Modern Russian spelling is based on the Code of Rules published in 1956. The rules of the Russian language are reflected in Russian grammars and spelling dictionaries. Special school spelling dictionaries are published for schoolchildren.
Language changes as society changes. Many new words and expressions, both our own and borrowed, appear. The rules for writing new words are established by the Spelling Commission and recorded in spelling dictionaries. The most complete modern spelling dictionary was compiled under the editorship of the spelling scientist V.V. Lopatin (M., 2000).
Russian spelling is a system of rules for writing words.
It consists of five main sections:
1) transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters;
2) continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts;
3) the use of upper and lowercase letters;
4) transferring part of a word from one line to another;
5) graphic abbreviations of words.
Spelling sections
- This large groups spelling rules associated with different types difficulties in conveying words in writing. Each section of spelling is characterized by certain principles underlying the spelling system.
Principles of Russian spelling
Modern Russian orthography is based on several principles. The main one is MORPHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE, the essence of which is as follows:
morpheme
(significant part of the word: root, prefix, suffix, ending) maintains a single lettering
, although during pronunciation the sounds included in this morpheme may change.
Yes, root bread in all related words it is written the same, but pronounced differently depending on the place in the word occupied by the vowel or consonant sounds, cf.: [hl"ieba], [hl"bavos]; console under- in the words file and knock down the same, despite different pronunciations, cf.: [ptp"il"it"] [padb"it"]; the adjectives mocking and boastful have the same suffix -liv- ; unstressed ending and percussion are designated the same: in the table - in the book, big - great, blue - mine and so on.
Guided by this very principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the morpheme is in strong position(under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), i.e. would be clearly marked.
Role morphological principle in orthography is great, if we keep in mind that in the Russian language there is a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations, due to various reasons.
Along with the morphological one, it also acts PHONETIC PRINCIPLE, according to which words or parts thereof are written as they are pronounced
.
For example, prefixes on h change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before the voiced consonant, the letter is heard and written in the prefixes h (without-, through-, from-, bottom-, times-, rose-, through-, through-), and before the voiceless consonant in the same prefixes the letter is heard and written With , cf.: object - exclaim, beat - drink, overthrow - send down and so on.
The operation of the phonetic principle also explains the writing of vowels O - e after sibilants in suffixes and endings different parts speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on stress, cf.: a scrap - a knife, a brocade - nomadic, a candle - a cloud and so on.
Root vowel And after Russian prefixes the consonant becomes s and is designated by this letter also in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. written as it is heard and pronounced: background, pre-July, prank, play out and so on.
Also valid in our spelling HISTORICAL, or TRADITIONAL PRINCIPLE, according to which words are written the way they were written before, in the old days .
So, spelling vowels And , A , at after the hissing ones - this is an echo of the most ancient state phonetic system Russian language. The same principle is used to write vocabulary words, as well as borrowed. Such spellings can only be explained using the historical laws of language development as a whole.
Exists in modern spelling And PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIATED WRITING (semantic principle), Whereby words are written depending on their lexical meaning , cf.: burnt(verb) and burn(noun), company(group of people) and campaign(any event) ball(dance evening) and point(unit of assessment).
In addition to those mentioned in the spelling, it is necessary to note PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS, HYPHEN AND SEPARATE WRITING: Difficult words we write together or with a hyphen, and combinations of words - separately.
To summarize, we can say that the variety of rules of Russian orthography is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.
Russian spelling
Russian spelling- a set of rules governing the spelling of words in the Russian language.
Modern Russian spelling.
The main principle of modern orthography of the Russian language is the morphological principle (the same morpheme in phonetically different forms the words are spelled the same). Phonetic and other principles in the Russian language are of significantly less importance and are not fundamental. Simultaneous violations of both principles occur in words like non-shear, bad taste.
The alphabet used is the Russian alphabet, based on the Cyrillic alphabet.
Story
Initially, individual spellings dominated the language. One of the earliest works on the theory of spelling is the work of V.K. Trediakovsky, published in 1748, where the principles of constructing the alphabet and spelling are formulated, to which even the modern Russian alphabet corresponds well. M. V. Lomonosov in “Russian Grammar”, published in 1755, became widespread and long years used to teach the Russian language, published spelling rules and such fundamental principles as ease of reading for everyone, proximity to the three main Russian dialects, proximity to morphology and pronunciation: 12-15. The first academic dictionary of the Russian language was published in 1784-1794.
Enough full review spelling rules in their historical perspective were implemented by J. K. Grot in 1873. He considered the main principle to be morphological in combination, to some extent, with phonetic written forms. Subsequently, the primacy of the morphological principle (as opposed to phonetic) in Russian spelling was pointed out by A. N. Gvozdev, A. I. Thomson, M. N. Peterson, D. N. Ushakov: 17-30.
In 1904, a special commission on spelling was created at the Academy of Sciences. Its subcommittee, which included such famous scientists as A. A. Shakhmatov, F. F. Fortunatov, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A. I. Sobolevsky, began preparing the spelling reform. The final draft of the reform was ready by 1912, the proposed changes were implemented six years later, during the Russian Spelling Reform of 1918: 262-263. Until 1918, the Russian alphabet consisted of more letters than now. As a result of the reform of 1918, the letters yat, fita, izhitsa, and decimal were removed from the endings of words.
In 1956, the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation of 1956 were adopted, which changed the spelling of some words and regulated the use of the letter.
Subsequently, under the leadership of V.V. Lopatin, some changes to the rules were put forward, partially reflected in the spelling dictionary edited by him.
The most important rules
Spelling vowels at the roots of words
Unstressed vowels that can be checked by stressst O ly - st O l
m O l O doy-m O lodost, they say O day
To O rowa, to O role, region A ko, b O lotto
In the roots And - And
C And rk, c And rkul, ts And tata, ts And nga, ts And fra... and in other borrowed words
Exception words: ts s gan on ts s kidneys approached the c s film and c s nodded: "ts" s ts".
In suffixes and endings - ts s - s
Lisitsyn, Kuritsyn; streets
1) w And, w And - And
h A, sch A - A
h at, sch at - at
AND And know, h A now, h at before …
2) After hissing - e:
H e ryny, w e light, w e lx, h e little mouth...
Exception words: O w O h, w O rokh, hood O n, crush O n, kryzh O got into it, w O sse, sh O colada, w O kay, obzh O ra, prozh O rliv, w O ngler, h O porno, chattering O tka, slum O ba, sh O mouths, w O rnik, sh O mpol, w O vinism, w O k, w O ra, thicket O ba, h O whipped, h O repent, h O x, h O hom, w O m, f O r, f O x, evening O r, maj O r, maj O rn.
