Lecture No. 1. State and prospects for the development of underground space.

Underground construction has almost the same long history like the history of humanity. Primitive people used natural caves as homes. Later, in the Bronze Age, workings appeared for the extraction of ores, precious metals and stones. The ancient civilizations of Egypt and Hindustan left behind impressive monuments of underground architecture - temples, underground labyrinths of the tombs of the pharaohs. In the city of Petra (Jordan), religious buildings and dwellings carved into red sandstone are still preserved. In the Roman Empire, underground construction reached a high level. To this day, several road and hydraulic tunnels operate in Europe, built by the hands of slaves according to the designs of Roman engineers. The drainage tunnel near Lake Fucino (Italy) has a length of 5.6 km and a cross-section of 1.8´3 m.

Tunneling in rocks was carried out as follows. A strong fire was lit in the face of the tunnel, then cold water was poured over the hot chest of the face. Due to strong thermal stresses, the rocks cracked to a shallow depth and could be disassembled with hand tools.

Underground construction continued to develop in the Middle Ages. The systems of defensive structures of fortresses and castles certainly contained underground passages. During the assault on Kazan, Ivan the Terrible’s troops used a mine charge planted in a tunnel that was passed under the city wall. Medieval mine workings, such as the Wieliczka Salt Mines in Poland, surprise modern engineers with their stability, which is due to the skill and “feeling for stone” of their builders. Medieval water supply and sewerage systems function to this day in many cities in Europe and Asia. Underground caves The Kiev Pechersk Lavra testifies that the medieval church considered the underground space quite suitable for the life of monks, and not just the abode of “evil spirits.”

The era of the industrial revolution provided new opportunities for underground construction - powerful explosives, mechanical methods of drilling, loading, and transporting rocks. At the same time, the need for various types underground structures. Since the mid-19th century, the construction of railway tunnels has been underway: the Mont Cenis tunnel, 12,850 m long, between France and Italy, was built in 1875–71, Saint Gotthard, 14,984 m long, in 1872–82. and Simgayun with a length of 19,780 m - in 1898–1906. between Italy and Switzerland. In Russia, the first railway tunnel, 1280 m long, was built in 1868; The Suram tunnel, 3998 m long, built in 1886–90, remained the longest tunnel in the USSR before the construction of the Baikal-Amur Mainline.

Underground mining of coal and ores has become widespread. Even a number of underground tunnels were built - channels for passing ships through watershed areas, including the Rhone tunnel on the Marseille-Rhone waterway (France) 7118 m long with a cross-sectional size of 24.5 x 17.1 m.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the role of underground construction in urbanism has increased. Almost simultaneously, urban underground transport arteries - the metro - were being built in a number of European capitals and the largest cities in America. With the development of military aviation before the Second World War, European cities began building bomb shelters, and underground military factories were built in Germany.

Currently, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, underground and buried structures have become a full-fledged element of urban development and are present in many technological complexes.

Underground structures play an important role in environmental protection, helping to preserve the surface of the earth. The advantages of underground premises include protection from atmospheric influences, the ability to maintain the desired temperature regime at low energy costs. An underground room reduces or eliminates the connection between the objects located in it and the environment, so it is advisable to locate harmful and dangerous industries there.

The volume of underground construction (excluding workings from the mining industry) in a number of developed capitalist countries has been characterized over the past decades by the following figures, million m3:

Considering the small population of Sweden, it should be recognized as the country with the most intensive underground construction: over the decade (1970–80) 4.5 m 3 of underground space was built there per inhabitant. The total volume of underground construction in Sweden is distributed approximately as follows: power plants - 50%, transport (tunnels, garages) - 5%, communications - 5%, oil storage facilities - 40%.

The section “Underground structures” of the course “Foundations, foundations and underground structures” is new for students of the specialty “Industrial and civil engineering”. Unlike the courses “Underground structures” taught in mining and hydraulic engineering universities, in this course The greatest attention is paid to shallow underground structures, which are elements of industrial complexes or urban urbanism.

Lecture No. 2-3. Classification and designs of underground structures.

Classification.

Underground structures are distinguished according to their purpose: for public utility purposes (basements of buildings, underground garages, underground store warehouses, underground refrigerators, food storage facilities, underground cinemas, etc.);

– industrial and technological structures (tanks of water treatment and sewerage facilities, buried parts of crushing and screening shops of processing plants, metallurgical plants, underground nuclear boiler houses, etc.);

– civil defense and defense structures (shelters of various classes, command posts, mines for storing and launching ballistic missiles, etc.); transport and pedestrian tunnels (mountain road and railway tunnels for overcoming high passes, underwater tunnels under rivers and sea straits, metro tunnels, city road and railway tunnels, pedestrian underground passages);

– tunnels of city utility networks (sewage, collector tunnels for laying power, telephone cables, water supply, etc.);

– hydraulic underground structures (pressure tunnels, chambers of turbine rooms of hydroelectric power plants, underground pools of pumped storage power plants);

– workings for mining (for coal mining – mines, ore – mines);

– storage facilities for petroleum products and gases, toxic and radioactive waste.

Underground structures can be located: in combination with above-ground buildings; in combination with underground engineering and transport structures: in specially constructed excavations under streets, squares, public gardens; in special workings outside the city: in exhausted mine workings.

Based on their depth, underground structures are divided into buried, shallow, and deep. There is no layer of soil above the buried structures; they are covered on top with artificial structural materials or generally represent underground part building.

Above underground structures of shallow depth there is a layer of soil up to 10 m. The weight of objects located on the surface contributes to the soil pressure on the lining of underground structures of shallow depth.

Underground structures of greater depth are classified as deep. The pressure on the lining of these structures no longer depends on the situation on the surface, but is determined only by the properties of the surrounding rocks and the depth of their foundation.

The following methods are distinguished for the construction of shallow and buried underground structures (Fig. 2.1):

Pit. This method is used in the construction of buried structures of shallow depth. A pit is opened in the ground, at the bottom of which, as on the surface, a structure is erected. After construction is completed, the pit is filled with soil.

Dwelling well. In this way, buried structures are built. In this case, the side enclosing walls of the structure are erected on the surface. The soil from the middle part is removed layer by layer, and the walls of the structure are lowered into the ground.

"Wall in the ground" This method is also used to construct buried structures. A narrow trench is cut from the surface along the contour of the structure to the depth of the structure. To ensure the stability of the walls, the trench is filled with clay mortar. The trench is dug out in parts and filled with concrete. The excavation is carried out already under the protection of the erected walls of the structure.

“Mountain (closed) construction method. The construction of tunnels and other deep structures is carried out using underground methods and includes (Fig. 2.2.): separation of rock from the massif (breaking, cutting); loading it onto vehicles; transportation; installation of temporary support to ensure safe work in the face; construction of a permanent lining that ensures the stability and watertightness of the mine.

