The problem of interpersonal relations in a team. Practical recommendations on problems of interpersonal psychological counseling

State autonomous educational institution

Average vocational education

"Baikal Basic Medical College

Ministry of Health of the Republic of Buryatia"

Interpersonal relations in the student body

Andreeva L. M.

Introduction

§ 2. Research on motivation for going to college

§.3. Analysis of the results of a study of interpersonal relationships using sociometry

§ 4. Analysis of the results of research on self-esteem in the student group

Conclusion

List of information sources used

Introduction

Relevance

The system of secondary vocational education in Russia is undergoing transformation and adapting to new market conditions. At the same time, health care reform places new demands on nursing professionals. Today, medical institutions need not just a nurse, but a specialist who can creatively approach his work, a well-educated professional.

The idea of integrity, unity of the student’s personal and professional development formed the basis for the formation of a future specialist. The standard of the graduate model includes such integral personality characteristics as competence, emotional and behavioral flexibility.

The basis for assessing these qualities is a combination of a number of psychological techniques that make it possible to track and form a standard of a graduate’s personality.

The art of communication, the ability to build relationships with people, and find an approach to them are necessary for everyone. This skill lies at the heart of life and professional success.

Adolescence is the age when a significant expansion of the social circle occurs. At the end of adolescence, the individual is focused on mastering a profession. According to the authors Mukhina V.S., Gamezo M.V., Petrova E.A., Khukhlaeva O.V., youth is the so-called peak of interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal relationships arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have towards each other. Emotions and feelings perform a regulatory function in interactions between people due to the fact that they appear as a norm of behavior, as a willingness to act in a certain way in relation to certain people.

The relevance of the problem of interpersonal relationships in adolescence is that at this age the characteristics of the individual’s relationships with others are determined, which influence its formation and development, as well as the development of individuality; in the actions of the individual, a set of norms, rules and forms of behavior is formed, the individual asserts his place in society.

The problem of interpersonal relationships was considered in Russian psychology by V.N. Myasishchev, A.V. Petrovsky, A.A. Bodalev, Ya.L. Kolominsky, E.O. Smironova. Myasishchev V.N. developed a theory of relationships, in which a person’s relationship is always structural and includes the simplest emotional experiences; through the inclusion of evaluative attitudes in connection with norms and normative criteria, beliefs are formed. Bodalev A.A. developed patterns of relationship formation. Kolominsky Ya.L. defines communication as “such informational and substantive interaction between people, during which their interpersonal relationships are realized, manifested and formed.”

Purpose of the study:

Research objectives:

.Develop recommendations for the formation of interpersonal relationships

Object of study- interpersonal relationships

Subject of study

Hypothesis:if corrective classes are conducted to build team cohesion, the level of interpersonal relationships will increase

The methodological basis of the study is a set of philosophical, socio-psychological principles that reveal the essence of the psychology of interpersonal relationships.

The theoretical significance of the study is that it allows us to expand and clarify the idea of interpersonal relationships in adolescence. The theoretical and experimental results are significant for personality psychology.

The practical significance lies in the fact that the data obtained in it make it possible to determine ways to optimize the problem of interpersonal relationships in society. The results of the study can be used in the practice of secondary school psychologists. educational institutions to diagnose the characteristics of interpersonal relationships.

interpersonal relationship student body

Chapter I. The problem of interpersonal relationships in psychology

By studying an individual, we turn to his immediate environment, and through the prism of interpersonal relationships, his microsociety, we begin to better understand the problems of the individual and the roots of his personification.

If we talk about attitude, then we must keep in mind the subjective connection that is established by a person, an event and manifests itself in his emotional reactions and certain activities.

V.N. Myasishchev gave a classic definition of personality relationships: “Relationships are an integral system of individual, selective, conscious connections of a person with different aspects of objective reality, including three interrelated components: a person’s attitude to people, to himself, to objects of the external world.”

The definition of “interpersonal” indicates not only that the object of the relationship is another person, but also the mutual direction of the relationship. Interpersonal relationships differ from such types as self-attitude, attitude towards objects, intergroup relations.

The concept of “interpersonal relationships” focuses on the emotional and sensory aspect of interaction between people and introduces the time factor and analysis of communication, since under the condition of interpersonal communication, through the continuous exchange of information, the dependence of the people who have come into contact on each other arises, and mutual responsibility for the existing relationship.