Alternating e - and, o - a in the root of the word1) b e r - b And pâ-
T e r - t And pâ-
d e r - d And pâ-
P e p - p And pâ-
m e r - m And pâ-
st e l - st And lâ-
bl e st - bl And stâ-
and e g - f And gâ-
d e Ryot - sd And roars
st e pour - frozen And flies
mind e r - mind And army
bl e stit - bl And becomes
Exception words: op. e tanning, op. e smoldering, verb e melting
2) K O s - to A sâ-
l O f - l A gâ-
To O dream - to A sit down
izl O zhenie - izl A get out
Exception word: floor O G
3) P O With - O
R A st - r A sch - A
vyr O s, exp A sti, vyr A whelped
Exception words: ROdrain, POstislav, ROstov, rOstockman, neg.Awith
4) M O k - m A To
you m O kick in the rain
m A drop into liquid
5) P O vn - r A vn
R O vny - p A prominent
(smooth - identical)
vyr O heed - ur A opinion
Exception word: R A vnina
6) g O r - g A R
zag Ár, g O rit
7) h O r - z A R
h A rya, s O ri, z A roar
Spelling consonants in root words
Voiceless and unpronounceable consonants, which can be checked by changing the word or choosing a single root, in which after the consonant being checked there is a vowel or v, l, m, n, r, th1. Table b- table b s
jelly d b - jelly d And.
2. Gla h ki - gla h prostrate
ska h ka-ska h points
3. Zdra V Hello - hello V no
months T ness - month T O.
Yo and O after hissing
- Always e: (noun) bees, bangs, rosary, acorn, brush; (adj.) yellow, black, clear, silk; (verb) walked.
- Exception words: (noun) seam, rustle, hood, gooseberry, shock, shorts, chauvinism, slum, saddler, choh, pulp, zhor, glutton, burn, ramrod, cruchon, rattle, thicket, major; (adj.) gluttonous, prim, crazy, major; (verb) to clink glasses; (adv.) chokhom, evening.
In the suffix:
- Usually it is written o under stress, without stress - e: (noun) gulch onok, bunny onok, mouse onok, bear onok, circle OK, wolf OK and the bell ek; (adj.) hedgehog ov oh, brocade ov oh, canvas ov y and beige ev y; (adv.) hot O, fresh O, good O and smelly e.
- However: (verb) demarcation yev to come; (adv.) burnt yonn oh, fascination yonn y.
- Exception word: yet e.
At the end:
- Usually, with an accent it is written o, without an accent - e: (noun) knife ohm, candle Ouch, doctor ohm and the watchman eat, dacha to her; (adj.) more Wow and good his.
- However: (verb) guard yeah, LJ yeah, oven yeah.
Difficulties
Among the difficulties of mastering Russian spelling:
- The combined or separate spelling of nouns with a prefix that turn into adverbs is not regulated strict rules, and is determined by the dictionary ( satiated, But to death; in half, But by thirds; in addition, But Finally, on dry land, But by sea).
- Writing O or e after the hissing and ts inconsistent: arson(noun) at set fire(verb), pot at potter.
- The rule of writing “not” with verbs has many exceptions: to hate, to hate, to dislike, to dislike, to receive less and etc.
- Writing forms of the word “go” (root - And-) is defined only by the dictionary: go, But come And I'll come. The same with root forms - them-/-eat-/-I-: I'll understand, But I'll accept, I'll take it And I'll take it out.
- Unpronounceable but verifiable consonants are sometimes written, sometimes not written, without any special system: “sun”, “hello”, but “pull”, “led”, “potter”.
- A double consonant at the junction of a prefix and a root is sometimes reflected in the letter, sometimes not, without a special system: “pull out”, “ring out”, “vestibule”, but “open”, “open”.
- A number of exceptions in the spelling "tsi"/"qi" ( number, But chick), verb conjugation with alternation A/O fundamentally ( grow, But increased; jump, But burn out; bow, But to worship), writing double n in full adjectives and participles, etc.
Features of spelling complex words
Some complex words violate the rules of Russian graphics:
- words like “Hitler Youth” and “Inyaz” (read “Hitler Youth” and “Inyaz”);
- words like “telyavivets”, “kostyutil” and “beletazh” (read “telyavivets”, “kostyutil” and “beletazh”).
Criticism
The spelling of the Russian language has been repeatedly criticized by various writers and scientists. A number of opinions were collected by J. K. Grot in the book “Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present” (1873). Y. K. Grot himself defended the letter yat, considering it important for distinguishing words, despite the fact that in the capital's dialects of the oral Russian language such words were not distinguished. The changes to the writing norm that were proposed in this book were very moderate, not affecting frequently used cases with already established spellings. However, for comparatively rare words(for example, “ham”, “wedding”, “cuttlefish”) there was a violation of the morphological nature of their writing (instead of “vyadchina”, “wedding”, “cuttlefish”).
V.V. Lopatin suggested writing in words like loaded, dyed, fried, shorn, wounded always the same n regardless of whether they have syntactically subordinate words or not.
see also
Notes
Literature
- Panov M. V. And yet she is good! : A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages / USSR Academy of Sciences .. - M.: Nauka, 1964. - 168 p. - (Popular science series). - 35,000 copies.(region)
- Grigorieva T. M. Three centuries of Russian spelling (XVIII - XX centuries). - M.: Elpis, 2004. - 456 p. - 1,000 copies. - ISBN 5-902872-03-0(in translation)
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58. Principles of Russian spelling, spelling
SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. Main sections of spelling:
- writing morphemes in different parts of speech,
- merged, separate and hyphenated spelling words,
- use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
- hyphenation.
Principles of Russian spelling. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single outline in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.
Also, based on the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a certain grammatical form. For example, b ( soft sign) formal sign of the infinitive.
The second principle of Russian orthography is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are written the same way they are heard. An example would be the spelling of prefixes with з-с (mediocre - restless) or a change in the root of the initial and ы after prefixes ending in a consonant (to play).
There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (noun) - burn (verb)) and a traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).
Spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2 or more are possible different spellings. It is also a spelling that follows the rules of spelling.
A spelling rule is a rule for spelling the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on language conditions.
59. Consumption uppercase and lowercase letters.
uppercase letter | lowercase letter |
| - Written at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, text (I want to go for a walk. When I do my homework, I will go outside.) - Written at the beginning of direct speech (She said: “Please come in.”) | - It is written in the middle and at the end of the word (mother, Russia). - It is written in the middle of a sentence if the word does not represent a proper name or some kind of name (He arrived late at night). |
| Written with a capital letter | Written with a lowercase letter |
Names of institutions and organizations, incl. international ( The State Duma, United Nations), | - names of ranks, ranks (Lieutenant Popov), - words comrade, citizen mister, mister, etc. (Mr. Brown, citizen Petrov) |
60. Word hyphenation rules
- Words are transferred syllable by syllable (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
- You cannot separate a consonant from the following vowel (ge-ro"y),
- You cannot leave a part of a syllable on a line or move part of a syllable (push-tyak, pus-tyak - correct; pust-yak (incorrect),
- You cannot leave or transfer one vowel on a line, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya - correct; a-na-to-mi-ya - incorrect),
- You cannot tear off ь (soft sign) and ъ ( solid sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
- The letter does not break away from the previous vowel (district),
- When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (sister, sister, sister); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable in which the morphemes are not parsed (pod-zhat).
61. Spelling vowels in the root.
If the root vowel is in a weak (unstressed) position, then in writing the problem of choosing which letter to write arises.
- If you can find a related word or change the word so that this vowel is stressed, then such a vowel is called verifiable. For example, pillars - one hundred foreheads; to reconcile (friends) - mi"r.
- If an unstressed vowel cannot be verified by stress, then such vowels are called unverifiable, and the spelling of words with such vowels must be memorized or checked in a spelling dictionary (potato, elixir).