Tunneling methods are divided into mountain and panel tunneling. In mining methods, all operations (mining, loading, transportation, construction of temporary support and permanent lining) are divided and performed in a cyclic mode using various means mechanization. In shield mining methods, rock cutting, loading and erection of permanent lining are performed by mechanisms combined in one unit - the tunneling shield; the role of temporary support is performed by a special moving element - the shield itself. Shallow tunnels can also be built using the pit method.

Buried residential buildings

For many hundreds of thousands of years, primitive man used natural or specially open caves as dwellings, and always turned to the earth to shelter from unfavorable climatic conditions. Only the historically short era of accessible and cheap fuel made it possible to build towering buildings. earth's surface thin-walled houses and supply these energy-inefficient houses with heat. Now that fossil fuels are dwindling, it's time to rethink construction.

In the USA, Canada, and a number of other countries, the construction of buried houses with earthen thermal insulation is beginning to develop. At the end of the 70s, about 5% of new individual houses in the USA it was built in a recessed design; There is a tendency for this value to increase, especially in areas with severe winters. The advantages of buried dwellings, like other underground structures, include reduced energy costs for heating in winter and cooling in summer, reduced costs for external repairs, better sound insulation, and resistance to storms. The design of recessed dwellings involves many in various ways energy conservation, e.g. passive use solar energy, heat recovery from ventilation emissions and sewage, etc. There is no doubt that the grandiose housing renovation program in rural areas of the USSR represents exceptional opportunities for the development of this type of housing construction.

The main types of buried dwellings in conditions of flat falling relief are shown in Fig. 1.21. An atrium-type house (Fig. 1.21, a) is located completely below ground level, has a courtyard, and is most protected from the winds. Its disadvantage is the lack of views of the area from the windows facing the courtyard. Typically, atrium layouts are used in warm climates. In flat areas with a harsh climate, semi-buried houses are most often built (Fig. 1.21, b). The “falling terrain” of a hilly area is most favorable for the construction of recessed houses (Fig. 1.21, c and d). In such conditions, it is possible to build one- and two-story houses; At the same time, the main disadvantage of recessed dwellings in flat terrain is absent: limited views of the area, which is a rather significant aesthetic and psychological factor.

Proper orientation of a building relative to the sun and wind can provide significant additional energy savings. The energy of solar radiation can be used to generate heat in active and passive forms. Most active solar energy systems have flat plate collectors installed directly on or adjacent to the building. So the systems do not impose strict requirements on the orientation of the building. Heating a room by the sun through windows is called passive use of solar energy; The greatest effect is achieved when the windows are oriented to the south. In the northern hemisphere, the greatest heat loss in winter is associated with winds from the northern directions, so the orientation of window and door openings of a recessed dwelling to the south also provides the best protection from the wind.

Geomechanical processes.

The construction of mine workings and underground structures causes a disruption of the initial stress-strain state of rock masses. The resulting mechanical deformation processes lead to the formation of a new equilibrium stress-strain state of rock masses in the vicinity of the workings. We will conventionally call the new field of stresses and deformations complete, meaning that it was formed as a result of superimposing on the initial field an additional field of stresses and deformations formed during the construction of the excavation.

Knowledge of the basic patterns of rock mass deformation allows us to predict possible implementations of mechanical processes. The complexity of this task is determined primarily by a large number of influencing factors. In the general case, a rock mass is a discrete, inhomogeneous, anisotropic medium, the mechanical processes of deformation in which are nonlinear in time. In addition to geological factors, the engineering and technical conditions of construction and, in particular, the shape and size of excavations, their orientation in the massif, the method of excavation and maintenance, fastening technology, etc., have a great influence.

It is obvious that with simultaneous consideration of all these factors, an analytical description of the laws governing the formation of a stress-strain state is practically impossible. At the same time, many years of experience and knowledge accumulated in rock mechanics show that with any combination of influencing factors, one or two main ones can always be identified, which are of decisive importance for the nature of the implementation of mechanical processes. So, for example, when constructing a tunnel in rocks, the most important of all factors will be the fracturing of the rocks. It is she who determines in this case implementation of mechanical processes in the form of local fallouts or continuous arch formation. As another example, we can cite the case when the determining factors are the shape and size of the excavation. Thus, in the roof of a rectangular mine working with a width much greater than its height, tensile stresses that are dangerous for its operation arise. Number similar examples, we could continue.

All of the above makes it possible to determine a methodological approach to the study of the basic laws of the process of formation of the stress-strain state of the rock mass around mine workings.

First, it is proposed to consider the simplest problem, take its solution as the basic one, and then, in comparison with this solution, study the influence of various natural (natural) and artificial (technological) factors on the stress-strain state of the rock mass.

As such a basic problem, we consider the complete stress field in the vicinity of a horizontal extended mine working with a circular cross section, traversed for a sufficient distance great depth in a continuous homogeneous isotropic rock mass with an equal-component initial stress state q, assuming a linear physical relationship between stresses and deformations, i.e. considering the rock mass as linearly deformable. We will assume that the reactive resistance of the support R evenly distributed along the excavation contour. In this formulation, the boundary conditions have the form

s r = p at r = 1 at rà ¥. (7.1*)

Solving the corresponding problem of the theory of elasticity in the formulation of plane strain at m= 0.5, we obtain in a cylindrical coordinate system (r, q – in the plane of the cross-section of the excavation, z – longitudinal axis of the excavation) the following total stresses:

and dimensionless displacements

(7.2)

Where s q,s r – tangential (circumferential) and radial normal stresses, respectively; s z– normal stress in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the excavation; t r q,t rz,t qz – shear stress; And - dimensionless radial displacements; E – rock deformation modulus; r – dimensionless radial coordinate of the rock mass point under consideration, expressed in units of excavation radius, in the excavation Rb.

The corresponding initial stress field is characterized by the components

and the additional voltage field is the components

For clarity, the distribution of components s q And s r The complete (solid lines), initial (dash-dotted lines) and additional (dashed lines) stress fields are shown in Fig. 7.1.

The rocks surrounding the excavation have limited bearing capacity, that is, the ability to resist increased stress, and can be deformed without destruction within certain limits. Therefore, the consequence of the new stress-strain state formed as a result of workings can be the processes of destruction of rocks, manifested in some rocks in the form of brittle fracture, in others - in the form of plastic flow. As a result, areas of extreme conditions and complete (ruinous) destruction are formed around the excavation, which can cover the entire contour of the excavation or its individual parts. The deformability of destroyed rocks increases, and this in turn causes a significant increase in displacements of the rock contour.

