planet. This giant crater is as big as Europe, Australia and Asia combined.
Scientists ran a series of computer simulations to determine the size and speed of an asteroid capable of creating such a massive crater. They suggest that the asteroid could be the same size as Pluto, and the speed at which it flew was about 32 thousand kilometers per hour.
As a result of the collision with such a giant, Mars appeared to have two faces. In the northern hemisphere you can see smooth and flat valleys, and on the southern surface - craters and mountains.
Did you know that on the surface of Mars there is the largest volcano in the solar system? We all know that Everest is the tallest mountain on Earth. Now, imagine a mountain that is a full 3 times higher than it. The Martian volcano Olympus, formed over many years, has a height of 27 km, and the depression at the top of the volcano reaches a diameter of 90 km. Its structure is similar to the terrestrial volcano Mauna Kea (Hawaii).
It appeared on the planet at a time when Mars became a dry, cold planet after being attacked by a large number of meteorites.
The largest volcano on Mars is located in the area of Tharsis (Tharsis). Olympus, together with the volcanoes Askerius and Pavonis and other mountains and small ranges, form a mountain system called the Halo of Olympus.
The diameter of this system is more than 1000 km, and scientists are still arguing about its origin. Some are inclined to prove the existence of glaciers on Mars, others argue that these are parts of Olympus itself, which used to be much larger, but is subject to destruction over time. In this area there are very often strong winds, to which the entire Halo is exposed.
The Martian Olympus can be seen even from Earth. But until space satellites reached the surface of Mars and explored it, earthlings called this place “The Snows of Olympus.”
Due to the fact that the volcano reflects sunlight very well, from a great distance it was visible as a white spot.
The largest canyon in the solar system is also located on the planet Mars. This is the Valles Marineris.
It is much larger than the Earth's Grand Canyon North America. Its width reaches 60 km, length – 4,500 km, and depth – up to 10 km. This valley stretches along the equator of Mars.
Scientists suggest that Valles Marineris formed as the planet cooled. The surface of Mars simply cracked.
But further research made it possible to discover that some geological processes continue in the canyon.
The length of the canyon is so long that in one part of it it may already be day, while at the other end night continues.
Because of this, sudden temperature changes occur, which create constant storms along the entire canyon.
Sky on Mars
If there were inhabitants on Mars, then for them the sky would not be as blue as for us. And they wouldn’t be able to admire the bloody sunsets either. The thing is that the sky on the red planet looks exactly the opposite of what it looks like on Earth. It's like you're looking at the negative.
Dawn on Mars The human eye perceives the Martian sky as pinkish or reddish, as if rusty. And sunsets and sunrises appear blue because the area near the Sun is perceived by the human eye as blue or blue.
Sunset on Mars This is due to the large amount of dust in the atmosphere of Mars, which breaks the rays of the Sun and reflects the opposite shade.
The Red Planet contains two moons, Deimos and Phobos. It's hard to believe, but it's a fact: Mars is about to destroy one of its moons. Compared to Deimos, Phobos is much larger. Its dimensions are 27 X 22 X 18 kilometers.
The Martian Moon named Phobos is unique in that it is located near Mars at a very low altitude, and is constantly approaching its planet, according to scientists, by 1.8 m every hundred years.
NASA scientists have proven that this satellite has no more than 50 million years left to live.
Then a ring is formed from the fragments of Phobos, which will last for many thousands of years, and after that they will fall on the planet as a meteor shower.
Phobos has a large impact crater called Stickney. The crater is 9.5 km wide, which suggests that a huge fallen body simply split the satellite into pieces.
There is a lot of dust on Phobos. Mars Global Surveyor research has established that the surface of the Martian satellite consists of a meter-thick layer of dust, which is a consequence of large erosion of impact craters over a long period. Some of these craters can even be seen in photographs.
It has already been proven that there was water on the planet Mars, which disappeared. Numerous minerals and ancient river beds testify to the planet’s aquatic past.