- The Russian language has a number of roots with alternating vowels. As a rule, the vowel that is heard is written under stress; The choice of a letter in an unstressed position depends on certain conditions:
- from accent:
Gar-gor: with an accent it is written a (zaga"r, razga"r), without an accent - o (tanned, burn), exceptions: vy"garki, i"zgar, smoldering;
Zar-zor: without stress it is written a (zarnitsa, illuminate), under stress - what is heard (zarka, zareva), exception: zareva;
Klan-clone: without emphasis it is written about (bow, bow), with emphasis - what is heard (bow, bow);
Creation - creation: without emphasis it is written about (create, creation), with emphasis - what is heard (creativity, creature), exception: at "creation;
- from subsequent letters or combinations of letters:
Kaskos: if the root is followed by a consonant n, then it is written o (touch, touch), in other cases it is written a (tangential, touch);
Lag-lozh: before g it is written a (adjective, adjective), before w it is written o (application, offer), exceptions: po "log;
Rast- (-rasch-) - grew: before st and sch it is written a (grow", nasar"shchivag), before s it is written o (za"rosl, grown up), exceptions: o"brass", rostok"k, you "rostok, usurers" k. Rosto"v;
Skak-skoch: before k it is written a (jump), before h it is written o (jump “jump”), exceptions: jump “k, jump”;
- From the presence or absence of the suffix -a- after the root:
Ver-vir-, -der-dir, -mer- world, -per- pir, -ter- tier, -blest- blest, -zheg-zhig, -steel- became, -reads: before the suffix -a- it is written and (collect, light, lay), in other cases it is written e (bleat, light), exceptions; combine, combination;
Roots with alternation a (ya) - im (in): before the suffix -a- it is written im (in) (jam, clamp), in other cases it is written a(ya) (jam, clamp) ;
- from value:
Mak-mok: -mak- is used in the meaning of “immerse in liquid, make wet” (dipping bread in milk), -mok - in the meaning of “passing liquid” (shoes get wet);
Equal: -ravt- is used in the meaning of “equal, identical, on par” (to become equal), -rovn - in the meaning of “even, straight, smooth” (level, level);
- -float-float-float: o is written only in the words swimmer"ts and plavchi"ha, y - only in the word quicksand, in all other cases it is written I (lavu"honor, float"k).
62. Spelling of vowels after sibilants and C.
- After the hissing consonants zh, ch, sh, shch, the vowels a, u, i are written, and the vowels i, yu, y (thicket, bold) are never written. This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and complex abbreviated words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interjury Bureau).
- Under stress after sibilants it is written in, if you can find related words or another form of this word where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then o (clink glasses, rustle) is written.
- It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words.
- A fluent vowel sound under stress after a hissing sound is indicated by the letter o (sheath - nozho "n).
Spelling vowels after c.
- At the root, after c, u are written (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, on tiptoes, tsyts, chicks are their cognate words.
- The letters i, yu are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich).
- Under stress after c it is written o (tso "kot").
Vowel selection; and or e.
- In foreign words it is usually written e (adequate); exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives.
- If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved even after prefixes or a cut with the first part of a compound word (save, three-story).
- After the vowel it is written e (requiem), after the other vowels - e (maestro).
The letter is written at the beginning of foreign words (yod, yoga).
63. Spelling of consonants in the root.
- In order to check dubious voiced and voiceless consonants, you need to choose a form or related word so that these consonants are in a strong position (before a vowel or sonorant (l, m, i, r)) sound: fairy tale - say.
- If a dubious consonant cannot be verified, then its spelling must be remembered or found out in a spelling dictionary. ;
- Double consonants are written:
- at the junction of morphemes: prefix and root (tell), root and suffix (long),
- at the junction of two parts of compound words (maternity hospital),
- in words that need to be remembered or identified in a spelling dictionary (reins, yeast, burning, buzzing, juniper and words with the same root; words of foreign language origin (for example, group, class) and derivatives from them (group, class). - In order to check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants, having a combination of letters branches, zdn, ndsk, ntsk, stl, stn, etc. it is necessary to choose a word with the same root or change the form of the word so that after the first or second consonant there is a vowel (sad - sad, whistle - whistle); exceptions: shine (although “shine”), ladder (although “ladder”), splash (although “splash”), flask (although “glass”).
64. Spelling of prefixes.
- The spelling of some prefixes must be remembered; they do not change under any circumstances (convey, carry, enter, etc.). The same prefixes include the prefix s-, which is voiced before voiced consonants in speech, but does not change in writing (to run away, to do).
- In prefixes on e-s (without- - bes-, voz (vz) - - vos- (vs-), iz- - is-, niz- - nis-, raz- (ros-) - races (ros- ), through- (through-) - worm- (cross-)) is written z before eaon-, kimi consonants or vowels (anhydrous, flare up), and before voiceless consonants it is written s (boundless, rise).
- It is particularly difficult to write the prefixes pre- - pri-. Basically, their difference is based on their lexical meaning.
The prefix is used to mean:
- high degree of quality (it can be replaced with the words “very”, “very”): exaggerated (= “very enlarged”), preinteresting (= “very interesting”);
- “through”, “in a different way” (this meaning is close to the meaning of the prefix pere-): transgress (= “to step over).
The prefix is used to mean:
- spatial proximity (suburban, border);
- approaching, joining (to approach, to sail);
- incomplete action (cover, pause);
- bringing the action to the end (nail, tap);
- performing an action in someone else's interests (hide).
In some words, the prefixes pre- and pre- are not emphasized and the spelling of such words must be remembered: abide (meaning “to be in some place or state”), despise (meaning “hate”), neglect, president (the word foreign language origin); device, order, charity (meaning “care”), etc.
4. If the prefix ends with a consonant, and the root begins with the vowel and, then instead of and it is written ы (pre-June, play); exceptions:
- compound words (pedagogical institute), -collect,
- prefixes inter- and super- (inter-institute, super-interesting),
- the word "double-pulse", etc.
- foreign language prefixes dez-, counter-, post-, super-, trans-, pan- (counterplay, subindex).
65. Spelling of separators b and b Spelling of separator b (hard sign).
1. The separating ъ (hard sign) is written before the vowels e, e, yu, i:
- after a prefix ending in a consonant: entrance, detour;
- in words of foreign language origin after prefixes ending in a consonant (ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, per-, trans-) or after the compound particle pan- : adjutant, trans-European;
- in compound words, the first part of which is the numerals two-, three-, four-: two-tier, three-story;
2. This rule does not apply to complex abbreviated words: children.
Spelling of the separator ь (soft sign).
The separating ь (soft sign) is written:
- inside the word before the vowels e, e, yu, i: peasant, blizzard;
- in some words of foreign origin before the letter o: medallion, champignon.
Spelling of vowels after sibilants and ts in suffixes and endings.
1. In the endings and suffixes of nouns, adjectives and suffixes of adverbs, under stress after hissing and c, o is written, without stress - e (knife "m, big" go, book "n", kontsom"m, okol'tso"vy-vat; BUT ekila "jewel, p"look for, ry"zhego, merchants, okoltseva".
2. After hissing words, ё is written under stress:
- at the endings of verbs (neighing, lying),
- in the suffix of the verb -yovyva- (to uproot),
- in the noun suffix -ёr- (trainee),
- in the suffix of verbal nouns -yovk- (uprooting),
- with suffix passive participles-yon(n)-(struck, harnessed),
- in the suffix verbal adjectives(burnt) and in words derived from these adjectives (zhzhenka),
- in the pronoun about what,
- nothing to do with words.