Thus, the formation of partially or completely destroyed rock areas in a rock mass is one of the forms of implementation of mechanical processes of rock deformation or, as they say, one of the forms of manifestation of rock pressure. Partial or complete arch formation, significant displacements of the rock contour, i.e. the main sources of the formation of loads on the structures of underground structures, are a consequence of destruction processes. Therefore, knowledge of the basic patterns of pore destruction around workings is necessary for a qualitative and quantitative assessment of possible manifestations of rock pressure and, consequently, a scientifically based choice of methods and means to combat these manifestations.

As noted earlier, rock destruction occurs in different ways, both in the form of brittle fracture and by plastic deformation. Therefore, various geomechanical models are used for mathematical analysis of mechanical destruction processes.

In brittlely fracturing rocks, the formation of a region of limit equilibrium can lead to a violation of the continuity of the massif on the outer boundary of this region, which is expressed mathematically in the form of inequality of tangential normal stresses acting on both sides of the specified boundary; the process of destruction changes the mechanical characteristics of rocks in the region of limit equilibrium and, in In particular, the compressive strength of rocks is reduced to the value of the residual strength. This case corresponds to the model of an ideal-brittle medium, defined by the deformation diagram Oab(Fig. 8.1) by the physical equation (5.69) in the beyond-limit region of deformation.

In plastic rocks, the formation of a region of limiting equilibrium can occur without such noticeable destruction as in brittle rocks, and manifests itself in the form of plastic flow without discontinuities. In this case, in a certain deformation range, no significant change in mechanical characteristics occurs. This allows us to use in this case the ideal model of a plastic medium, shown in Fig. 8.1 as a diagram Oas, and the physical equation (5.67) at the extreme deformation region.

Loads and impacts.

Calculations when designing wells must be made for loads and impacts, which are determined by the conditions of construction and operation of the structure (Fig. 1).

Calculated weight values ​​of walls G 0, kN, bottom G d, kN and thixotropic solution G T, kN are determined by the design dimensions of the elements, taking the weight of reinforced concrete structures in accordance with the requirements of the SNiP chapter on the design of concrete and reinforced concrete structures (II).

The horizontal soil pressure on the well is formed by the following loads:

a) the main soil pressure is determined as the soil pressure at rest according to the formula:

, (1)

Where g –specific gravity soil, kN/m 3;
z – distance from the ground surface to the section under consideration, m;
j – angle of internal friction of the soil.

For wells immersed below the groundwater level, the specific gravity of the soil is taken taking into account the weighing effect of water, i.e.

Where g s – specific gravity of soil particles, kN/m 3 ;
g w – the specific gravity of water is assumed to be 10 kN/m 3 ;
e – soil porosity coefficient.

b) the main pressure of the thixotropic solution during the period of immersion of the well is determined by the formula:

Where g 1– specific gravity of the thixotropic solution, kN/m3 .

c) additional soil pressure caused by the tilting of the layers:

where a is a coefficient depending on the inclination of the layers (accepted according to (2), p. 14).

d) hydrostatic pressure of groundwater, taken into account in all soils except water-resistant ones:

, (5)

Where h b – distance from the ground surface to the groundwater level, m.

e) additional pressure from a continuous vertical load uniformly distributed around the structure q:

, (6)

e) additional pressure from a vertical concentrated load<2 или от нагрузки, равномерно распределенной по прямоугольной площади поверхности. Определяется по рекомендациям работы (2), с. 19-24.

The friction forces of the well knife on the ground are determined by the formula:

, (7)

Where T– coefficient of working conditions. When calculating for ascent T= 0.5, per dive m = 1;

And– outer perimeter of the well knife, m,

h u– knife height, m;

f– soil resistance along the lateral surface of the blade part, kPa. Determined from the table (/2/, p. 17). For approximate calculations, you can take (when immersing the well to a depth of up to 30 m):

– gravelly sands, large and medium-sized 53 – 93

– fine and dusty sands 43-75

– loams and clays, hard and semi-solid 47 – 99

– hard and plastic sandy loams, hard and soft plastic loams and clays 33 – 77

– sandy loam, loam and clay, fluid and fluid-plastic 20 – 40

The friction forces of the well walls in the thixotropic jacket zone are determined by the formula:

, (8)

Where N t–height of the thixotropic jacket, m;
T°– specific friction force of the well walls in the thixotropic jacket zone, assumed to be 1–2 kPa . When calculating for floating (after plugging the crack of the thixotropic jacket with cement-sand mortar) 40 kPa .

The soil resistance forces under the banquet knife are determined by the formula:

Where R – the calculated resistance of the foundation soil is taken in accordance with the recommendations of the work /12/, p. 37 (Table 1-5); F u – area of ​​the knife sole, m2.

Well calculation.

Calculation of well immersion is made from the condition:

, (10)

Where G– weight of the well and additional loads, taking into account the load safety factor g f = 0,9;
g f1– immersion reliability coefficient: g f1 > 1-at the moment the well moves, g f1= 1 – at the moment the well or tier stops at the design level.

Wells immersed below the groundwater level, after installing the bottom, must be designed to float in any soil (except for the case when drainage is carried out under the bottom) for design loads from the condition:

, (11)

where SG is the sum of all constant vertical loads taking into account the additional load with a safety factor for the load g f = 0,9;
F g– bottom area, m2;

h w– distance from the bottom of the bottom to the groundwater level, m;

gfw– safety factor against ascent equal to 1.2.

Calculation examples.

Calculate a well with an internal diameter of 20 m, a depth of 30 m, for loads and impacts arising under construction conditions (Fig. 2 a). The well is immersed in a thixotropic jacket (g 1 = 15.0 kN/m 3) using water reduction. The soils are homogeneous, represented by refractory loam ( g= 16.6 kN/m 3, g s = 26.8 kN/m 3 , e= 0.7, j = 18°, With= 17 kPa).

Based on the initial data, we determine the weight of the well walls:

G 0= 3.14 × (10.6 2 – 10.0 2) × 30 × 25 = 29108 kN.

The main pressure of the thixotropic solution during the immersion period (3):

– at 0.00 Р r – 0;

– at around 28.00 Р r= 15×28 = 420 kPa.

Additional pressure from continuous vertical load q= 20 kPa (6):

Pg= 20× tg 2 (45-18/2) = 10.5 kPa.

Based on the obtained values, we construct a pressure diagram (Fig. 2a). Friction forces of the well knife on the ground (7):

T u=1×2×3.14×10.8×2×77 = 10445 kN.

Friction forces of the well walls in the thixotropic jacket zone (8):

Tm=1×2×3.14×28×2 = 352 kN.

Total friction forces:

T =T u + Tm=10445 + 352 = 10797 kN.

