The presence of a four-chambered heart; 2) upright posture; 3) the presence of an arched foot; 4) presence of nails; 5) S-shaped spine; 6) replacing baby teeth with permanent ones.
a) 1,4,6; b) 3,4,6;
c) 2,3,5; d) 2,5,6;
6.Indicate the units of the Amphibian class–
Order Scaly; 2) order Tailed; 3) squad Predatory; 4) detachment Tailless; 5) Turtle squad; 6) Legless squad.
a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 2, 6;
c) 1, 3, 4; d) 2, 3, 5;
Specify the plants of the Bryophyta department -
Kukushkin flax; 2) male shieldweed; 3) asplenium; 4) sphagnum; 5) Venus hair; 6) Marchantia.
a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 5, 6;
c) 1, 4, 6; d) 2, 3, 4;
8.Which of the listed examples can be classified as aromorphoses?
Development of seeds in gymnosperms; 2) development of a large number of lateral roots in cabbage after hilling; 3) formation of juicy pulp in the fetus mad cucumber; 4) release of odorous substances from fragrant tobacco; 5) double fertilization in flowering plants; 6) the appearance of mechanical tissues in plants.
a) 1, 3, 4; b) 1, 5, 6;
c) 2, 3, 4; d) 2, 4, 5;
9. Indicate the types of hereditary variability –
Mutational; 2) modification; 3)combinative; 4) cytoplasmic; 5) group; 6) specific.
a) 1, 2, 4; b) 1, 3, 4;
c) 1, 4, 5; d) 2, 3, 5;
Paleontological evidence of evolution includes -
Remaining third century in humans; 2) plant imprints on the layers coal; 3) fossilized remains of ferns; 4) the birth of people with thick body hair; 5) coccyx in the human skeleton; 6) phylogenetic series of the horse.
a) 1,4,6; b) 1,3,4;
c) 2,4,5; d)2,3,6;
Part 3. You are offered test tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which
must either agree or reject. In the answer matrix, indicate the answer option “yes” or “no”. Maximum amount points that can be scored are 20 (1 point for each test task).
1 .The material for evolution is natural selection.
2. A collection of plants of the same species, artificially created by man, is called a breed.
3. With an autosomal dominant type of inheritance, the trait occurs in both men and women.
4. The variety of phenotypes that arise in organisms under the influence of environmental conditions is called combinative variability.
5 Allopolyploidy is a multiple increase in the number of chromosomes in hybrids obtained as a result of crossing different types.
6 .When the egg matures, three guiding bodies are formed for each full-fledged cell.
7. The cavity inside the blastula is called the blastomere.
8. In spermatogenesis in the growth phase, the number of chromosomes and DNA molecules is 2n4c.
9. Code unit genetic code is a nucleotide.
10. The Krebs cycle occurs on the mitochondrial membrane.
11. A plant cell contains semi-autonomous organelles: vacuoles and plastids.
12. A centromere is a section of a eukaryotic DNA molecule.
13. The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on its functional activity.
14 .Protozoan cells lack a cell wall.
15. The most common monosaccharides are sucrose and lactose.
16. According to the type of nutrition, the adult toothless fish is a biofilter.
18. Fish lack the ability to accommodate.
19. Most of the cambium cells are deposited towards the wood.
20. If the flowers are collected on the lateral axes, then such inflorescences are called complex.
Part 4: Match. The maximum number of points you can score is 25.
Establish a correspondence between a plant trait and the department to which it belongs
Signs of the plant Division
A. B life cycle gametophyte 1 dominates. Bryophytes
B. The life cycle is dominated by the sporophyte 2. Gymnosperms
B. Reproduction by spores
D. The presence of a well-developed root system
D. Formation of pollen grains.
Establish a correspondence between the example and the environmental factor.