Human interaction with social system is carried out through a set of connections, thanks to which he becomes a person, a subject of activity and individuality. Relations that arise between people in the process of communication, joint practical and spiritual activities are defined as social relations. The reasons for such relationships can be industrial, political, legal, moral, religious, psychological and others.

Psychological relationships between people are usually divided into official and informal in accordance with the organization where they are formed. Official relationships are sanctioned, documented and controlled by society or individual representatives. Informal relationships may be recognized and even encouraged by formal organizations, but they are not documented.

Distinguish between business and personal or (interpersonal relationships). Business relationships are associated with educational or work joint activities and are determined by them. Personal relationships can be evaluative (admiration, popularity) and effective (related to interaction); they are determined not so much by objective conditions as by the subjective need for communication and the satisfaction of this need.

N.N. Obozov offers the following classification of interpersonal relationships: relationships of acquaintance, friendship, comradely, friendship, love, marital, family and destructive. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, selectivity and choice of partners, and the function of the relationship. The main criterion, in his opinion, is the extent and depth of a person’s involvement in a relationship, and additional criteria are the distance between partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role clichés in acts of communication, norms of relationships, and requirements for the conditions of contact. According to N.N. Obozov, different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion in communication of certain levels of personality characteristics

Interpersonal relationships in a group can be considered statically, in the form in which they have formed at a given point in time, and dynamically, i.e. in the process of development. In the first case, the features of the existing system of relations are analyzed, in the second - the laws of their transformation and development. These two approaches often coexist with each other and complement each other.

Relationships in groups naturally change. At first, at the initial stage of group development, they are relatively indifferent (people who do not know or have little knowledge knowledgeable friend each other, cannot definitely relate to each other), then they can become conflicting, and when favorable conditions turn into collectivist.

When analyzing the life and activities of an individual who enters into communication with other people, they most often abstract from the broad understanding of the category “relationship”, taking into account only its narrower meaning, in this case we are talking about interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships are a type of personal relationship that is revealed in relationships with other people. Interpersonal relationships are emotional in nature. They are accompanied by various experiences (likes and dislikes). The term “relationships” is used to denote interpersonal relationships in psychology.

The main criterion is depth - a measure of a person’s involvement in a relationship. In the structure of a personality, several levels of manifestation of its characteristics can be distinguished: general species, sociocultural, psychological, individual. Sociocultural characteristics include: nationality, profession, education, political and religious affiliation, social status.

Psychological characteristics include: intelligence, motivation, character, temperament, abilities.

To the individual - everything individually unique, determined by the characteristics of a person’s life.

Different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion of different levels of personality in communication. The greatest inclusion of personality, up to individual characteristics, occurs in friendly relations.

According to the second criterion, the greatest selectivity is characterized by friendly, marital, and love relationships. The least selectivity is typical for acquaintance relationships.

The third criterion - the difference in the functions of relationships, means that the functions of relationships are manifested in the difference in their content, psychological meaning for partners.

Functions refer to tasks and issues that are resolved in interpersonal relationships.

In addition to the main ones, additional criteria are identified. These include: the distance between communication partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role stereotypes in acts of communication, norms of relationships, requirements for the conditions of contact. The general pattern is as follows: the deeper the relationship, the shorter the distance; the more frequent the contacts, the fewer role clichés.

In friendships, one can distinguish instrumental relationships and emotional-confessional ones.

Emotionally confessional friendships are based on mutual sympathy, emotional attachment, and trust. This type of relationship is characterized by: decreased self-control and looseness in communication, removal of social masks of behavior - the opportunity to be oneself, the predominance of a positive evaluative attitude of partners.

The opposite of friendly relationships is hostile relationships. This type relationship involves negative emotional attitudes towards the partner. hostile relationships manifest themselves in a lack of trust, violation of the partner’s plans, obstacles in activities, and deliberate lowering of the partner’s self-esteem.

Through interpersonal relationships, a person can indirectly become involved in the system of social relations. Initially, such inclusion occurs through a person’s immediate environment, but as they grow older, the boundaries expand. Informal, emotionally rich, personally significant interpersonal relationships create the basis for the formation of personality.