Ground resistance forces under the knife bench (9):

R u= 3.14 × (10.8 2 – 10.6 2) × 200 = 2688 kN.

We will calculate the immersion of the well using formula (10):

The well is immersed.

Basic soil pressure (1):

– at 0.00 Р r,о= 0;

– at around 19.00 (groundwater level):

– at around 30.00:

Hydrostatic groundwater pressure (5):

Additional pressure from continuous vertical load = 20kPa (6):

Based on the obtained values, we construct a pressure diagram (Fig. 2 b).

Friction forces of the well knife on the ground (when calculating for ascent) (7):

Friction forces of the well walls on the ground after filling the gap with cement-sand mortar (when calculating for floating) (8):

We will calculate the well for ascent using formula (11), taking into account the weight of the bottom

G g= 3.14×10.8 2 ×1.8×25 = 16481 kN .

No loading of the well is required.

Drainage and drainage.

The water content of soils during the construction process causes technological difficulties. During the operation of an underground structure, groundwater generates an Archimedean weighing force, which, if there is insufficient load from above, can lead to the floating of the structure. In addition, even with the most reliable types of waterproofing, water penetrates into the underground structure. Drainage is a system of drains and filters that collect underground water and remove it from a pit or structure, and drainage is a pumping system (pumps, pipelines).

In case of rugged terrain, it is possible to install gravity drainage if there is a sewer in the accessible vicinity at a depth greater than the depth of its foundation drainage devices. In all other cases, drainage requires lifting the captured water to the surface using drainage. Since drainage is associated with the consumption of electricity, and in the event of interruptions in its supply, the water content of the massif can quickly change, soil drainage with drainage is usually not provided for the operational period, and the structure is designed to operate under the natural regime of groundwater. During the construction process, on the contrary, as a rule, they strive to completely drain the pit.

Shield method.

To develop soil, tunneling shields are widely used, which are mobile supports that allow the development of soil and the construction of linings under protection. The cross-sectional shapes of the shields are circular, vaulted, rectangular, trapezoidal, elliptical, etc. Based on the loosening method, non-mechanized and mechanized shields are distinguished. In the first case, the soil is developed manually or using hand tools, in the second, all operations are completely mechanized and performed by a special working body. A circular tunneling shield is a steel cylinder consisting of a knife and support rings, as well as a tail shell (see Fig. 1).

The knife ring cuts the soil along the contour of the excavation and serves to protect people working in the face. When driving in soft soils, it has a widened upper part - a foreback, and in weak ones - a safety visor. The support ring together with the knife ring is the main supporting structure of the shield. Along the perimeter of the support ring, panel jacks are evenly spaced to move the unit. The tail shell secures the excavation contour at the site of construction of the next lining ring.

Non-mechanized shields are equipped with horizontal and vertical partitions, retractable platforms, as well as downhole and platform jacks.

Panel penetration work begins with the installation of panels and equipping them with the necessary equipment. Depending on the type of underground structure, its depth and engineering-geological conditions, the panels are assembled in open excavations or pits, lowered entirely through a mine shaft or inside a chamber, or mounted in special underground chambers.

The technology of shield penetration depends mainly on the type of shield, soil properties and type of lining. When excavating with non-mechanized shields, the development, loading and transportation of soil is carried out in the same way as in the mining method of work using standard mining equipment (drill hammers, loaders, trolleys, electric locomotives, etc.). Tunneling shield complexes KT 1-5.6 are successfully used; TSCHB-3, KM-19, KT-5.6B2, which consist of a panel unit and equipment for mining, installation, waterproofing and auxiliary work. The level of mechanization of panel complexes reaches 90...95%, and the speed of tunneling with a diameter of 5...6 m is 300...400 m per month or more.

Mechanization schemes for panel work differ in the methods of excavating the soil, fastening the roof and the face of the face; all other operations for loading and transporting soil, constructing and waterproofing the lining are performed similarly. From the face of the shield, the soil is supplied to the main conveyor-reloader, at the end of which a bunker with two gates is placed, which allows the soil to be unloaded into trolleys. Lower or upper acting pushers are attached to the bridge, with the help of which individual trolleys, trolleys with blocks, pneumatic concrete spreaders, etc. are moved.

As the soil is excavated, the excavation is secured with arch, anchor, shot concrete, and combined temporary contour support (Fig. 2). Arched support is made from rolled metal profiles (I-beams, channels, pipes) curved along the contour of the excavation. Each arch consists of two or four elements connected with bolts. The arches are installed in increments of 0.8...1.5 m, resting on the ground through wooden pads and secured with wooden or metal spacers. The space between the arches is covered with boards, reinforced concrete slabs or corrugated" steel sheets. In the vault part, a continuous tightening is arranged, dismantling it before concreting. The support is arranged in the form of anchors located in drilled wells, “suspending” a section of disturbed soil from the undisturbed massif; wedge and expansion metal anchors with a locking device are used, reinforced concrete (rammed, injection and perforated) anchors fixed throughout the entire depth of the hole, steel-polymer anchors fixed in holes with epoxy or polyester resins and entering into working together with the surrounding massif 1...2 hours after installation.

In large excavations, prestressed anchors are used, which are embedded in the

In the conditions of modern cities, in many cases, their multi-level development, including the widespread use of underground space, is advisable.

The underground space of the city is the space under the daytime surface of the earth, used to expand urban areas, create new concepts of natural habitat and its conservation, ensure environmental and economic well-being and sustainable development.

At the same time, it must be recognized that underground human life is carried out in extreme conditions. Accordingly, when using underground space, it is advisable to avoid long-term stay of people there.

The underground space of the city includes: transport structures, industrial enterprises and public service enterprises, engineering and communication city networks and equipment, as well as various special-purpose structures. Complex development of underground space is typical for large cities and megalopolises, mainly in the city center and in the centers of municipal districts, in the areas of the most important transport hubs and their intersections, in industrial and municipal warehouse areas.

The integrated development of underground space contributes to the rational use of above-ground territory. When properly organized, it provides:

• - construction of additional buildings and structures in cramped urban areas;
• - preservation and development of green areas and recreation areas;
• - improving the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the urban environment, preserving historically valuable territory and unique objects of landscape architecture;
• - improving transport services, increasing traffic safety, reducing street noise and, finally, saving time spent on using transport infrastructure;
• - reduction of the length of utilities;
• - protection of the population from possible natural and man-made accidents and disasters.