They could only form in the presence of water. If the planet had a large Martian ocean, what happened to its water? A NASA spacecraft was able to detect a huge amount of water in the form of ice under the Martian surface.
In addition, thanks to the Curiosity rover, NASA scientists have proven that this water was suitable for life on the planet about 3 billion years ago.
Explorers of the surface of Mars have found a large number of hints that the red planet once had rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The amount of their water was the same as in our Arctic Ocean.
Planetologists claim that many years ago the climate of Mars was quite variable, and all the trace elements necessary for the origin of life were found in the remnants of ice found on the planet.
Only the origin of water on Mars remains unknown.
Face on Mars
One of the regions of Mars, Kydonia, has an unusual topography, the structure of which from a great distance resembles a human face. Scientists first discovered it in 1975, when the first spacecraft Viking 1 successfully landed on the surface of the planet, which took several photographs of this unusual phenomenon.
At first, astronomers suggested that the image of the face was direct evidence of the existence of life on the planet and Martians. But more detailed studies have proven that this is just a consequence of the play of light and shadow on the surface of the hill, which gave rise to such an optical illusion. Photos taken again after a period of time and without shadows showed that no face existed.
The relief of the province of Kydonia is so unusual that for some time scientists there could see another optical illusion. It belonged to the pyramids.
In photographs taken from afar, pyramids are indeed visible in this area, but the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft made it clear that this is just a quirk of the natural topography of the planet’s surface.
"Bermuda Triangle" on Mars
Scientists have been exploring Mars for a long time. For this purpose, space stations have repeatedly launched various lethal vehicles to this planet, but only a third of them were able to successfully complete their mission.
From time to time, these spacecraft fall into an anomalous zone in orbit and go out of control, and people receive a large dose of radiation.
Scientists have suggested that Mars has its own " Bermuda Triangle”, which was given the name YAA. The South Atlantic Anomaly is a powerful, silent flash of light and poses a great danger.
Once in the anomalous zone, satellites either break down or disappear altogether.
Due to the fact that Mars does not have ozone protection like the Earth, there is a lot of radiation around it, which interferes with scientific research of the planet.
Scientists suggest that life can exist wherever there is water. And according to one theory, life existed on Mars. After all, NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft discovered huge deposits of ice on this planet.
Channels and coastlines have been found on Mars that indicate that there were oceans. Thanks to the numerous finds of the rover, we can conclude: the Red Planet was inhabited after all.
After extensive research, planetary scientists have discovered organic materials on the surface of Mars. They were located at a depth of only 5 cm. It is assumed that in the Gale crater, where traces of the existence of water were found, there was once a lake. And organic elements indicate that someone lived there.
Research also provides information about what is happening deep inside the planet. biological processes. Although direct evidence of the existence of life on Mars has not yet been discovered, scientists still hope for a number of exciting discoveries.
In addition, some images taken on the surface of Mars have recently revealed some objects that hint at a lost civilization.
Mars is the original source of life on Earth
This statement is hard to believe. This sensational statement was made by American scientist Stephen Benner. He claims that once upon a time, about 3.5 billion years ago, there were much more Better conditions, than on Earth, there is much more oxygen.
According to Benner, the first microorganisms came to our planet through a meteorite. Indeed, boron and molybdenum, which are simply necessary for the emergence of life, were discovered in Martian meteorites, which confirms Benner’s theory.
Who was the first person to see Mars?
Due to its close location to Earth, Mars attracted astronomers even during the existence of Ancient civilization. For the first time, scientists became interested in the red planet Ancient Egypt, as evidenced by their scientific works. Astronomers of Babylon, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, as well as the ancients eastern countries knew about the existence of Mars and were able to calculate its size and distance from it to Earth.
The first person to see Mars through a telescope was the Italian Galileo Galilei. The famous scientist managed to do this back in 1609. Later, astronomers more accurately recalculated the trajectory of Mars, compiled its map and conducted a number of very important studies for modern science.