The focus is on M.I. Lisina and her employees were not only the external, behavioral picture of communication, but also the needs and motives of communication, which in essence are relationships. First of all, the concepts of “communication” and “relationship” should be correlated.

Communication was quite widely used in the context of the activity approach and was itself considered as a special type of activity. Interpersonal relationships were included in the problems of communication. At the same time, interpersonal relationships were intensively studied within the framework of relationship psychology, founded by A.L. Lazursky and V.N. Myasishchev.

It is characteristic that the activity approach developed mainly within the framework of theoretical and experimental psychology, and the psychology of relationships developed mainly in the sphere of psychological practice.

In contrast to action, attitude:

.Has no purpose and cannot be arbitrary

2.It is not a process and, therefore, does not have a space-time development; it is a state rather than a process;

.It does not have culturally normalized external means of implementation and, therefore, cannot be presented and assimilated in a generalized form; it is always extremely individual and concrete.

At the same time, attitude is inextricably linked with action. It generates action, changes and transforms in action, and itself is formed and arises in action. Personal meaning is both a formative element of consciousness (which, as is known, precedes action) and the main characteristic of action, and its result. The resulting attitude may be both the source of the action and its product, but it may not be, since the attitude does not always express itself in external activity.

Let's consider the influence of various factors on the structure of formal and informal relationships in a study group, and the characteristics of communication in a student group.

Interpersonal relationships arise and function within each type of social relationship, including during training at a medical college, and allow specific people to express themselves as individuals in acts of communication and interaction.

Communication is a prerequisite for the process of educating and training students. Its role and importance are determined by a number of factors.

Firstly, human life at any level involves the establishment of information connections and contacts, mutual understanding and interaction between people.

Secondly, no human communities, including student groups, can carry out full-fledged joint activities unless contact is established between people and mutual understanding is achieved among them.

Thirdly, the very psychological nature of a person causes him to need the support and help of other people, to study and use their life experience, to receive the necessary advice and information, which is especially important and necessary for first-year students.

Fourthly, the successful solution of educational tasks, activating students to complete them, making decisions, monitoring the execution of orders is carried out through communication.

In domestic social psychology, there are three different types of interpersonal communication in their orientation: imperative, manipulation and dialogue.

In the conditions of a medical college, the third type of communication is clearly manifested, i.e. dialogical communication. This is an equal subject-subjective interaction, which aims at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. Its effectiveness is largely determined by strict adherence to the rules: psychological attitude towards the state of the interlocutor; non-evaluative perception of the partner’s personality; perception of the partner as an equal, having his own opinion. Naturally, this type of communication requires the teacher to have extensive experience in working with people, as well as certain personal qualities; restraint, respect for the interlocutor, patience, etc.

Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner. They resort to it in order to achieve control over the partner’s behavior and thoughts, to force him to certain actions. The peculiarity of imperative communication is that the partner is a passive party. At the same time, during communication, its ultimate goal, its coercive nature, is not hidden.

Manipulative communication is one of the forms of interpersonal communication in which influence on a partner to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. With manipulative communication, the goal is also to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person, but the partner in this case is not informed about the true goals of communication. They either hide or are replaced by others. Most often, manipulation is used in business relations and in the field of propaganda. Manipulative communication is not acceptable in a medical college, as it may lead to mistrust on the part of students.

The effectiveness of communication depends on individual, personal and socio-psychological conditions and prerequisites. In psychology, these include: a clear understanding of the goals of communication; the presence of appropriate motives; mastery of means of communication; the communication skills and knowledge of the communicants are well formed.

The central component of the psychology of the student body, the core of the socio-psychological climate in it, is the relationship between students in two main forms.

When considering the dynamics of student relationships, it is necessary to take into account the features, specific manifestations and contradictions characteristic of adolescence at the stage of transition to maturity.

Self-esteem is an important regulator of human behavior; relationships with others, criticality and demands on oneself, and attitude towards one’s successes and failures depend on it. Self-esteem greatly influences our perception of others.R. Nemov writes that one of the facts that definitely influences the correctness of people’s perception of each other is the primacy effect.

Its essence is that the primary impression of a person, the first personal information received about him, can have a strong, lasting influence on the formation of the image. The primary impression of a person is influenced by such little things as gestures, facial expressions, appearance, speech, and therefore, with low self-esteem, it is difficult to actually make a good impression, since low self-esteem, in the first place, prevents a person from revealing himself as an individual and realizing his potential.