Examples Environmental factors
A. Chemical composition water 1. abiotic factors B. Plankton diversity 2. biotic factors
B. Humidity, soil temperature
D. Presence of nodule bacteria on legume roots
D. Soil salinity.
Establish a correspondence between the features of the processes of protein biosynthesis and photosynthesis
Features of processes Processes
A. Ends with the formation of carbohydrates 1. protein biosynthesisB. Starting substances - amino acids2. photosynthesis
B. It is based on matrix synthesis reactions
D. Starting substances – carbon dioxide and water
D. ATP is synthesized during the process.
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Answer matrix 11th grade
Part 1.
| b | b | A | b | G | V | A | A | V | b |
| A | G | V | G | G | V | G | b | b | b |
| V | A | G | b | G | V | G | A | G | G |
| b | A | V | A | b |
Part 2.
| d | G | b | b | V | d | V | b | b | G |
Part 3.
| - | - | + | - | + | + | - | + | - | - |
| - | - | + | + | - | + | - | + | + | + |
Part 4.
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Maximum points –100
Tests
151-01. What distinguishes an ape from a human?
A) general plan of the building
B) metabolic rate
B) the structure of the forelimbs
D) caring for offspring
Answer
151-02. How does an ape differ from a human?
A) the structure of the hand
B) differentiation of teeth
IN) general plan buildings
D) metabolic rate
Answer
151-03. Humans, unlike mammals, have developed
A) conditioned reflexes
B) second signaling system
B) sense organs
D) caring for offspring
Answer
151-04. Man is distinguished from great apes Availability
A) caring for offspring
B) first signal system
B) second signaling system
D) warm-blooded
Answer
151-05. A person, unlike animals, having heard one or several words, perceives
A) a set of sounds
B) location of the sound source
B) the volume of sounds
D) their meaning
Answer
151-06. Humans, unlike apes, have
A) diaphragm
B) S-shaped spine
B) grooves and convolutions in the telencephalon
D) stereoscopic color vision
Answer
151-07. Human speech differs from “animal language” in that it
A) provided by the central nervous system
B) is congenital
B) arises consciously
D) contains information only about current events
Answer
151-08. Humans and modern apes are similar in that
A) speak
B) capable of learning
B) capable of abstract thinking
D) make stone tools
Answer
151-09. The differences between humans and apes associated with their work activities are manifested in the structure
A) arched foot
B) S-shaped spine
B) larynx
D) brushes
Answer
151-10. How are humans different from chimpanzees?
A) blood groups
B) learning ability
B) genetic code
D) ability for abstract thinking
Answer
151-11. In humans, unlike other animals,
A) the second signaling system is developed
B) cells lack a hard shell
B) there is asexual reproduction
D) two pairs of limbs
Answer
151-12. In humans, unlike other representatives of the class of mammals,
A) the embryo develops in the uterus
B) there are sebaceous and sweat glands
B) there is a diaphragm
D) the cerebral part of the skull is larger than the facial part
Answer
151-13. The similarities between apes and humans are
A) the same degree of development of the cerebral cortex
B) identical proportions of the skull
B) the ability to form conditioned reflexes
D) ability for creative activity
Introduction
In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, in his System of Nature (Systema Naturae), classified humans - Homo sapiens - as one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order in the class mammals. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: prosimians (including lemurs and tarsiers) and higher primates. The latter include apes, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. Primates share many common characteristics that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man as a species separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient species of apes that lived in trees and were most similar to modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient ape turned into Homo sapiens thanks to work - “labor created Man.”
Similarities between humans and monkeys
The relationship between humans and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. The similarity between human and monkey embryos remains for a very long time. Specific (species) human characteristics arise only at the very latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship between humans and animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: the coccygeal bone (the remnant of a reduced tail); fold in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); fine body hair (fur residue); a process of the cecum - appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include the external tail, with which people are very rarely born; abundant hair on the face and body; multiple nipples, highly developed fangs, etc.
A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was discovered. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes, homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins the amino acid sequences differed by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
The DNA of humans and chimpanzees contains at least 90% of similar genes.
Differences between humans and monkeys
True upright walking and associated structural features of the body;
- S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low widened pelvis;
- chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction;
- legs elongated compared to the arms;
- arched foot with massive and adducted big toe;
- many features of the muscles and location of internal organs;
- the hand is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous brow ridges;
- the cerebral part of the skull dominates to a large extent over the facial part (high forehead, weak jaws);
- small fangs;
- the chin protuberance is clearly defined;
- human brain approximately 2.5 times more brain apes by volume and 3-4 times by mass;
- a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only humans have articulate speech, and therefore they are characterized by the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.