66. Spelling of nouns.
Spelling of endings in nouns:
- in masculine and neuter nouns, in which before case ending a vowel is written and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending is written -i; For feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.l. and P.p.; I.p. police, genius, blade R.p. police, genius, blade D.p. police, genius, blade V.p. police, genius, blade, etc. police, genius, blade P.p. about the police, about the genius, about the blade
- in neuter nouns in -ye in P.p. without stress it is written e, and under stress - i: about happiness, in oblivion;
- in nouns ending in -ni with a preceding consonant or and in Rod.p. plural ь (soft sign) is not written at the end: bedroom - bedrooms; exceptions: young ladies, villages, hawthorns, kitchens.
- in nouns ending in -ov, -ev, -ev, yn, in, denoting Russian surnames, in Tv.p. The singular ending is written -im, and in nouns na-ov, -in, denoting foreign surnames. -end: Ivanov, but Darwin.
- nouns in -ov, -ev, -ii, yn, -ovo, -ino, yno, denoting the names of settlements, have in the like. ending -th: near Lvov, beyond Khotkov;
- if a noun with the suffix -ish- is masculine or neuter, then the ending is written -e, if feminine - -a: a swamp is a swamp, but a hand is a hand;
- animate nouns with suffixes - ushk-, -yushk-, -im-, -ishk- masculine and feminine nouns with the same suffixes in I.l. have the ending -a: dolyushka, grandfather; inanimate masculine nouns and neuter nouns with these suffixes have the ending -o: bread, little house;
- in neuter nouns after the suffix -a- the letter o is written: chisel, and in animate masculine and neuter nouns - a: crammed.
Spelling of noun suffixes:
1. If the suffix -ik- (-chik-) is written in a noun, then it is also preserved in indirect cases, and if the suffix -ek- (-chek-) is written, then in indirect cases e alternates with a zero sound (cf.: piece - piece, finger - finger);
2. In masculine nouns the suffix -ets- is written, in feminine nouns - the suffix -its-, and in neuter nouns the suffix is written -ets- if the stress falls on the ending and -its- if the stress falls on the syllable before the suffix ( cf.: handsome man (m.b.) - beauty (f.b.) - letter" (m.b.) - dress;
3. The diminutive suffix -ink-is written in nouns formed from feminine nouns ending in -ina (scratch - scratch, straw - straw); BUT in words denoting female persons (for example, refugee, Frenchwoman) the combination -eik- is written (there is no diminutive meaning);
4. The combination -enk- is also written in words formed from nouns ending in -na or -nya, and not having ь (soft sign) at the end of the word in the genitive plural (cherry - cherries - cherry);
note: if nouns with -na, -nya have a plural ending in ь (soft sign) in the genitive case, then the combination is written -enk- (kitchen - kitchens - kitchenette);
5. In the affectionate suffixes -oniye- (written after hard consonants) and -enk- (written after soft consonants, less often - after hard ones) after n is written ь (soft sign) (for example, kisonka, Nadenka),
note: in modern Russian the suffixes -ynye-, -other-, -ank- do not exist, words with such suffixes are found only in works of art up to the 19th century inclusive and in folklore (for example, lolosynka, Nadinka; cf. modern striped, Nadenka), Exceptions: good girl, zainka, bainki (suffix -others-);
6. The suffix -yshk is written in neuter nouns (sun-sun, feather-feather); the suffix -ushk- is written in masculine and feminine nouns (neighbor - neighbor, head - little head); the suffix -yushk-is written in nouns of all genders, formed from the nouns pine with a soft consonant (field - pole, uncle - uncle); some masculine nouns are formed using the suffixes -yshek-, eshek-, ush- (wedges, pegs, pellets, pimples, sparrows; pebble, edge; the words sparrow, pebble are used in folk, colloquial speech);
7. With nouns denoting people by the type of their activity, the suffix -chik- is written before the consonants d, t, a, s, zh (translator, librarian, defector, etc.), and in all other cases the suffix -schik- is written. (compositor, layout designer);
note 1: in some words of foreign origin the suffix -schik- (flute maker, asphalt worker) is written after t.
note 2: ь (soft sign) is written before the suffix -schik- only after the consonant l (roofer),
note 3: if the stem ends with the consonants k, ts, ch, then before the suffix -chik- they are replaced with the consonant t (distribution - distributor);
8. In many female patronymics one hears [ishna], but is written -ichna (Ilyinichna, Fominichna).
67. Spelling adjectives. Spelling the endings of adjectives.
declension of qualitative and relative adjectives; declension of possessive adjectives with a stem ending in j (for example, fox, bear); declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in-, (-y-), -ov- (-ev-): Lisitsyn, mamin.
In plural the endings of all genera are the same.
| 1 type | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | cheerful, early | cheerful, early | fun, early |
| pl. number | cheerful, early | |||
| Type 2 | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fox | fox | fox |
| pl. number | I.p. | fox | ||
| Type 3 | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | father, sister | father's, sister's |
| pl. number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | ||
Note: accusative adjectives in masculine the singular coincides with the genitive case if the adjective refers to an animate noun or pronoun, and with the nominative case if the adjective depends on inanimate noun or pronouns.
- Russian male surnames starting with -ov (-ev), -in (-yn) in the instrumental case of the singular have the ending -ym (like short adjectives): Pushkin - Pushkin.
- Geographical names ending in -ov, -ev, -yno, -ino, -yn, -in, -ovo, -evo, in the instrumental case of the singular have the ending -om: under the city of Pushkin.
- The adjectives zagorodny, mzhduzhdus-ny, podaorodny, suburban have endings -й (-я, -ов) in the nominative singular case, and the adjective non-resident-endings - “и (-я, -ов).
- Adjectives starting with -yiny in short form have the ending - “n (slim - slender), exception: worthy - worthy;
- It is possible to have two spellings and pronunciations of the adjective endless (-yaya, -ee) - endless (-aya, -ov).