When communicating with a person with low self-esteem, you feel that person’s attitude towards you subconscious level(subconsciously catching facial expressions, gestures, intonations) and an elementary law comes into play: “Why would I make extra efforts and treat a person better than he expects?” People with low self-esteem generally do not strive for a leadership position in a team.

The most important feature of interpersonal relationships is that the emotional component plays a very significant role in information. This is not the case in other types of relations, such as industrial and political. The content and degree of expression of emotions and feelings that students can experience in relation to each other are extremely diverse: a deep sense of respect, indifference, hatred, willingness to sacrifice everything for a friend. All emotions and feelings associated with interpersonal relationships can be divided into two large groups- a group of positive and a group of negative feelings and emotions.

The first group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, in which the subjects of the relationship demonstrate readiness and desire for cooperation, joint actions (feelings of sympathy and respect for another, positive emotions, manifested as a result of a high assessment of his moral, business and other qualities).

The second group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, when there is no desire to cooperate, interaction becomes impossible, antipathy, contempt, and negative emotions arise.

Likes and dislikes, as an important psychological element of interpersonal relationships, affect the psychological climate of the group, and sometimes of the entire course, especially if likes or dislikes arise between the leaders of microgroups. No less significantly the nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by the position of the individual in the system of group relations, which is characterized, first of all, by its status and roles performed.

Status is the position of a subject in interpersonal relationships. Status assigns a social function to a person by normatively endowing him with rights and responsibilities. Status is realized through a system of roles, that is, various functions that a person performs in accordance with his position in the group. Role behavior is relatively flexible; it can change and improve depending on the situation and the dynamics of the individual. Therefore, the role can be considered a dynamic aspect of status.

The totality of subordinate positions of a group in the system of intragroup interpersonal preferences forms a sociometric structure small group. A system of emotional likes and dislikes between group members that determine the unofficial sociometric status of a group member.

The sociometric status of a group member is a fairly stable value. The value is not only preserved, but also “transfers” with the student to another group. The explanation for this is very simple. Status is a group category and does not exist outside the group; the student gets used to fulfilling the roles assigned to him by his permanent status position. Certain habitual forms of response to the words and actions of others are fixed in behavior. Facial expressions, postures and other non-verbal reactions are also “adjusted” to a certain role.

Some psychological and social factors influence the magnitude of a student’s sociometric status. Firstly, appearance - facial expression, clothing, hairstyle, physique; secondly, the nature of speech - what is said and how, the content and form of communication style; thirdly, behavior - the nature of actions, their motives, manner of behavior; fourthly, activity - what and how the student does, goals, motives and methods of activity, its quality. Each group has a system of its own valuable qualities for this community. High status is given to those who possess them in due measure.

A student's status often depends on his position in other groups and the success of his activities. A student who has distinguished himself in sports and amateur performances can improve his position in the group and on the course.

Each status includes a number of roles. For example, a student who has the status of a prefect behaves differently with other students. The set of roles corresponding to a given status is called a role set. There are formal roles, which are performed in accordance with the officially assigned status, and informal ones (“the soul of the group”, “the ringleader”). With long-term interactions, roles become stable. And in the future they greatly influence the behavior of the individual and his actions.

The relationship between status and role in formal and informal groups is different. In a formal group, statuses are normatively defined and delimited. A person first occupies a status (appointed or elected to a position), and then begins to perform a role. There may be cases of occupying a status without playing a role or with playing a role. In an informal group, a person performs a role while occupying a status.

From this it is obvious that the important point is the choice of the group's asset. This should be preceded by long and labor-intensive work by the class teacher to analyze the existing interpersonal relationships in the group. In the future, the psychological climate in the study group, as well as the effectiveness of solving problems of various kinds, will depend on this choice. The optimal option is when members of the active group are also leaders of microgroups.

The study of microgroups in a student group, the ability to distinguish between them is an integral part of the work of the class teacher, and he must understand that such groups exist within the framework of any small social community. Numerous subgroups are not very stable. Within the microgroup, their own norms and rules of group life are established, and it is the microgroup that most often initiates changes in these groups. A student entering a new group first of all faces the choice of a microgroup that would accept him and approve of his behavior. The teacher in his work must act taking into account the reaction of the microgroup, especially those of them who occupy dominant positions.