Walking on two legs
Upright walking is the most important sign of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupeds, or, as they sometimes say, “four-armed.”
Some apes (baboons) have adapted to a terrestrial existence, but they walk on all fours like the vast majority of mammal species.
Great apes (gorillas) are primarily terrestrial dwellers, walking in a partially upright position, but often supported by the backs of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, wide flat feet and short toes, the originality of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped curve of the spine that shock-absorbs when walking, a special shock-absorbing connection between the head and the spinal column.
Brain enlargement
An enlarged brain puts Man in a special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average brain size of a chimpanzee, the brain modern man three times more. In Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, it was twice as large as in chimpanzees. Man has much more nerve cells and their location changed. Unfortunately, fossil remains of skulls do not provide sufficient comparative material to assess many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between brain enlargement and its development and upright posture.
Structure of teeth
The transformations that have occurred in the structure of teeth are usually associated with changes in diet ancient man. These include: reduction in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. the gap that includes the protruding canines in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior section has a rounded shape, and the lateral sections expand outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
During hominid evolution, brain enlargement, changes in cranial articulations, and dental transformation were accompanied by significant structural changes various elements skulls and faces and their proportions.
Differences at the biomolecular level
The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their relationships with other primate families. The methods used include: immunological analysis, i.e. comparison of immune response various types primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which allows one to estimate the degree of relatedness by the degree of matching of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different species;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, therefore, the proximity of these species is assessed by the mobility of the isolated proteins in electric field;
Protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of a given protein. The listed methods showed a very close relationship between species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, one protein sequencing study found that the differences in DNA structure between chimpanzees and humans were only 1%.
Traditional explanation of anthropogenesis
The common ancestors of apes and humans - gregarious monkeys - lived in trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused a restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arched spinal column S-shaped, which gave it flexibility and shock absorption. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of shock absorption during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which provided greater stability to the body when walking upright (lowering the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed over fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became more free and varied, and their functions became more complex.
The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand proceeded through the natural selection of mutations useful for work activity. The first tools were hunting and fishing tools. Along with plant foods, higher-calorie meat foods began to be used more widely. Food cooked over fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys, lost its importance and gradually disappeared during the selection process. The intestines became shorter.
The herd lifestyle, as labor activity developed and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and oral apparatus of monkeys into human speech organs. The root cause of the emergence of language was the social and labor process. Work, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. A higher education system was being formed nervous activity, and articulate speech developed.
The transition to upright walking, a herd lifestyle, a high level of development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which they developed and improved work activity, speech and thinking.
Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossils of Australopithecus afarensis have been discovered in Omo (Ethiopia) and Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but erect chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was similar to that of apes: with a low forehead, a supraorbital ridge, a flat nose, a cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth had gaps, apparently because they were used as tools for grasping.
Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth approximately 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. It probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors have suggested that it was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. The lower part of the face protruded forward, but not as much as in apes. Some skulls show traces of the occipital crest, to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but casts indicate that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from that of apes. In terms of the relative size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant food, but perhaps also gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest record of Africanus is a 5.5-million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegama in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Findings indicate that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.
Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better physically developed than Australopithecus africanus. As we have already said, some authors believe that both of these "southern monkeys" are males and females respectively of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to Africanus, it had a larger and flatter skull, which accommodated a larger brain - about 550 cc. cm, and a wider face. Powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which moved the massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of Africanus, and the molars were larger. At the same time, the molars of most specimens known to us are usually very worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel. This may indicate that the animals ate solid, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves where they were probably dragged by predatory animals. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Beuys's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that it was the ancestor of the gorilla.
Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg, small incisors designed for biting and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked upright. With their powerful physique they resembled a gorilla. As with gorillas, males were apparently significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Beuys's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, Beuys's crest was smaller and more forward, his face was flatter, and his fangs were less developed. Because of its huge molars and premolars, this animal received the nickname “nutcracker.” But these teeth could not exert strong pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Beuys, which is 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could have used the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a person who succeeded in using stone tools.
A little criticism of classical ideas about the origin of Man
If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and the intestines relative to the body are almost twice as long as those of carnivores? The jaws of prezinjanthropes were already significantly reduced, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?