Spelling of suffixes imvn adjectives:
1. Under stress the suffix -iv- is written, without stress - the suffix -ev- (cf.: beautiful - combative), Exceptions: merciful, yuro marvelous;
2. With the suffixes -chiv-, -liv- it is always written and (ugly, arrogant);
3. The suffixes -ovat-, -ov-, -ovit- are written after hard consonants, and after soft consonants, after sibilants and c, the suffixes -evat-, -ev-, -vvit- are written (cf., greenish, business - glossy , bluish);
4. In adjectives ending in -chy, formed from nouns ending in -shka, a is written before h under stress, without stress - e (cf. frog: frog "chiy - frog" shechy);
5. Before the suffix -or- the letter u is written if the sound it denotes belongs to the same morpheme (for example, board - plank); if in the generating stem the letters ad, s, st, w appear before the suffix -k-, then they are preserved in the new word, and k alternates with h (freckle - freckled);
6. If the base ends with ts, and the suffix begins with h, then ts alternates with t (tile - tiled);
7. Spelling of the suffix -sk-:
- if the stem ends in d or t, then before the suffix -sk- they are preserved (flesh - carnal, cattle - bestial);
- if the stem ends in k, ch, c, then after them the suffix -sk- is simplified and becomes simply -k-, and k and ch change to c (fisherman - fisherman, weaver),
note: in some adjectives the alternation of k, ch with c does not occur (Tajik - Tajik, Uglich - Uglich):
- if the stem of a word of foreign origin ends in sk, then before the suffix -sk- k is omitted and the combination sec is obtained (San Francisco - San Francisco),
Exceptions: Basque, Oscan;
- if the stem ends in s, then it is omitted and only the letter combination sk is written (Welsh-Welsh),
- if the stem ends in se, then one with is omitted, since in the Russian language there cannot be a combination of trbx identical consonant letters (Odessa - Odessky);
- if the stem ends in -н or -рь, then before the suffix -к-ь (the soft sign is omitted),
Exceptions: ь (soft sign) is written
- in adjectives formed from the names of months (July - July),
- in adjectives formed from some foreign geographical names (Taiwanese),
- in combination day-to-day,
8. Before the suffix -and- final the consonants k, c turn into h, and x - into sch (boredom - boring, turmoil - hectic);
Spelling n and nn in adjective suffixes:
| 1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -in: swan; 2. In adjectives formed with the help of suffixes -an- (-yan-): leather, silver), Exceptions: wooden, glass, tin. 3. 8 short adjectives if full adjectives, from which they are derived, have -n- (slender - slender). | 1. In adjectives formed using the suffix -enn: straw, 2. In adjectives formed using the suffix -ONN: organizational, 3. In adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from the stem on n: sleepy, long. 4. In short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -in- (long - long). |
Note 1: N is written in adjectives: spicy, crimson, red, drunk, ruddy, young, green, windy, pork.
Note 2: It is written windy, but windless.
Note 3. It is necessary to distinguish between the adjectives oily (for oil, on oil) and oily (stained, soaked in oil); compare: oil stain - oily hands.
Note 4. It is necessary to distinguish between the adjectives windy (day, person), windy (pump) and windy (chicken pox).
68. Spelling difficult words.
1. Compound words can be formed using two simple stems connected by a connecting vowel o (written after the stem on a hard consonant) or e (written after the stem on a soft consonant, hissing or c): whirlpool, birdcatcher.
2. Spelling complex words without a connecting vowel:
- it is necessary to distinguish between complex words formed with the help of a connecting vowel (locomotive) and without it (psychasthenia;
- numerals in the genitive case are part of compound words without a connecting vowel (three-story, two-year);
- prefixes of foreign language origin are written together with the root: anti-, archn-, hyper-, inter-, infra-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, extra-Anti-national, ultra-important, counterattack);
- words in -fication are not complex; this combination of letters is preceded by and (gasification).
3. Spelling of compound nouns:
a) written together:
- compound nouns with the first part: auto-, agro-, aero-, bicycle-, helio-, geo-, hydro-, zoo-, io-, cinema-, stereo-, radio-, macro-, etc. (cinema, stereo system, radio station);
- compound nouns with the first part of the verb ending in and (deriver, daredevil),
Exception: tumbleweed;
- all compound words (Sberbank, Baltic Fleet).
b) written with a hyphen
- complex nouns without a connecting vowel, denoting scientific, technical and socio-political terms and names (stop crane, prime minister);
- names of intermediate cardinal directions (southeast, northwest);
- complex owls, denoting names of plants containing a verb in personal form or a conjunction (coltsfoot, love-not-love);
- words with foreign language elements: chief-, untv-, life-, staff-, vice-, ex- (vice-president, non-commissioned officer).
4. Spelling compound adjectives: a) written together:
- adjectives formed from complex nouns written together (stereosystem - stereosystem);
- compound adjectives formed from phrases where one word is subordinate to another ( Railway- railway);
- complex adjectives representing scientific and technical terms or belonging to bookish styles of speech (highly paid, thick-skinned, above);
- complex adjectives, the first part of which cannot be used in speech as an independent word;
b) written with a hyphen:
- adjectives formed from compound nouns written with a hyphen (southeast-southeast);
- complex adjectives formed from a combination of proper names (jack-londonovskiy, petr-petrovichev);
- compound adjectives formed from combinations of words with equal members connected coordinating connection(convex-concave);
- compound adjectives denoting shades of colors (pale pink, blue-brown);\
- compound adjectives denoting geographical or administrative names and having the first part of the words west-, south-, -ogo-, north-, north-, east- (East European Plain).
69. Spelling of numerals.
- Complex numerals are written together (thirty);
- Compound and fractional numbers are written separately (forty-five, three-sevenths);
- Ordinal numbers that end in -thousandth, -millionth, -billionth are written together (thirty-thousandth);
- The numerals five-nineteen and twenty, thirty are written with ь (soft sign) at the end, and the numerals fifty - eighty, five hundred - nine hundred ь (soft sign) are written in the middle of the word between two stems;
- There are two forms: zero and zero. The second is used in terminological meaning in indirect cases; both forms are found in stable expressions.
- The numeral gender is written as part of a compound word
- through a hyphen if the second part of the word begins with a vowel or with l (half a liter, half a watermelon), or if it is a proper noun (half Russia);
- together, if the second part of a complex word begins with a consonant letter (except l): half a kilogram;
- separately if it has an independent meaning and is separated from the noun by the definition: half a teaspoon.
Note: the numeral semi- in compound words is always written together: half-breed, half-naked.
Spelling of numeral endings.
1. Declension of cardinal numbers:
The numeral one is declined in the same way as a singular adjective:
The numerals two, three, four have special case endings:
The numerals five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten and the numerals ten and two are declined in the same way as third declension nouns:
| I. p. R. p. D. p. V. p. etc. P. p | six | thirty |
The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred have a special declension (the accusative case coincides with the nominative case, in other cases - the ending -a):
In quantitative compound numerals, each word is declined:
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half have a special declension:
3. Collective numbers are declined in the same way as plural adjectives:
4. Declension of ordinal numbers:
Ordinal numbers are declined in the same way as adjectives of the first type:
For compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes when declension:
70. Spelling pronouns.
1. Spelling of negative pronouns:
- under stress it is written not, and without stress - neither, (cf., kikto" - not "who, not at all" - not "how much);
- if negative pronouns do not have 48 prepositions, then they are written together, and if there are, then in three words (cf.: someone - no one, nothing - for nothing),
- combinations of none other than, nothing else, have the meaning of opposition and are written separately, and combinations of none other, nothing else have this meaning of opposition and therefore are written together (cf. This can be resolved by none other than the school principal. - no one else could do it better.).
2. Spelling of indefinite pronouns:
- indefinite pronouns containing the particles some-, some-, -that, -or-, - are written with a hyphen (someone, something, anyone),
- if a preposition follows a particle, then the pronoun is written in three words (some with someone, some because of someone).
71. Spelling verbs.
Spelling verb endings.
1. Depending on the personal endings, verbs are divided into two large groups: verbs of I and II conjugations.
The II conjugation includes:
- verbs in -it (except for the verbs shave, lay, build, which belong to the first conjugation),
- 7 verbs in -et (twist, see, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure),
- 4 verbs ending in -at (to melt, breathe, hold, hear).