A significant influence on the nature of interpersonal relationships is exerted by the structure of social power in a group, which, realized through the actual or potential right to influence on the part of certain group members, can be exercised in various forms, among them the phenomena of leadership and management are the most studied.

§1. The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychology

Currently, there is a large number of psychological studies devoted to various aspects of the problem of interpersonal relationships.

The developments of domestic psychologists are based on the ideas of B.G. Ananyev and V.N. Myasishchev about the nature of interpersonal interaction, in which three components can be distinguished: people’s knowledge of each other, their relationship to each other in the form of an emotional response, and the treatment of a person with a person in the process of communication.

B.G. Ananyev considers communication as a social and individual phenomenon simultaneously manifested in information, communication and the transformation of a person’s inner world, which occurs in various specific situations of communication and interaction between people. At the same time, he establishes the relationship between external conditions and interpersonal communication, and also makes an attempt to determine the optimal amount of communication that is necessary for the development of the individual as a whole. He considered the main directions of the influence of communication on the formation of the mental world of the individual and the relationship of communication with other types of professional activity of the individual (1982).

V.N. Myasishchev viewed communication as a process of interaction between specific individuals influencing each other in a certain way. In his works, he analyzed the influence of conditions that can promote or hinder interpersonal interaction, as well as the role of communication in personality development (1973).

A person's self-awareness is possible only through his relationships with others. This idea was expressed most clearly by S.L. Rubinstein in his last work “Man and the World”: “I” cannot be revealed as an object of direct awareness, through relationships with oneself, isolated from other people. The initial condition for my existence is the existence of personality, subjects with consciousness, the existence of the psyche, the consciousness of other people."

The approach outlined by Rubinstein is developed in his works by K.A. Albukhanov-Slavskaya, for whom the central point of self-determination is self-determination, one’s own activity, a conscious desire to take a certain position. Bye. Albukhanova-Slavskaya, self-determination is an individual’s awareness of his position, which is formed within the coordinates of the system of relations. At the same time, she emphasizes that the self-determination and social activity of the individual depend on how the system of relations develops (to the collective subject, to one’s place in the team and to its other members).

The development and experimental solution of problems of interpersonal communication at the intersection of philosophy and general psychology was carried out by B.F. Lomov, in the field of general and social psychology G.M. Andreeva and A.V. Petrovsky, general psychology, psycholinguistics - A.A. Leontiev, social and differential psychology - A.A. Bodalev, V.A. Kan-Kalik, interpersonal perception was studied by A.A. Bodalev, G. A Kovalev and others.

In the studies of A.A. Bodalev considers interpersonal communication that occurs in the process of joint activity and is its means. It is noted that in the process of official business communication all components of interpersonal communication are present, but they acquire the character of the most important factor in the effectiveness of professional activity.

The study of interpersonal relations at the interethnic level was carried out by L. Ahnert, M.I. Volovikova, L.R. Goldberg, V.V. Znakov, A.G. Shmelev, A.I. Egorova and others, who in their research drew attention to the influence of interethnic differences on the nature of interpersonal relationships.

The role and place of interpersonal relationships in the educational space was emphasized by A.A. Rean, Ya.L. Kolominsky, D.N. Isaev, V.E. Kagan, N.E. Kolyzaeva, I.S. Kohn, V.A. Losenkov, T.V. Kornilova, E.L. Grigorenko, T.S. Koshmanova, N.V. Kuzmina and others.

Stylistic features of interpersonal interaction were studied by T.E. Argentova, G.A. Berulava, L.I. Wasserman, V.A. Goryanina, E.A. Klimov, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.V. Latynov, V.S. Merlin and others.

Analysis of interpersonal family relations carried out by A.N. Volkova, V.P. Levkovich, A.E. Lichko, T.M. Mishina, A.N. Obozova, T.G. Rybakova, V.A. Smekhov, T.M. Trapeznikova, A.M. Shershevsky, E.G. Eidmiller, V.V. Justitsky and others.

The study of interpersonal relationships based on the activity approach was carried out by E.V. Zalyubovskaya, N.V. Kuzmina and others.