Mars aroused great interest again in the 60s of the last century, during cold war between the West and the Soviet Union. Then scientists from competing countries (the USA and the USSR) conducted enormous research and achieved incredible results in the conquest of space, including the red planet.
Several satellites were launched from the USSR cosmodromes, which were supposed to land on Mars, but none of them succeeded. But NASA managed to get closer to the red planet much better. The first space probe flew past the planet and took its first pictures, and the second one managed to land.
In the last decade, Mars exploration has intensified significantly. Just look at the project of American businessman Elon Musk, who promised that anyone with a lot of money and no less desire will now be able to fly to Mars.
How long does it take to get to Mars?
Today, the topic of human colonization of Mars is quite often discussed. But in order for humanity to be able to build at least some kind of settlement on the red planet, it first needs to get there.
The distance between Earth and Mars is constantly changing. The greatest distance between these planets is 400,000,000 km, and Mars comes closest to Earth at a distance of 55,000,000 km. Scientists call this phenomenon “the opposition of Mars,” and it happens every 16–17 years. In the near future this will happen on July 27, 2018. This discrepancy is the reason why these planets move in different orbits.
Today, scientists have established that it will take a person from 5 to 10 months to fly to Mars, that’s 150 to 300 days. But for accurate calculations it is necessary to know the flight speed, the distance between the planets during this period and the amount of fuel on the spacecraft. The more fuel there is, the faster the aircraft will deliver people to Mars.
The speed of the spacecraft is 20 thousand km/h. Considering minimum distance between Earth and Mars, then a person will need only 115 days to get to his destination, which is a little less than 4 months. But since the planets are in constant motion, the flight path of the aircraft will differ from the one that many imagine. From here, you need to make calculations that are oriented toward anticipation.
Mars through the eyes of the film industry - films about Mars
The mysteries of Mars attract not only planetary scientists, astrologers, astronomers and other scientists. People of art are also fascinated by the mysteries of the red planet, resulting in a new work. This is especially true for cinema, in which the director’s imagination has room to run wild. To date, many such films have been made, but we will focus only on the five most famous.
Even after the launch of the first space satellite, in 1959, a science fiction film was released on blue screens in the Soviet Union "The Sky is Calling" directors Alexander Kozyr and Mikhail Karyukov.
The film demonstrates the current competition between Soviet and American astronauts during the exploration of Mars. At that time, it seemed to Soviet authors that there was absolutely nothing complicated about this.
In the 1980s, a mini-series based on the novel of the same name by Ray Bradbury appeared in the United States. "The Martian Chronicles" produced by NBC. The modern viewer will be a little amused by the simplicity of the special effects and the naive acting. But this is not the main thing in the film.
The essence of the project is that the filmmakers tried to compare the conquest of space to colonialism, in which earthlings behave like the first Europeans who set foot on American soil and brought a lot of trouble there.
One of the most popular films of the 90s, which raises the theme of traveling to Mars, is the film by Paul Verhoeven "Remember all".
The main role in this action was played by everyone's favorite Arnold Schwarzenegger. Moreover, this role is one of the best for the actor.
In 2000, a film directed by Anthony Hoffman was released. "Red Planet", where the main roles went to Val Kimler and Carrie-Anne Moss.
The plot of this film about Mars tells about the near future of humanity, when the resources for survival on Earth have run out, and people need to find a planet that can provide life for people. According to the scenario, such a planet turns out to be Mars.
The main idea of the film is a call to the inhabitants of our planet to protect the natural resources that the Earth has given us.
In 2015, American director Ridley Scott filmed the legendary novel by Andy Weir "Martian".
Due to a sandstorm, the Mars mission was forced to leave the planet.
At the same time, the team left one of their crew members, Mark Watney, there, considering him dead.
The main character is left completely alone on the red planet, without contact with Earth, and tries to survive with the help of the remaining resources until the next mission arrives in 4 years.