Personal endings of verbs in the present or future past tense:
2. There are several differently conjugated verbs that do not belong to either of the two conjugations: want, run, eat, create, give.
| units 1st person read, take 2nd person read, take The third person reads, takes plural | Want want wants We want | I'm running you're running let's run run are running | eat eat eating Let's eat eat eat | I'll create you will create will create Let's create let's create will create | give give it will give Let's give let's give |
3. If a verb with the prefix obez- (obes-) is transitive, then it is conjugated according to the II conjugation, and if intransitive, then according to the I conjugation (for example, compare the conjugation of the verbs to weaken (someone) and to weaken (yourself).
4. In verbs of the first conjugation in the form of the future tense the ending is written -“ those, and in the form of the imperative mood - the ending - ite (cf.: You will send this letter tomorrow. - Send this document urgently.)
b (soft sign) in verb forms.
1. b (soft sign) is written:
- in the infinitive (to write, to wish, to want, to wash),
- in the endings of the 2nd person singular of the present or simple future tense (choose, wash, do, wash),
- in the imperative mood (correct, hide), BUT lie down, lie down,
- in a reflexive particle that comes after a vowel (bent, turned, come back);
2. b (soft sign) is not written:
- in the form of the 3rd person singular present or simple future tense (washes, does).
Spelling verb suffixes
1. If in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yu(-yu), then the suffixes -ova-, -eva- are written in the infinitive and in the past tense (manage - manage, was in charge, war - fight, fought );
if in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yu, -ivayu, then the suffixes -ыва-, -iva- (I impose - impose, imposed) are written in the infinitive and in the past tense.
2. Verbs ending in -five, -vayu have the same vowel before the suffix -va- as in the infinitive without this suffix (extend - prolong).
Exception: if the adjective begins with a vowel, then the preposition in is written separately (openly),
- if the nouns from which the adverbs are derived are not used independently in the modern Russian language (locked up, to pieces),
- adverbs with spatial meaning, formed from nouns such as distance, height, beginning, etc. (away, first)
note: if a sentence contains an explanation for a noun, then such words are no longer adverbs, but combinations of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (from the beginning of the book),
- if it is impossible to put a definition between the prefix-preposition and the noun from which the adverb is formed, but if this can be done, then these words are a combination of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (cf.: to exhaust completely - to come to the horse corridor):
4. Adverbs are written with a hyphen:
- if they are formed using the prefix po- from full adjectives or adverbs ending in -oma, -em, -ni, ii (in my opinion, no-old, in Russian, in a cat’s way),
- if they are formed using the prefix v-(vo-) from ordinal numbers (firstly, secondly, thirdly),
- if they are formed by repeating the same adverb or by adding synonymous words (barely, quietly);
5. Adverb combinations are written separately:
- if they consist of nouns with a preposition between them (with gas to the eye, shoulder to captivity),
- if they are combinations with prepositions without, before, on, with, etc. (without holding back, on the run, right away),
- if the noun in this combination has retained some meaning case form(abroad, in good faith),
- if the adjective from which the adverb is formed begins with a vowel, then the preposition in is written separately (openly).
74. Spelling prepositions.
The spelling of prepositions must be memorized or checked in a spelling dictionary. Sometimes, to correctly spell a word, it is very important to determine whether it is a preposition or not.
- Complex prepositions iechza, from under, due to, etc. are written with a hyphen. (due to illness, due to steel);
- The following prepositions are written together: in view of, instead of, like, over, as a result of (due to absence, like a hole), BUT include in a consequence;
- Prepositions such as in form, in connection, etc. are written separately.
- The prepositions in continuation, during, as a result have an e at the end (during the lesson), BUT during the river.
75. Spelling conjunctions.
1. Written together:
- union so that (He asked me to come early.); it is necessary to distinguish between the conjunction so and the combination of the pronoun and the particle that (Whatever you say, I don’t believe you);
note: remember! through thick and thin,
- conjunctions too and are also written together (Are you also/will you also go to the concert?); it is also necessary to distinguish between conjunctions, also with combinations of a pronoun with a particle (the same) and an adverb with a particle (also): if the particle can be omitted or placed in another place in the sentence, then these combinations are written separately (You brought the same), and me too.);
- particles of something, something, or, -ka, -de, -s, -tka, -tko, -so (yes, someone, give it, he is, enough),
Spelling particles NOT with different parts of speech
| Part of speech | apart |
|
| noun | 1. if without is not used (ignorant, adversity), 2. if you can find a synonym without not (untruth - lie, foe - friend), | 1. if there is or is implied opposition; not a friend, but an enemy), 2. in an interrogative, it is assumed with a logical emphasis on negation (Your father put you here, didn’t he? |
| adj. | 1. if the base is not used (careless, nondescript). 2. if you can find a synonym without (not small - big, gvmslody - old), 3. if there is a contrast with the conjunction but (the river is not yaubok, but cold), 4. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are written in a non-continuous form, low - low) | 1. if there is or is implied opposition with the conjunction a (not big, small), 2. with relative adjectives(the sky is southern here) 3. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are derived are not written separately (the book is not interesting, but boring) |
| number | with indefinite and negative pronouns without prepositions (several, no one, something) | always written separately (not three, not seventh) |
| pronoun | with other categories of pronouns (not in my class, not on our floor) | |
| verb | if without it is not used (to hate, to be perplexed) note: verbs like nedomostat are written together, since they include a single prefix nedo-, | with all other verbs (not to know, to cry |
| gerundish | if without not not used (hating, perplexed) note: gerunds formed from verbs with a prefix are not written together, just like verbs (overlooked) | with all other participles (not knowing, for crying) |
| participle |
| having given communion | if full participles do not have dependent words with them (unattended student) | 1 . if full participles have dependent words (a student who did not arrive on time), 2. with short participles ( test papers not verified) if there is or is supposed to be opposition (not finished, but just started work) |
| adverb | 1 . if without is not used (ridiculously, carelessly), 2. adverbs ending in -o, -e, if you can find a synonym for white not (not stupid - smart) | 1. adverbs ending in -o, -e, if there is or implies opposition (not funny, but sad), 2, adverbs ending in -o, -e, if they have explanatory words not at all, not at all, far from not at all (not funny at all). 3. if the adverb is written with a hyphen (not in Russian) |
Spelling particles NOT and NI
Guided by this very principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.
The role of the morphological principle in spelling is great, if we keep in mind that in the Russian language there is a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations due to various reasons.
Along with the morphological one, it also acts phonetic principle, according to which words or parts of them are written as they are pronounced. For example, prefixes with z change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before a voiced consonant, the letter z is heard and written in prefixes ( without-, through-, from-, bottom-, times-, rose-, through-, through-), and before the voiceless consonant in the same prefixes the letter s is heard and written, cf.: object - shout, beat - drink, throw down - send down and so on.
The action of the phonetic principle also explains the writing of vowels o - ё after sibilants in suffixes and endings of different parts of speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf.: kloch OK- but zhichek, brocade o in y - koche vo y, candle Ouch- the one whose and so on.
The root vowel and after Russian consonant prefixes turns into ы and is denoted by this letter, also in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. written as it is heard and pronounced: background, pre-July, prank, play out and so on.
There is also a historical, or traditional, principle at work in our spelling, according to which words are written as they were written before, in the old days. Thus, the writing of vowels and, а, у after sibilants is an echo of the most ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written using the same principle. Such spellings can only be explained using the historical laws of language development as a whole.