When there is danger, birds fly into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge in trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with slow movement and the absence of tools other than pathetic sticks and stones, escape from predators?
M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev openly include the mysterious reasons for the loss of hair in people as unresolved problems of anthropogenesis. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys retain their fur. Why did our ancestors lose it?
Why did a cap of hair remain on a person’s head while it was being reduced on most of the body?
Why does a person’s chin and nose protrude forward with the nostrils turned down for some reason?
The speed of transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens), as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia, is incredible for evolution. Biologically this is inexplicable.
A number of anthropological researchers believe that our distant ancestors were australopithecines who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but australopithecines were land monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees they lived in savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time as him. There is evidence that Australopithecines, who lived in West Africa 2 million years ago, were hunted by ancient people.
The similarity of many anatomical and physiological features testifies to the relationship between great apes (anthropoids) and humans. This was first established by Charles Darwin’s colleague, Thomas Huxley. After conducting comparative anatomical studies, he proved that the anatomical differences between humans and higher apes are less significant than between higher and lower apes.
In appearance Humans and apes have much in common: large body sizes, long limbs in relation to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In internal structure It should be noted that there is a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of a vermiform appendix of the cecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc. The timing of puberty and the duration of pregnancy in apes is almost the same as in humans.
An exceptionally close similarity is noted in biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, diseases. Apes in the wild easily become infected by humans. Thus, the reduction in the range of the orangutan in Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan) is largely due to the mortality of monkeys from tuberculosis and hepatitis B acquired from humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for the study of many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans. 48 in chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutan), their shape and size. Much in common primary structure such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.
However, there are also significant differences between humans and anthropoids, largely due to human adaptation to walking upright. The human spine is S-shaped, the foot has an arch, which softens shaking when walking and running (Fig. 45). When the body is in a vertical position, the human pelvis takes on the pressure of the internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the pelvis of anthropoids: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the hand. The human thumb is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of varied and subtle movements. Anthropoids, due to their arboreal lifestyle, have hook-shaped hands and a grasping type of foot. When forced to move on the ground, apes rely on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully erect position.
Differences between anthropoids and humans are observed in the structure of the skull and brain. The human skull does not have bone ridges and continuous brow ridges, the brain part predominates over the facial part, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, the fangs are small, and there is a chin protrusion on the lower jaw. The development of this protrusion is associated with speech. Monkeys, on the contrary, have a highly developed facial part, especially the jaws. The human brain is 2-2.5 times larger than the brain of apes. The parietal, temporal and frontal lobes, in which the most important centers of mental functions and speech are located, are highly developed in humans.
Significant differences lead to the idea that modern apes could not be the direct ancestors of humans.
|
Similarities |
Features of difference |
Conclusion |
|
1. Large body size. 4. Similar skull structure. 5. Well developed head 7. We support the same people "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days. |
2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. various movements. |
6. HYPOTHESIS OF “CHIPANZOIDITY” OF THE HOMINID ANCESTOR. FETALIZATION HYPOTHESIS OF PAIN. COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANS AND APEES. QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCE OF HUMAN FROM REST OF THE ANIMAL WORLD.
The most common point of view is that evolution
the human line took no more than 10 million years, and the ape ancestor
the hominid had features similar to chimpanzees, was essentially a “chimpanzee-
similar." This position is substantiated by biomolecular and ethological
technical data. On a family tree built on the basis
molecular facts, humans find themselves in the same cluster with chimpanzees
ze, while the gorilla occupies a separate independent branch.
As a “model ancestor” of human and chimpanzoid lichens,
Some anthropologists consider the pygmy chimpanzee -
bonobo (Pan paniscus) - a small pongid from the Equatorial jungle
Africa, discovered by the American scientist G. Coolidge in 1933. However
There is another view of bonobos - as a specialized form,
acquired dwarf body dimensions and a number of associated characteristics in
conditions of isolation.
Several possibilities can be raised against the “chimpanzoid hypothesis”:
injuries. Since there is a discrepancy between the rates of genetic, chromo-
somatic and morphological evolution, biomolecular similarity of human
century and chimpanzees is not in itself a sufficient basis for
in order to attribute a chimpanzoid morphotype to a common ancestor or
method of locomotion.