Underground are structures whose main parts are located underground for operational reasons. According to their purpose, underground structures are divided into:

transport(pedestrian, vehicle and railway tunnels, subways, parking lots, etc.);

industrial(primary ore crushing buildings, skip pits of blast furnace shops, underground parts of bunker platforms, slag granulation plants, continuous steel casting, etc.);

energy(underground complexes of hydroelectric power stations and nuclear power plants, bus and cable tunnels and mines, energy water pipelines, etc.);

storage(oil, gas, hazardous and radioactive waste, refrigerators);

public(public service enterprises, trade and public catering enterprises, warehouses, sports and entertainment facilities, etc.);

engineering(tunnels and network and water supply collectors, gasoline pipelines between gas stations, treatment and water intake facilities, etc.);

special and scientific purposes(particle accelerators, aerodynamic test tunnels, underground factories, defense facilities).

Among the large number of underground infrastructure facilities, the most significant role is played by systems and structures for transport purposes. In cities, such objects are systems of high-speed off-street passenger rail transport (metropolitan, high-speed tram, urban Railway). No less important are the intersections of city streets and roads, transport and underwater tunnels and underground pedestrian crossings. Underground there are facilities related to the storage and maintenance of motor vehicles (garages for permanent storage of vehicles, guest parking lots), as well as multifunctional, multi-level facilities and complexes associated with above-ground buildings and structures for transport purposes (stations, shopping centers, metro stations ). Thus, the use of underground structures makes it possible to reconsider the structure of cities and relieve them of congestion, eliminating industrial and warehouse facilities, storage facilities and transport routes.

In recent years, multi-tiered multifunctional complexes for cultural and public services and engineering support have been installed in the underground space of cities. Most often, underground complexes include trade, catering and consumer services enterprises, warehouses, transport and engineering communications, that is, such facilities that provide for a limited stay of people. Depending on the specific conditions, underground complexes can have from 2 to 6 tiers. The area of ​​individual tiers and their height are set depending on the purpose of the underground facility. To move people inside the complex, in some cases, escalators and elevators are provided. In order to reduce the negative psychophysical impact, multi-tiered underground facilities have daylighting through atriums of various designs in combination with artificial lighting, and colored finishes. Natural materials are often used in their design. Transport and lifting systems ensure the movement of visitors and service personnel within the complex. When designing multifunctional underground complexes intended for the constant presence of an unlimited number of people, special attention is paid to the creation of complex, multi-level systems security

In the conditions of modern cities, in many cases, their multi-level development, including the widespread use of underground space, is advisable. E. Utujyan, one of the pioneers underground urbanism, emphasizing the expediency of the widespread development of multi-level construction, noted that “the use of underground structures will make it possible to reconsider the structure of cities and relieve them of congestion, eliminating factories, markets, stations, warehouses and all kinds of storage facilities, transport highways, etc. These structures paralyze the city, and although everyday life is impossible without them, they are “soulless”, so there is no reason to allocate outdoor spaces and volumes for them that can be used more rationally.If you get rid of structures on the surface of the earth that are not needed there and only spoil the landscape and poison the air, Using them, it is possible to increase the area of ​​green spaces, create new parks and squares, build stadiums.All underground structures will be protected from external influences:

There will be no need to worry about fires;

Noises and fluctuations in atmospheric conditions will no longer threaten people.

In the underground space of cities, it is advisable to widely place transport facilities(metropolitan, railway and road tunnels and stations, garages, car depots), cultural and consumer service enterprises, spectaculare, sports And shopping facilities(especially in combination with underground passages and transport structures), engineering structures and communications (pipelines, cables, collectors, electrical substations, transformer substations, pumping and pumping stations, central heating points, boiler houses, wastewater treatment plants), warehouses(food, manufactured goods, fuel, refrigerators, etc.).

Calculations based on a combination of socio-economic, engineering, economic and urban planning factors show the high efficiency of using the underground space of cities. Scientific and design developments in many cities confirm the reality and feasibility of using urban underground space on a large scale. A lot of positive experience in underground construction has been accumulated (in our country - primarily in the construction of subways).

PLANNING ORGANIZATION OF A MODERN CITY

Most important principles city ​​design, which determine its planning organization, are:

Clear functional zoning of the territory;

Flexibility of the planning structure, ensuring unhindered development of the city;

Differentiation of transport routes;

Organization effective system service;

Creation of the city’s environmental infrastructure, including a unified system of green spaces and environmental protection measures;

Efficient and economical provision of the city with all types of engineering services. A necessary condition is the fulfillment of the compositional requirements for the city plan: the development of the city center and the district areas interacting with it community centers, creating an attractive silhouette of the city and ensuring visual perception of its main natural and architectural dominants.

When designing a city, it is necessary to highlight its “framework” - the areas of the most intensive development and concentration of the most important functions. "Framework" is the most time-sustainable basis for the spatial planning organization of the city.

Industrial zones of the city (IZ) vary depending on the profile of industrial production located within them, which determines the size of these zones and the necessary sanitary gaps from them. The main requirements for the relative location of the PZ and residential areas:

1. 1). Their territorial development should not contradict each other:

They should not be arranged in stripes; industry should not block development opportunities residential areas(NW), and vice versa; industry should be located so that it does not block the exit from the NW to the river or seashore; The NW should not be located above mineral deposits.

2). PPs must be developed with strict adherence to sanitary and hygienic requirements (fulfillment of conditions related to the protection of the air basin:

Elimination of downwind location of the plant in relation to the emission source; ensuring the necessary gaps taking into account the class of sanitary hazards of enterprises and their groups;

Mandatory removal of sanitary-harmful enterprises over a long distance;

Landscaping of the RoW and sanitary gaps between the RoW and the NW;

Ensuring the requirements for protecting the city’s water basin, etc.

2. The relative location of the PZ and SZ should be convenient for organizing passenger connections between them and not interfere with the service of enterprises by public transport (for example, one-sided placement of the PZ and SZ in relation to each other is undesirable). The PP must be designed comprehensively; it is possible to combine enterprises of different profiles in one zone. "Clean" industrial enterprises and scientific and technical centers are among the SZ. Residential territory– occupies approximately 1/2 of the territory of the modern city. Gross residential development - 50% (net residential development territories are distinguished from this - without public institutions, green spaces, driveways within microdistricts - 50% of gross or 12-13% of the urban area); streets and squares - 15-20%; areas of urban common buildings and structures. - 15-20%; citywide green spaces - 10-15%. The size of the required SZ is 10 hectares per 1000 inhabitants. The modern planning structure of the city is based on the progressive ideas of the mid-20th century. - differentiation of transport routes, isolation of settlement areas from the flow of mass road transport, step-by-step organization of services, extensive landscaping around houses.

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS

Among the forecasts that are most important for the design of settlements and cities, a special place is occupied by demographic projections.

When designing settlements and cities in the future, the following trends and problems should be taken into account:

1.Mosaic, asymmetry of the demographic situation. The same demographic situation does not exist and is unlikely to exist in different countries and regions of the world.