Exists in modern spelling and principle of differentiated writing(semantic principle), according to which words are written depending on their lexical meaning, cf.: burn (verb) and burn (noun), company (group of people) and campaign (any event), ball (dance evening) and score (unit of assessment).
In addition to those mentioned in the spelling, it is also necessary to note the principle of continuous, hyphenated and separate writing: we write complex words together or with a hyphen, and combinations of words - separately.
To summarize, we can say that the variety of rules of Russian orthography is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.
Spelling vowels in the root
Tested unstressed vowels
In the unstressed position, the same vowel is written in the root as in the corresponding stressed syllable of the same root word: reconcile (peace) - try on (trying on), weed (weeding) - burn out (fuse), sing (sing) - wash down (wash down), rinse (rinse) - caress (caress), shine (light) - dedicate (holiness), tremble (shiver) - irritate (tease), dry up (dry out) - excise (cut), winter (winter) - earth (on the ground), cast (led) - ghost (see), flutter (wind) - develop (development), reluctantly (paper clip) - grinding teeth (creaking), etc.
In some cases, this verification technique cannot be used, since different spellings of cognate words are explained by their relevance to different languages. Thus, unstressed partial vowel combinations ra, la ( gate, cut, reins, head, cloud, eke out and so on) are always written with the letter a - these are words of Old Slavonic origin; in Russian roots such combinations correspond to the full vowels oro, olo ( gate, short, furrows, head, drag).
You cannot check the unstressed vowel o in the roots of perfective verbs with imperfective forms. In the words zat to drink, to be late, to swallow, to split, but to drink and others, the vowel o is checked by cognate words p about the ass, throat, two, then peeps, although there are verbs to flood, to be late, to swallow, to bifurcate.
This rule does not apply to foreign words, since in them the tested and tested vowels can refer to morphemes of different origins. So, in the word accompaniment e ment the suffix -ement is of French origin, and in the verb accompaniment and sleep suffix -irova- - German. Wed: subscriber e ment - subscribe, engagement e ment - engage; words intellect and gentius and int e lect in Latin are formed from different stems of the same root.
Exercise 1. Place stress in words and explain the spelling of unstressed vowels, choosing related words with stressed vowels.
Flagellate, favor, far away, recover, late, shabby, single, slaughter, harden, sing, wear out, break up, reign, lecture hall, stucco, miner, boil , anvil, pile up, pour in, whale, softening, take off, old-timer, cautious, be surprised, encouraged, clothed, go away, compact, pay, generous.
Exercise 2
1. The sea after the storm was still breathing cold and did not allow the sun to pour in the air. When a thick cloud floated on the sun, the heat intensified. The th...kick first kicked among the low h...lms, then straight and strongly pushed upward, through the dense, bushy walnut forest (Nag.). 2. In nature, animals, birds, insects are divided into day and night. Have people, in whom all nature is gathered, in the relatively short time of their existence on earth smoothed out this fundamental difference in themselves? (Priv.). 3. Mikhail pulled out his lips and tried to imitate the nightingale (Alex.). 4. The music that I heard in childhood changed in me, hardened...and those of its flights to the sky, to the stars, from which I once cried, dissolved... rushed into the heart (Ast.). 5. At midnight, a heavy rumble came over the city...the house. The wind blew through the window, blew up the curtains and rushed off again (Paust.). 6. The pike...darted, the fisherman...fell into the ice...water, but did not let go of the spear, disappeared under the...water, surfaced near the ice, climbed out...and pulled out his mouth ...fresh pike (Prishv.).
Unchecked unstressed vowels
There are many words in the Russian language whose root vowels cannot be checked by stress. The spelling of such words is determined by a spelling dictionary. This includes both native Russian and borrowed words. Here are some of them: aborigine, antagonism, badminton, beefsteak, grease, lobby, vinaigrette, bagpipes, range, delicacy, airship, demagogue, dependency, initiative, bondage, cannonade, burner, criminology, holster, koschei, macaque, waste paper, obsession, charm, opportunity, optimism, panorama, eulogy, privilege, front garden, plasticine, confusion, tunnel, utilitarian, Esperanto.
Exercise 3. Rewrite by inserting the missing letters. Check the spelling of words with missing vowels in a dictionary.
I. 1. The... narely turned her pretty f... frail head, tilting it down and to the side (Kupr.). 2. Sometimes the quiet song of the k...noplyanka (M. G.) joined these loud voices of the birds. 3. Green garlands of oak leaves, mixed with bouquets of asters, g...orgins, l...vkoevs and g...zdiki, wrapped around the steel body of the car (Kupr.). 4. Everything was occupied by the gypsies, who brought a whole bunch of horses covered with p...ponies (Bui). 5. The cruiser is gone. Only a cloud of steam and smoke swirled thickly over the place, to... t... stanza (N.-Prib.). 6. The time will come (and it is not far off), the Russian language will begin to be studied in all regions of the globe (A.T.) 7. The sea surrounded the shore with continuously rotating shafts (Bun. ). 8. The forest is generous with entertainment. Either a squirrel will jump from branch to branch, or, with a deafening flapping of its wings, a grater will break out of the nut bush (Sol.). 9. We went down into the depths and, as soon as we found water, we immediately stopped among the oak woodlands (Are.). 10. The moon had already disappeared behind the close horizon of black mountains, which were visible to the right, and cast a weak and trembling half-light on their tops, sharply opposed to the impenetrable darkness that covered their soles (L. T.).
II. Av...kado, alg...rhythm, b...kalavr, gl...diator, d...ndrary, k...n...paty, m...rinist, prokl... mation, v...n...greta, g...relief, zab...tinting, k...l...ncha, k...rogaz, k...mp...novel, lum...n...scene, f...sol, b...cl...zhan, g...rpun, gr...m...zdit, zak...chenely, l. ..sq...divate, m...sol, ob...fried, p...rl...mutr, forward...rd, water...rel, b...athlon, c. ..crusty, v...rn...soot.
III. Zaind...vely, k...rburetor, k...rosin, k...gorta, l...wanda, m...l...nholik, m...zaika, n... cturne, p...mflet, p...t...canthrop, v...deville, d...letant, id...al...zatsion, k...nguru, n... in...waiting, about...grit, per...skop, r...zeda, f...vater, g...g...monia.
Alternating vowels in roots
Writing alternating vowels in roots e/i; o/a; a/i/im; p/o/in depends on stress; the nature of the consonant preceded by the vowel at the root; from the suffix following the root; from the lexical meaning of the roots.
1. With emphasis, i.e. According to the phonetic principle, the spelling of vowels in the following roots is determined:
Gar-/-gor- - under stress it is written a: zag a r, uga r, naga r; without accent - o: zag oh mature, burn out, burn out, burn out, burnout.
Exceptions: in y garki(specialist.), and sunrise(dial.), pr and gary(colloquial);
Zar-/-zor- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: z and roar, dawn, dawn; without accent - a : z and roar, behind the roar, illuminate, illumination, behind the roar, behind the roar.
Exception: s oh roar;
Klan-/-clone- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: kl and bow, bow; without accent - o: pokl bow down, worship, bow down and etc.;
Tvar-/-tvor- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: tv oh god, creature; without accent - o: tv about to transform, to transform, to accomplish and etc.