A purely biological concept of human evolution was put forward in 1918 by the anatomist L. Bolk. It is called the “fetalization hypothesis.” According to L. Bolk, a person is like an “immature” monkey. Many characteristics of an adult human - a large brain relative to a small face, the absence of hair on the body and its presence in the form of hair on the head, weak pigmentation in some races - correspond to those of the chimpanzee embryo. The phenomenon of slow development (retardation) of the embryo is known in many animals. The loss of life cycle in animals of the adult stage, when the larva reproduces, is called neoteny. Thus, a person, according to L. Bolk, is a sexually mature embryo of a monkey (for more details, see: Kharitonov V.M., 1998. pp. 119-121). This concept has been subject to serious criticism. For example, a slowdown in development cannot explain the large absolute size of the human brain. It is now clear that the provisions of the fetalization hypothesis cannot be taken literally. However, the comparative material collected by L. Bolk cannot be rejected, and the ideas of evolution due to embryonic changes find their followers.
A comparison of anatomical features convincingly suggests that the human body is nothing more than the body of an ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs. Our arms and shoulders are not much different from the arms and shoulders of chimpanzees. However, unlike apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright (Great apes can stand on two legs, only bending your knees, and walk on your feet, staggering from side to side.)
Adapting our feet to this new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs on our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, when bent over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need when making and using tools. Walking on two legs, more developed intelligence and a varied diet - all this contributed to the emergence of differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth in humans and apes.
Compared to body size, the human brain and cranium are much larger than those of the monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its comparatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech. The jaws of modern omnivores are significantly shorter and weaker than those of great apes, which eat a largely vegetarian diet. Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that support the protruding snout in adult monkeys. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dental rows of apes arranged in the shape of the Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of the molars are much higher than ours. But human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows them to chew harder food. Differences in the structure of the tongue and pharynx between humans and chimpanzees allow us to produce a greater variety of sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.
|
Similarities |
Features of difference |
Conclusion |
|
1. Large body size. 2. Lack of tail and cheek pouches. 3. Facial muscles are well developed. 4. Similar skull structure. 5. Well developed head brain, especially the frontal lobes, big number convolutions in the cerebral cortex. 6. Similar in Rh factor and blood groups (ABO). 7. We support the same people "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days. 9. More than 95% similarity of genes. 10. High level of development of higher nervous activity. 11. Similarities between the stages of embryogenesis |
1. Only humans are capable of true upright walking. 2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. 3. Flexible hand and movable human fingers ensure precise and various movements. 4. The human brain has a complex structure, the average volume is 1350 cm 3 (for a gorilla - 400 cm 3). 5. The person is capable of articulate speech |
Man is a biosocial being occupying a high level of evolutionary development, possessing consciousness, speech, abstract thinking and capable of social work. |
The qualitative difference between humans and other representatives of the animal world.
One of the main differences between man and animal is his relationship with nature. If an animal is an element of living nature and builds its relationship with it from the position of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not simply adapt to the natural environment, but strives to subjugate it to a certain extent, creating tools for this. With the creation of tools, human lifestyle changes. The ability to create tools to transform the surrounding nature indicates the ability to work consciously. Labor is a specific type of activity inherent only to humans, which consists in influencing nature in order to ensure the conditions of one’s existence.
The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only together with other people. This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of performing them a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e. his work activity became possible only as a result of his involvement in the system of relationships with other people. Thus, any work, even one that seems at first glance to be purely individual, requires cooperation with other people.
Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities. These differences were that, firstly, the association primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is characteristic to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e. through collective work.
Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level of development of communication between members of the community. The higher the level of development of communication between members of a community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. So, highest level human communication - speech - has determined a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of words. A person who is able to communicate using words to shape his behavior or ideas about real world there is no need to come into physical contact with objects around it. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.
It should be noted that it was precisely the characteristics of human communities, consisting in the need for collective work, that determined the emergence and development of speech. In turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since human thought always has a verbal (verbal) form. For example, a person who, by a certain coincidence of circumstances, ended up in childhood with animals and grew up among them, does not know how to speak, and the level of his thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of modern man.