The influence of feelings and emotions on the nature of relationships between people was studied by D.I. Dzhidaryan, K.E. Izard, I. S. Kohn, V.A. Labunskaya, N.D. Levitov, K.S. Lewis, Y.A. Mendzheritskaya, K. Muzdybaev, I.M. Paley and others.

In the study of various problems of management psychology (E.E. Vendrov, F. Genov, B.F. Lomov, V.M. Shepeli and others, the large role of interpersonal communication in achieving the final result of professional activity is also noted, while the psychological characteristics of such communication , is mainly determined by the goals, objectives, and structure of a specific professional activity.

In foreign psychology, more than a dozen major trends have emerged that study interpersonal relationships. Blackock and P. Wilkin developed a behavioral approach based on dyadic interaction theory (1979).

American psychologist E. Erikson, in his book Young Luther (1958), developed his theory of the formation of personal identity. The book examines the concept of "moratorium" - a period of apparent inaction or withdrawal, search and reflection, which in young people precedes the achievements of maturity. Erikson examines Luther's "identity crisis" and the way Luther overcomes his internal conflicts.

In Childhood and Society (1950), Erikson emphasized the importance of adolescence and other periods in a person's life. From his point of view, the life cycle is determined by a sequence of crises that are resolved and give way to new ones, thanks to which the individual realizes his capabilities. A person at any age can either be in agreement with himself, or he can be torn apart by internal contradictions. Rejecting psychological determinism, Erikson emphasized the role of a wide range of influences that shape development not only in childhood, but also in adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

E. Erikson collected his essays in the book Understanding and Responsibility (1964) and Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968).

R. Burns, one of the leading English scientists in the field of psychology, who was seriously involved in issues of self-knowledge, defines the concept as follows: “Self-concept is the totality of all a person’s ideas about himself, associated with their assessment. The descriptive component of the Self-concept is often called the image of the Self or picture of I. The component associated with the attitude towards oneself or to individual qualities is called self-esteem or self-acceptance. The self-concept, in essence, determines not just what an individual is, but also what he thinks about himself, how he looks on its active beginning and development opportunities in the future."

It should be noted that any of the images of the self has a complex origin, ambiguous in its structure, consisting of three aspects of the relationship: physical, emotional, mental and social self.

The study of specific interaction conditions that increase or decrease the effectiveness of interpersonal cooperation was carried out by G. Allport (1950), K. Stefan (1985), S. Cook (1956).

Research on the influence of minorities as a source of innovation in society belongs to S. Muscovy (1976), D. Levine (1980), M. Dome and E. Van Evermeet (19800

In the works of U. Duaz, G. Gerard, M. Hoyt (1974), G. Tajfel (1971), D. Turner (1975) identified very important mechanisms of interpersonal interaction based on the formation of the individual’s sense of identity with the group.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in a small group was the focus of attention of R. Bales, S. Milgram, S. Moscovia, F. Shambo, M. Shaw and other authors.

Relationships between people incline researchers to analyze interpersonal relationships using physical concepts D. Homans (1950) and the doctrine of economic man by D. Thibault and G. Keli (1959). To get closer to the real picture of the world, some scientists are beginning to take the opposite path - the path of complicating the model of interpersonal processes by including more and more external and internal variables that influence people's behavior.

T. Wilder, describing interpersonal relationships, introduced the expression “constellation of significant”: each person should have 2 * 9 people spiritually close to him (men and women, among whom are older than him in age, his peers and younger in age. Rarely, but maybe never, these 18 vacancies are filled at the same time: there are unfilled places - some for many years, some have an older or younger friend all their lives, and sometimes none. The more vacant places in this constellation of interpersonal relationships, the more a person suffers from loneliness (1991).

The development of the theory of interpersonal interaction was significantly influenced by the ideas of one of the founders of humanistic psychology, C. Rogers (1993), who identified three main conditions for dialogic communication:

a) naturalness and spontaneity in the expression of feelings and sensations that arise between partners at each specific moment of interaction

b) an unconditionally positive attitude towards other people and towards oneself, caring about the other and accepting him as an equal communication partner

c) empathic understanding, the ability to accurately and adequately empathize with the feelings, moods, thoughts of another during contacts with him.