2. Forced migrations. Sudden breakup Soviet Union became a tragedy for millions of people who found themselves on opposite sides of state borders. Hundreds of thousands of people are leaving areas of national conflict or areas with growing inter-ethnic tension. Meanwhile, Russia is not ready now to accept such a huge number of migrants in conditions economic crisis, high cost of housing construction, etc.

3. The need to manage migration processes. The extremely important tasks of migration policy that have arisen in recent years have been the regulation of migration flows flowing from neighboring countries, from the north, where too large and inefficiently used labor resources are concentrated in a number of places, the resettlement of demobilized military personnel, etc.

4. Changes in population and employment structure. The expected large changes in the age structure of the population and in the structure of employment should be taken into account. These changes are most clearly focused on three fundamental trends. Firstly, as life expectancy increases and pension provision improves, an increasing proportion of the population will be people over working age. Secondly, with a reduction in the share of the population of working age, there will be a decrease in the number of employed in production processes, amenable to mechanization and automation, and employment will expand in the service sector, management, science and scientific services. Third, in the coming decades the human “work cycle” will radically change. These changes must be clearly assessed and timely included in the forecasting and design process, taking into account very significant regional differences.

5. The growing role of rational use of qualifications and labor skills of the population. In addition to the general requirement for careful consideration of this factor when designing settlements and cities, it is important to use the existing “clumps” of qualified personnel and scientific and technical potential. When designing settlements and cities, a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the population and labor resources is required, as well as a thorough study of possible options for growth and changes in population structure.

Introduction

In recent years, most major cities around the world have seen increased interest in the widespread use of underground space.

It is caused by increased urbanization, the rapid development of land transport, a shortage of urban territory and a number of other reasons. Intensive development of underground spaces in cities is an indispensable condition for the development of modern urban planning, which predetermines the possibility of effective use of urban territory, improving the state of the external environment, preserving the architectural and spatial integrity of historically established areas of the city, as well as solving a complex of many other, including socio-economic problems .

The degree of use of underground space, equipment and technology of work depend on the size of the city, the nature and content of historical and future development, the concentration of the daytime population in various parts of the city, the estimated number of cars, natural-climatic, engineering-geological and other conditions.

Principles of using urban underground space: Russian and foreign experience

The development of underground space is most relevant in the central, densely built and most visited areas of the city. Public centers of the city include: the central zone of the city, main highways, large public transport hubs. These zones are places of concentration of the “daytime” population, services for which should be as close as possible to their locations. In the central zone of the city, the presence of a valuable historical and architectural heritage, the integrity of urban planning ensembles of the past does not allow the development of administrative, business, cultural, entertainment and trade functions to a sufficient extent, as well as the expansion of the street network and landscaping areas of open spaces. Therefore, the central part of the city is the place of the most intensive use of underground space to accommodate these objects. Bringing trade and catering enterprises, entertainment and public utility facilities closer to areas of population concentration increases their attendance, increases their purchasing power and profitability of operation.

Such enterprises are located:

• - under central streets (in Kyiv, Belgrade, Tokyo)
• - under squares and intersections of central streets (in Vienna, Bellaria, Babenbergeni Schottentor, in Munich, in Moscow)
• - in the system of public shopping centers (in Stockholm, Philadelphia, Montreal)

In the capital of the Celestial Empire, Beijing, by 2020 the Chinese are planning to build an underground city. The area of ​​the developed territory will be about 90 million m2. It is planned to create several financial districts in the city, which will house banks and other economic structures, as well as transport interchanges and large shopping centers. According to the architects, it is planned to commission up to 10 million m2 annually.

In world practice, the list of underground and semi-underground structures is very extensive and includes theater, concert and exhibition halls (the Laterna Magica theater and the Alhambra hall in Prague, the conservatory and the Center for Arts and Crafts in Paris, the museum contemporary art in NYC), trading floors department stores and markets (Galeries Lafayette in Paris, Bull Ring in Birmingham), shopping and pedestrian malls and passage streets (Helsinki, Vienna, Osaka), railway stations (Warsaw, Brussels, Copenhagen, Naples, Sydney, Montreal), bus stations (Chicago, New York, Los Angeles) and air terminals (in Paris, Rome, Brussels, Washington), subways operating in more than 150 cities around the world.

Now the longest underground transport network in the world is the London Underground. Today, the underground has 275 stations, the length of the tracks is 408 kilometers, and the passenger flow of the London Underground is 3 million people. By 2020, the total length of the Beijing metro lines in the capital, according to the plans of Chinese metro builders, will be 561 km; there will be 19 metro lines in the city.

In connection with the widespread use of underground space in large cities for transport purposes, many designers think about the feasibility of constructing entire underground multi-purpose complexes, which could accommodate not only transport structures, but also all the premises for serving passengers along their route.

In recent years, transport facilities are increasingly being developed in conjunction with service and trade institutions. Examples include a bus station in Finland in conjunction with a shopping center, a bus station in Holland included in a shopping center, a bus station in Hamburg combined with a shopping center, public transport centers in Tokyo, Munich and other cities.

In many US cities, a number of large shopping centers have been created, providing the utmost concentration of services. Such shopping centers usually include food and department stores, cafes, restaurants and other public facilities, including concert halls, skating rinks artificial ice and swimming pools. For example, in mall La Rochelle, with an area of ​​44 hectares, houses a railway and bus station, a garage for 5 thousand cars, a theater, a hall universal purpose, hotel. the area of ​​retail premises is 72 thousand m2.

For transport services in new public centers, as a rule, several underground levels are created, used for the movement of underground rail transport, pedestrian crossings, underground parking lots and garages. Typically, the lowest underground level contains a subway station and underground sections of city underground roads; above there are underground tunnels for vehicles and underground structures for pedestrians.

For new public centers in Paris, Montreal, Helsinki, Los Angeles, London and other cities, underground sections of highways are being designed, often crossing the entire city in several tiers.

Several years ago, construction of a community center in Paris was completed.

The new center includes public, administrative and residential buildings. It completely separates the paths of pedestrians and vehicles. The building complex has a multi-tiered composition with four to five underground floors. All types of urban transport in the new public center are concentrated in the underground space.

The main transit highway Paris-Normandy passes within the public underground, along it there will be main bus routes and an express metro line connecting the new center with the old central areas of the city.

On the lower (fourth from the surface) underground level there is an express metro line with a station located near the main public buildings of the complex. The next (third from the surface) underground level is reserved for the movement of long-distance vehicles. Even higher are local bus lines with a bus station. The uppermost underground level is occupied by building entrances connected to peripheral one-way roads with interchanges at three points.