Thirdly, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable for the normal existence and development of human communities. The collective nature of work and the development of communication not only entailed the development of thinking, but also determined the formation of specific laws of existence and development of the human community. These laws are known to us as the principles of morality and ethics. At the same time, it should be emphasized that such a logical sequence is only a hypothesis presented from a rationalistic position. Today there are other points of view on the problem of the emergence of human consciousness, including those presented from irrational positions. This is not surprising, since there is no consensus on many issues in psychology. We give preference to the rationalistic point of view not only because similar views were held by the classics of Russian psychology (A.N. Leontiev, B.N. Teplov, etc.). There are a number of facts that make it possible to establish the patterns that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans.
First of all, you should pay attention to the fact that the emergence of consciousness of the fifth person, the appearance of speech and the ability to work were prepared by the evolution of man as biological species. Upright walking freed the forelimbs from the function of walking and contributed to the development of their specialization associated with grasping objects, holding them and manipulating them, which generally contributed to the creation of the ability for humans to work. At the same time, the development of sense organs occurred. In humans, vision has become the dominant source of information about the world around us.
We have the right to believe that the development of sense organs could not occur in isolation from the development nervous system in general, since with the emergence of man as a biological species, significant changes are noted in the structure of the nervous system, and especially the brain. Thus, the volume of the human brain is more than twice the volume of the brain of its closest predecessor, the great ape. If the average brain volume of an ape is 600 cm 3 , then in a human it is 1400 cm 3 . The surface area of the cerebral hemispheres increases in an even greater proportion, since the number of convolutions of the cerebral cortex and their depth in humans are much greater.
However, with the advent of man there is not only a physical increase in the volume of the brain and the area of the cortex. Significant structural and functional changes in the brain occur. For example, in humans, compared to the apes, the area of projection fields associated with elementary sensory and motor functions has decreased in percentage terms, and the percentage of integrative fields associated with higher mental functions has increased. Such a sharp growth of the cerebral cortex and its structural evolution are primarily associated with the fact that a number of elementary functions, which in animals are carried out entirely by the lower parts of the brain, in humans already require the participation of the cortex. There is further corticalization of behavior control, a greater subordination of elementary processes to the cortex compared to what is observed in animals. It should also be noted that the nature of structural changes in the human brain was affected by the results of the evolution of motor organs. Each muscle group is closely associated with specific motor fields of the cerebral cortex. In humans, motor fields associated with a particular muscle group have different areas, the size of which directly depends on the degree of development of a particular muscle group. When analyzing the ratios of the size of the area of motor fields, attention is drawn to how large the area of the motor field associated with the hands is in relation to other fields. Consequently, the human hands have the greatest development among the organs of movement and are most associated with the activity of the cerebral cortex. It must be emphasized that this phenomenon occurs only in humans.
Thus, the complex structure that the human brain has and which distinguishes it from the brain of animals is most likely associated with the development of human labor activity. This conclusion is classic from the point of view of materialist philosophy. However, we will not focus our attention on theoretical disputes, but will only note that the emergence of consciousness in humans as the highest of known forms development of the psyche became possible due to the complication of the structure of the brain. In addition, we must agree that the level of development of brain structures and the ability to perform complex work operations are closely related. Therefore, it can be argued that the emergence of consciousness in humans is due to both biological and social factors. The development of living nature led to the emergence of man, who has specific body structure features and a more developed nervous system compared to other animals, which generally determined man’s ability to engage in work. This in turn led to the emergence of communities, the development of language and consciousness, i.e. that logical chain of patterns discussed above. Thus, work was the condition that made it possible to realize the mental potentials of the biological species Homo Sariens.
It must be emphasized that with the advent of consciousness, man immediately stood out from the animal world, but the first people, in terms of the level of their mental development, differed significantly from modern people. Thousands of years passed before man reached the level modern development. Moreover, the main factor in the progressive development of consciousness was labor. Yes, with the acquisition practical experience, with evolution public relations work became more difficult. Man gradually moved from the simplest labor operations to more complex types of activity, which entailed the progressive development of the brain and consciousness. This progressive development testifies to the social nature of consciousness, which is clearly manifested in the process of development of the child’s psyche.