The theory of structural balance, the theory of communicative acts, the theory of congruence, and the theory of causal attribution made a great contribution to understanding the characteristics of interpersonal communication.

According to F. Heider, one of the authors of the theory of structural balance, these judgments express ideas about a person’s desire for a balanced cognitive structure. Precisely because the analytical model of these theories includes three obligatory elements, namely, a cognizing subject, another subject, to which the first relates in a certain way, and, finally, an object about which both the perceiver and his partner have some kind of opinion - then research situations essentially turn out to be situations of interpersonal interaction, and the researcher’s task, according to this theory, is to determine which type of relationship between the three designated elements gives a stable balanced structure, and which causes a situation of discomfort.

According to T. Newcomb, in accordance with the theory of communicative acts, the similarity of relationships will give rise to hostility between them. To bring the system into a state of balance, it is necessary to conduct negotiations, the purpose of which will be to bring closer the positions of A and B in relation to the subject of disagreement. This model has found its application in the study of small communication processes, namely, in determining the conditions for the effectiveness of persuasive speech influence on the consumer of information (1972)

An important contribution of cognitivism to the study of interpersonal relationships is the study of such a phenomenon as causal attribution, that is, how people interpret the reasons for the behavior of other people in conditions of insufficient information about these reasons, and in the theory of interpersonal relationships, special importance is attached to attribution regarding the behavior of a partner. interaction (E. Jones, 1990; K. Davis, 1997; D. Kelly, 1958, etc.).

The so-called “second cognitive revolution” of R. Harré (19960 and K. Gergen (1986)) in their studies on discursive psychology and the theory of social constructivism, drew attention to the fact that the main field of research becomes language, that is, the study of oral and written language communication occurring in normal, natural conditions.The main object of the study is the participants in the conversation, the “community of interlocutors,” and it is argued that speech not only serves human activity, but constructs both types of activity and interpersonal relationships.

Particular attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal attractiveness, the study of which is presented in the works of E. Aronson, E. Berschild, L. Lee, K. Libertan, L. Peplow, E. Walster, etc.

S. Dak in his works on social psychology paid considerable attention to the relationships between people. B.T. Johnson and A.H. Igli studied the reasons for the manifestation of aggressiveness in relationships between people.A. Feingold attached great importance to the analysis of interpersonal relationships.R. Hogan, G. Kurfi, D. Hogan analyzed the problem of leadership in interpersonal relationships.H. Kim, s. Falbe, G. Yukl developed problems of subordination in interpersonal relationships.

A great contribution to the understanding of the characteristics of interpersonal communication was made by: the theory of structural balance by F. Heider, the theory of congruence by C. Osgood. Attracting attention are studies carried out in line with the theory of attachment (D. Bowlby and M. Ainsworth), according to which, as a result of the internalization of relationships with the object of primary attachment (first mother, then teacher, then peer, lover, etc.) stable forms develop , interpersonal relationships.

Particularly interesting works of this kind include the fundamental work of H. Blalock and M. Wilkin on the formal description of interpersonal processes (1979). Specialist in the field of family psychotherapy V. Satir identifies the most important components of interpersonal relationships between family members (1992).

§ 2. Features of interpersonal relationships in adolescence

Youth is a period of a person’s life, located ontogenetically between adolescence and adulthood, early youth. It is in youth that the formation of a person as an individual occurs, when a young person, having gone through the difficult path of ontogenetic identification of likeness to other people, appropriated from them socially significant personality traits, the ability to empathize, to have an active moral attitude towards people, towards himself and towards nature; the ability to assimilate conventional roles, norms, rules of behavior in society, etc.

Youth, which is the fifth stage in E. Erikson's life cycle diagram, is considered a very important period in human psychosocial development. E. Erikson's theoretical interest in this age and the problems characteristic of it prompted him to analyze this phase more deeply than other stages of the development of the “I”.

The new psychosocial parameter that appears in adolescence appears on the positive pole in the form of self-identity, and on the negative pole - in the form of role displacement. The task that young people face is to bring together all the knowledge they have by this time about themselves (what kind of sons or daughters they are, students, athletes, musicians, etc.) and combine, include these numerous images of themselves into one's self-identity, which represents the awareness of both the past and the future that logically follows from it.