In Finland, a project is underway to plan and build a new 3-level community center in Helsinki. It is designed on the shores of Teele Bay on an area bordered by the railway station and the parliament building. To completely separate the movement of pedestrians and vehicles, underground interchanges are provided at intersection points on all highways. The underground space will house parking lots and garages for the area, and passages connected to underground parking lots, retail and service establishments will be built.

To serve the population of Montreal, as well as nearby cities and suburbs, a large complex of retail, public and transport facilities is being created in the downtown area. The new public transport center of the city is being built on the site of the old buildings.

The complex includes three large department stores, 4 hotels, 8 cinemas, 5 high-rise administrative buildings, 30 restaurants, 20 large specialty stores and indoor markets, underground multi-level parking lots for 9 thousand cars. Effective area of shops, restaurants, cinemas, bookstores and pedestrian galleries located in the center will exceed 1 million square meters. feet (90 thousand m2).

The city’s main transport arteries pass through the new center: three underground lines subways, underground highways and two railway lines (National and Pacific). An underground expressway would connect the city's central area with the Trans-Canada Highway. It should be adjacent to pedestrian and shopping crossings with a length of 6.4 km, connected to underground parking lots, metro stations, service entrances for trucks and two central railway stations.

In Moscow, on the site of the Rossiya Hotel, a multifunctional complex will be built with hotels, a cinema and concert hall, a hall for chamber music, and retail and catering establishments.

It is planned to make maximum use of the underground space - parking lots for more than a thousand spaces will be equipped. In the underground part of the complex, the appearance of Moscow streets will be recreated; a system of underground passages will connect Red Square and the Manezhny complex on Okhotny Ryad.

In world practice, the construction of underground parking lots and garages is developing at a rapid pace. The advantages of underground garages and parking lots are obvious. Underground structures provide significant savings on territory (or practically do not require it at all, with the exception of an exit device), since they can be placed under existing parks, squares, squares, buildings, etc. In addition, territories can be used for underground (semi-underground) garages that could not be used for other purposes (ravines, areas with a large slope, various types of excavations, small quarries, etc.)

Functionally, underground garages contribute to the separation of transport and pedestrian traffic and the general unloading of ground space. For example, several such projects are being implemented in Moscow. Construction of a transport interchange with a multifunctional complex is underway in the underground space under Tverskaya Zastava Square with total area 107387, 5 sq. m., including a multi-tier underground garage - parking for 731 cars, with a total area of ​​27,715 sq. m. m. A three-level parking lot for 1000 cars will be built under Pushkinskaya Square. Additionally, there will be souvenir shops, cafes and a small exhibition hall.

The desire to create an integral system of underground structures serving the central zone of the city deserves attention.

In many of the world's largest cities, during the reconstruction and construction of public centers, the main pedestrian movement is designed under the streets and squares at a depth of 3.5 m. along underground pedestrian streets-transitions with underground distribution halls having light-green wells (for illuminating underground premises). At the same level with these pedestrian underground communications, underground shopping, cultural, entertainment, sports facilities, cafes and restaurants are being built with entrances oriented directly to the pedestrian underground level. The length of underground pedestrian communications is measured in hundreds and thousands of meters.

The current level of development of underground construction in megacities makes it possible to solve most problems regarding the cost-effective and environmentally safe placement of socially significant objects in a comprehensive and efficient manner. The annual rate of construction of underground facilities in the total volume of construction is in a fairly large range: from 5-8% in cities that are just developing this area of ​​​​economic activity (for example, in Moscow), to 25-30% in the largest metropolises with extensive experience in this area (for example, in Paris, Tokyo, London).

Domestic and foreign practice of using underground space indicates the great importance of underground construction in cities. The scale and types of urban facilities located underground should be determined by social, economic and urban planning considerations, based on the need to create the best conditions for serving the population, as well as ensuring the most rational use of urban areas, increasing the efficiency of capital investments in urban planning.

Development of underground space

The purposeful use of underground space in cities has a long history. Under the ground, the ancestors located defensive and religious structures, galleries of secret passages, storage facilities and housing. Construction began to be especially active below the surface of the earth with the development of engineering support systems. It is difficult to list what is hidden there in a modern city. However, all underground structures can be combined into five groups.

Networks and equipment for urban engineering support belong to the first group. Plumbing systems are the most common. These include infrastructure for cold and hot water supply, as well as water disposal: domestic, storm and industrial sewerage.

Not only network pipelines, but also equipment are placed within urban areas. Very often it is installed in underground structures. Inspection rooms, pumping and pumping stations, boiler rooms, boiler rooms and heating points are buried underground.

Steam and gas pipeline systems are laid underground, equipped with special equipment, which is often hidden underground. If necessary, build tanks for water, other liquids and compressed gases.

In the engineering sector of cities, a special place is occupied by power supply and electronic communication systems. As a rule, electricity and weak current potential are transmitted through metal or fiber optic cables. Together with the equipment of transformer, relay, telephone and relay stations, they are also buried in the ground.

As a result of technological progress engineering systems updated and further developed. Today it is difficult to predict what new equipment will present to the cities of the 21st century. For example, local pneumatic transport systems already exist solid waste. They currently operate within a neighborhood or residential group, moving waste to storage, sorting and packaging stations. Perhaps in the future waste will be transported through such systems to waste treatment plants.

Industrial, technical, household and warehouse facilities are often located underground. There are entire underground factories of defense significance. Separate workshops and laboratories are buried, which need to be protected from dust and noise. Or vice versa, to prevent contamination of the environment from industrial sources (for example, radiation).

Rice. 5.14. Underground shopping and pedestrian streets:
A - lengthwise cut for construction in Northbrook (USA); b - the same, in Edinburgh (England)

In order to save urban areas, consumer service enterprises such as laundries and dry cleaners are being created underground. Warehouses are also located there. Vegetable storage facilities, refrigerators, fuel and lubricant warehouses, water and gas storage facilities are widespread in cities.

Cultural and entertainment institutions, trade and public catering are the most attractive to the population. The underground space is convenient enough to accommodate institutions of this group. There is no occasional service in premises daylight permissible, since permanent residence of people in them is not provided. But when choosing a design solution, as a rule, they consider an alternative: to build underground or on the surface.

The construction of underground structures involves serious investments that significantly exceed capital investments in above-ground facilities. However, inflating the cost of underground construction can be economically justified, and above all, in densely built-up areas of the city center, where land is very expensive. In addition, the ground requires less energy to heat rooms during the cold season, which can lead to reduced operating costs.

Entire pedestrian and shopping streets of considerable length are being built underground. As a rule, galleries are located on several levels. In Fig. 5.14, a section of such a structure is shown. Here, citizens move along the retail premises for rent in direct paths from one level to another. To reach the galleries of another level, there are stairs and ramps, but there are also wall-mounted decorative elevators.