7. AUSTRALPITHECINES: GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY OF DISTRIBUTION. MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF MASSIVE AND GRACIAL AUSTRALOPITHESIS. RECONSTRUCTION OF A WAY OF LIFE ACCORDING TO DATA OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. MAIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THIS TAXON.
Autralopithecines are considered the oldest hominids. The earliest finds date back to 6-7 million years ago in Toros Menalla (Republic of Chad). The latest dating is 900 thousand years ago - finds of massive australopithecines in Svartkranes ( South America). The first skeletal remains of Australopithecines were discovered in 1924 in southern Africa, which is reflected in the name (from the Latin “australis” - southern and the Greek “pithekos” - monkey). This was followed by numerous finds in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Afar Desert, etc.). Until recently, the oldest (age 3.5 million years) skeleton of an upright human ancestor was considered to be a female skeleton, which is known throughout the world as “Lucy” (found in Afar in the 1970s).
The area of settlement of Australopithecines is also very large: all of Africa south of the Sahara and, possibly, some territories to the north. As far as is known, Australopithecines never left Africa. Within Africa, Australopithecus sites are concentrated in two main areas: East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia) and South Africa. Isolated finds were also made in North Africa; Perhaps their small number is due more to the burial conditions or poor knowledge of the region, rather than to the actual distribution of australopithecines. It is clear that within such a wide time and geographical framework, natural conditions changed more than once, which led to the emergence of new species and genera.
Australopithecus gracile.
Fossils have been discovered in multiple localities in Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. gracile australopithecus.
Gracile australopithecines were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from the gait of a person. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Along with the fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these features can only be an inheritance from ancient ancestors. Like the early members of the group, the gracile australopithecus had a very ape-like skull, combined with the rest of the skeleton that was almost modern. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of apes in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between that of a small ape and that of a very large human.
During the day, Australopithecines roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening they climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecines lived in small herds or families and were capable of moving quite long distances. They ate mainly plant foods, and usually did not make tools, although they were not far from bones one of the types Scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them.
The most famous finds are from the Hadar site in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized traces of upright walking creatures were discovered in the same layers from which the remains of Australopithecus afarensis are known. In addition to Australopithecus afarensis, other species probably lived in East and North Africa between 3 and 3.5 million years ago. In Kenya, a skull and other fossils were found in Lomekwi, described as Kenyanthropus platyops(Kenyanthropus flat-faced). In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro, a single jaw fragment was discovered, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali(Australopithecus bahr el-ghazal). At the other end of the continent, in South Africa, numerous fossils known as Australopithecus africanus(Australopithecus africanus). The first discovery of an Australopithecus belonged to this species - the skull of a cub known as "Baby of Taung". Australopithecus Africanus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile Australopithecus - dated to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bouri and named Australopithecus garhi(Australopithecus gari).
Massive Australopithecus.
The oldest stone tools are known from several sites in Ethiopia - Gona, Shungura, Hadar - and date back to 2.5-2.7 million years ago. At the same time, new species of hominids arose that had a large brain and were already classified in the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late australopithecines that deviated from the line leading to humans - the massive australopithecines.
Paranthropus were large - weighing up to 70 kg - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their lifestyle was somewhat reminiscent of the lifestyle of modern gorillas. However, they retained a bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In the layers with Paranthropus, stone tools and bone fragments were found, which hominids used to tear up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.
Paranthropus relied on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with Paranthropus, the remains of the first representatives of hominins were found - the so-called “early Homo"– more advanced hominids with large brains.
The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalea and Omo. They date back to about 2.5 million years ago and are called Paranthropus aethiopicus(Paranthropus Ethiopian). Later massive australopithecines from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi Fora - with dates ranging from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus boisei(Beuys' paranthropus). In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Drimolen Cave - are famous Paranthropus robustus(Paranthropus massive). Massive paranthropes were the second open view Australopithecus. When examining the skull of Paranthropus, one notices the huge jaws and large bone ridges that served to attach the chewing muscles. The maxillary apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first discovered skull of this species even received the nickname “Nutcracker” due to the size of the teeth.