Exception: approved ary(non-derivative);
Plav-/-pilaf- - in an unstressed position the letter o is written in only two words: pl oh boy, you bastard. In other cases it is written a:pl and vuchy, float, fin, swimmer(swimming beetle). In the word pl y wun(special) is written ы in accordance with the pronunciation.
2. The quality of the consonant preceded by the root vowel determines the spelling of the roots:
Kas-/-kos(n)- - before the consonant n it is written about: k about dreaming, dreaming; in other cases - a : k and piss, prickly;
Lag-/-lozh- - a is written before the consonant g: to state, to suppose, to suppose; before the consonant w it is written o: izl o live, offer to live, put to live.
Exception: by log (non-derivative);
Rast-/- rasch-/-ros- - in an unstressed position is written only before the following st and sch: you grow, grown, overgrow, sprouted, age, plant; in other cases - about : exp oh sla, algae, porosl.
Exception: negative and then(although there is no combination st); R stock, moneylender, Rostov, Rostislav(although there is a combination of st) and derivatives from them;
Skak-/-skoch- - without accent and is written only before k: prisk like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like, like; before h it is written about: zask wow, upstart.
Note. It is necessary to distinguish in writing the form of the 1st person of the future tense, as well as the imperative mood of the verbs zask and roll(start jumping) and ask o read(come in for a while); respectively: zask and chu and zask a chi- zask oh chu and zask oh chi.
3. The spelling of roots depends on the suffix following the root: -bar-/-ber-, -dir-/-der-, -mir-/-mer-, -feast-/-per-, -tir-/-ter-, -blist-/-brist-, -zhig -/-burned-, -steel-/-steel-, -cheat-/-even-- vowel and is written if the root is followed by the suffix -a-; in other cases it is written e: prib and the army - tidy up; bully - zaderu; freeze - freeze - die - die; lock - lock; wash - erase - wipe; to shine - to shine, to shine, to sleep, to sleep; survive - higher; cover - cover; subtract - subtract, subtract(but: calc. and thief - subtract- from h and thief).
Exceptions: combine, combination, couple(from the root -even-);
In alternating roots im/a(P.), in/a(P.), the combinations im, in are written if the root is followed by the suffix -a-: сж to have - to squeeze, to take - to take, to embrace - to embrace, to occupy - to occupy, to heed - to heed, to accept - to accept.
4. The spelling of roots differs in meaning:
Mok-(-moch-)/-mac- - in words with the meaning “to pass liquid; lose your qualities while being for a long time in water" the root is written -mok-(-moch-): prom casing paper, waterproof raincoat, soaked fish; in words meaning “immerse in liquid” the root -mac- is written: m and roll bread into sour cream, dip a brush into paint;
Equal-/-level- - in words with the meaning “equal, on a par, identical” the root -equal- is written: por and get along with the truck, height equal; in words with the meaning “straight, smooth, even” the root -smooth- is written: vyr o take in the flower beds, leveled area, trim up the bangs.
Exceptions: p and vnina, same age, poro vnu, level.
Note. If a verb is followed by an object with a preposition s, then the root -equal- is always written: Not cf and listen to yourself with him; however, in outdated usage wed oh listen to the earth(destroy to the ground) is written about.
Exercise 4. Write by inserting the missing letters. In the highlighted words, indicate the roots.
The floating bridge, freeze; out of fear, look around the tops of the trees, get ready for the road, lock the door, brilliant answer, green... drain, dress for your...st, stagnation. ..to make the bed, to bow to talent, evening sunshine, to drop by for an hour, to rush around the room, to swell...to the side, to find fault with everything , galloping gait, unacceptable intercourse, complex exercise, equivalent values, approximation of opponents, presentation of facts, imported light...daw, constant breakdown, excessive use... respiration, admirers of talent, terrible disgust...get wet in the rain, unimaginable delay...building, incite hostility, disposition of the army, level...listen have the right to sit locked up.
Exercise 5. Fill in the missing spellings. Explain your choice.
1. The baby whale is only a few hours old, he still can’t swim, he sticks out in the water upright like a float, but this newborn is seven meters long and weighs five tons. And the miracle baby will begin to grow by leaps and bounds (Above). 2. The Koshevoy and the elders took off their hats and bowed in all directions (G.). 3. Quickly and deftly she spread out the hay, ripped it apart, turned over the wounded man (Close). 4. About ten years ago, several thousand dessiatines were warmed up in Polesie and still haven’t been covered (T.). 5. 3... the rye burst into flames and engulfed half the sky (T.). 6. A high cylinder shines in the hand (Bl.). 7. All the officers were killed by seventeen people (L.T.). 8. Two minutes later we broke up with the man (P.). 9. The doctor made a point, blotted out what was written in blue paper and raised his eyes (Ast.). 10. At first, Mumu was very weak, frail and ugly, but little by little she managed and got better... (T.). 11. The birches stood all white, without shine, white, like freshly fallen snow, which had not yet been touched by the coldly playing ray winter sun(T.).
Exercise 6. Rewrite by inserting the missing letters. Explain the spelling of words with missing letters.
1. The fogs died quietly over the river (Ast.). 2. From dawn to dusk, the fire did not go out behind Iggress (Alex.). 3. With the first sounds, with the awakening of people, the fogs disappeared into the ravines, gorges... (Ast). 4. In its swaying reflections, the bent figure of a worker appeared every now and then (Alex.). 5. In some places we crouched down to crawl under a leaning pine tree, saxifrages intertwined through the bushes... (Ast.). 6. He stood, listened and looked down... at the sea of... deprived tops of the forest spread out in front of him under the mountain... (L. T.). 7. The birds ran louder and busier in the thicket (L.T.). 8. I shuddered, shivered, licked the bitter drops from my lips, and my grandmother wiped my shorn head with her palm... assuring that people grow big and big from the rain and the rain (Ast .). 9. The fog pressed more and more tightly to the ground... (Ast.). 10. Anises lined up in two rows on both sides... (Alex.). 11. Created a long time ago, the world lived its own unique, complex and eternal life(Alex.). 12. Small meadows immediately began in front of the windows, extending to the Saltykovskaya Mountain, blue in the distance (Alex.). 13. They rose from the coastal thickets wild ducks(Alex.). 14. The forest responded to him with the submissive rustle of yellowing leaves, the growing noise of falling trees (Alex.). 15. Mikhail stretched out his lips and tried to imitate the nightingale (Alex.). 16. ...And in the end, freezing...for a moment, it crumbled into large hail... (Alex.). 17. The music that I heard in childhood broke in me, turned to stone, and those of its flights to the sky, to the star, from which I once cried, dissolved in my heart (Ast). 18. In the intervals of perfect silence, the rustling of last year’s leaves was heard (L.T.). 9....Weasel, shuddering, carefully took a few steps and, bowing his head to the side, began to listen (L.T.). 20. Before Ulka had time to think to the end, the guy broke up with her and blocked the way (Alex.). 21. His cheeks turned red, his eyes heated up and angrily, almost viciously, stared at her (Bob.). 22. My face was touched by the tenacious, always icy leaves of hops (Ast.). 23. I freeze in delight (Lesk.). 24. There the fire of the car goes out and another one is lit, the fire of the hearth or fireplace (Gonch.). 25. All victories begin with victories over oneself (Leon.).