The esplanades are illuminated artificially. However, the core, which reaches two tiers in height, also receives natural light. This made it possible to use natural green spaces in the interior.

A cross-section of another linear structure built under an open market is shown in Fig. 5.14, b. It interestingly combines old buildings with new volumes. Escalators are used instead of ramps and elevators. Although the surface has skylights, it is successfully used as a market area.

Rice. 5.15 Compact underground center in Minneapolis (USA), section along the central part

Rice. 5. 16. Underground shopping and recreational complex on Manezhnaya Square in Moscow (team of authors led by architect M.M. Posokhin):
a - incision; b - plan; 1 - entrance from the metro station lobby; 2 same, from the surface of the square

The commissioning of a shopping and pedestrian mall increased the attractiveness of ground-based stores and shopping pavilions.

In the practice of urban planning, the construction of compact malls takes place. A section of one of them is shown in Fig. 5.15. The structure represents a three-level system, two of which are working levels, and the lower one is used as a warehouse. It is equipped with ramps for cargo transport with goods.

Rice. 5.17. Underground transport route in the existing development:
a - laid under buildings; b-the same, under the promenade esplanade; 1 - steel pipes with a monolithic reinforced concrete core, laid by the punching method; 2 - vertical structures made using the “wall in soil” method; 3 - dimensions of existing foundations; 4 - anchor fastenings with pile bushes; 5 - embankment retaining wall; 6-drainage layer; 7-collector for communications; 8 - additionally buried foundations

The rectangular central courtyard, somewhat elongated between two rows of shops, has one peculiarity. Its lightweight steel roof is raised above the roof of these stores, allowing the spaces to be illuminated with natural light through skylights.

There are similar malls in Russia. So, on one of the central squares of Moscow at the end of the 19th century. a two-level shopping and recreational complex was built, shown in Fig. 5.16. It houses two large department stores and shops retail. Catering establishments are also included: restaurant, cafe and bar. Cultural objects have not been forgotten. The archaeological museum “Historical Theater” is equipped.

The complex has successfully resolved connections with ground and off-street transport. The entrances from the metro station are combined with a passage leading to the entrances to the retail premises. There is an underground garage for 370 cars.

A green recreational area is organized on the surface of the upper tier. It is united with the oldest green area in Moscow - the Alexandrovsky Garden. The Neglinka River was partially released from the collector, which made it possible to supplement the park complex with another decorative element - water surfaces.

Rice. 5.18. Reconstruction project for Tverskaya Street in Moscow. Fragment of a section using underground space for the roadway and for parking (Workshop No. 2 of Mosproekt-2)

Many very diverse structures of the road transport group are removed underground, pursuing two goals. Firstly, to reduce the harmful effects of noise on the urban environment, and secondly, to achieve savings in areas occupied by transport communications.

Traffic at street intersections and stretches between intersections is organized by building overpasses and tunnels. Let's consider methods for constructing underground structures. On stages, passages are laid underground in certain cases. For example, when a highway is straightened in a densely built-up area or a new highway is cut through the development. In Fig. 5.17, a shows one of the options for constructing a tunnel in the protected zone of the historical and architectural environment of the city.

It has a dual function. On the one hand, within its boundaries there is a diversified traffic flow, which is carried out along two parallel streets, shown as a dotted line below on the plan. On the other hand, the tunnel is a two-level intersection with a city street perpendicular to it.

An interesting interpretation of the “wall in soil” method is interesting here. The side walls of the tunnel could not be completed by traditionally installing equipment on top. Therefore, they were erected using horizontal tunneling, injecting the solution using the water-air method. The adit coverings were made using the pressing method steel pipes with the subsequent installation of a reinforced concrete core in them.

Another example is illustrated in Fig. 5.17, b, is simpler, since it was carried out on a route free of buildings. Through traffic was transferred underground, which made it possible to build a walking esplanade in place of the roadway of the river embankment, while simultaneously reducing the impact of traffic noise on the adjacent buildings.

Figure 5.19. Underground garages:
a - pitched-screw type; b - the same, rotary with an elevator cabin rotating around a vertical axis; c - with a monorail conveyor lift; 1 - engine room of the lift; 2 - lift cabin; 3installed vehicle; 4 - conveyor monorail; 5 - platform for cars moving on a monorail

The authors do not consider other types of intersections at two levels, equipped with underground structures. These issues are discussed quite fully in the specialized literature on traffic organization.
One of the most serious transport problems in Russian cities is the problem of storing individual vehicles. In past times, it was not given due attention. Urban planners assumed that the country's engineering industry could not meet the demand for cars.

Rice. 5.20. Semi-underground parking garages:
a - embedded in a hill; b - in the courtyard, combined with an underground passage for loading goods into stores (entrances to the underground space from the ends); c - in the “well” courtyard, covered at the floor level of the second floor and using the dimensions of the building; d - the same, but under part of the yard; 1 - air hoods from the garage; 2 - gas-tight ceiling; 3 - surface of the cut hill; 4 - travel to shops; 5 - ramp (arrows indicate entrances to the garage)

The projects of new urban formations included solutions with a minimum number of parking lots by international standards. When reconstructing old-built areas, they were practically not provided for due to the lack of free space within the blocks. As a result, the streets, alleys and courtyards of large cities were filled with settling cars.

Within old buildings, the described phenomenon can be mitigated by constructing underground parking lots. Temporary parking lots must be built simultaneously with administrative buildings and shopping and recreational complexes. Sometimes they are combined with retail buildings, placed in specially designated tiers of shopping and pedestrian streets. One such solution is shown in Fig. 5.18. The fragment shows how parking was arranged in the lower tiers of the underground structure under Tverskaya Street in Moscow.

Multi-storey parking lots are built within the courtyard space of the blocks (Fig. 5.19). As a rule, they should be compact and not occupy large areas. Therefore, ramp entrances to tiers of multi-person parking lots, such as those shown in Fig. 5.19, d, rarely done. More often, ramps are replaced with elevators (Fig. 5.19, b and c).

Multi-storey multi-person parking lots are complex engineering structures, the construction of which can take years. In the conditions of functioning residential buildings, such construction is not always feasible, therefore, all over the world, when reconstructing residential areas, they resort to the solutions shown in Fig. 5.20. In one case, the terrain is used (scheme a and c), in another, it is combined with entrances to the warehouse areas of stores (scheme b), in the third, short ramps are installed (scheme d).

Partial placement of a parking lot within the dimensions of a building is rational if it is built according to two- and three-bay schemes, but with internal supports in the form of columns. Adapting the basements of houses with internal walls is irrational, since it requires high costs for punching and strengthening openings or replacing walls with pillars.

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