E. Erikson (1982) emphasizes the psychosocial essence of the sense of self-identity of the “I”, paying close attention not to conflicts between psychological structures, but rather to the conflict within the “I” itself - that is, to the conflict of self-identity and role displacement. The main emphasis is on the self and how it is influenced by society, especially peer groups. Therefore, the self-identity of the “I” can be defined as follows.

In the definition of self-identity given by E. Erikson, three elements can be distinguished. First: young men and women must constantly perceive themselves as “internally identical to themselves.” In this case, the individual must form an image of himself, formed in the past and connecting with the future.

Second, significant others must also see “identity and wholeness” in the individual. This means that young people need confidence that the internal integrity they previously developed will be accepted by other people who are significant to them. To the extent that they may be unaware of both their self-concepts and their social images, their emerging sense of self-identity may be counteracted by doubt, timidity, and apathy.

Third: young people must achieve “increased confidence” that the internal and external plans of this wholeness are consistent with each other. Their perceptions of themselves must be confirmed by interpersonal experience through feedback.

According to E. Erikson, the basis for a favorable youth and the acquisition of a holistic sense of self-identity is laid in childhood. However, beyond what adolescents take away from their childhood, the development of their self-identity is strongly influenced by social groups with whom they identify themselves.

For example, E. Erikson drew attention to the fact that excessive identification with popular heroes (movie stars, super-athletes, rock musicians) or representatives of the counterculture (revolutionary leaders, skinheads, delinquent individuals) snatches the “flourishing self-identity” from the existing social environment, thereby suppressing the personality and limiting the growth of its self-identity.

In addition, the search for self-identity may be a more difficult process for certain groups of people. Rejecting parents as models for their self-identity, adolescents often seek alternative sources of support from peers as they redefine their self-image.

The problem of self-identity of young people is also immeasurably complicated due to the extremely rapid social change, requiring a revision of core values and norms.

The crisis of self-identity is manifested, at least recently, in three main areas of behavior of young people. These are: a) membership in a peer group b) the problem of choosing a career c) alcohol and drug use.

In our culture, ties to peer groups are very strong during this period; their influence on the values and attitudes of boys and girls is often greater than the influence of parents, schools, religious organizations or any other social structures(Massoby 1990). These groups help young people maintain their self-confidence at a time when they are experiencing truly physiological and ideological changes. By being aware of their own feelings, as well as being concerned about their peers, adolescents develop the ability to cope with other puzzling and sometimes frightening situations.

E. Erikson noted that the uniformity of clothing, body movements and facial expressions so often observed in youth is a defense against a confused, uncertain self-identity (1968). When young boys and girls do not clearly understand what they are, imitating their peers in clothing and behavior gives some sense of inner stability and security. In addition, their jewelry, hairstyle and music symbolize distance from parents and everything connected with the adult world.

According to E. Erikson, the inability to professional self-determination is a cause of serious concern for many young people. Simply put, in order to make a decision on choosing a profession, a teenager must determine what he is like. Since in our society different types of professional employment correspond to different lifestyles, choosing a career essentially turns into choosing a lifestyle as a whole. To make the right choice, young people need to have a good understanding of themselves, as well as an informed assessment of where they might fit best into working life. Ultimately, the choice of a particular career can in itself give an idea of what type of person a young man or woman wants to become.

Hesitation in choosing a profession among young people is often a manifestation of a more fundamental uncertainty in the sphere of their own self-identity.

The extremely widespread use of recreational drugs of all kinds, of which alcohol is the most common, shows that there is no simple explanation for what factors lead adolescents to use or become dependent on alcohol and drugs.

Depending on the specific person and the specific drug, the motives for starting to use drugs can be different: from curiosity, the search for thrills, peer pressure and the desire to earn their approval, escape from stress and rebellion against authority, the desire for self-knowledge, self-improvement. If these motives are considered in the context of E. Erikson’s theory, then their connection with the feeling of insufficient self-identity becomes clear. Young people who do not know who they are may find the experience of drinking and drugs very attractive in "groping" for the outer boundaries of their self. They assume that they will be able to discover a dimension of themselves that eludes them precisely when they are in sober, “correct” world.

Alcohol and drug use can temporarily alleviate the emotional stress that accompanies an identity crisis. Hesitating in choosing a profession, conflicting with parents, entering into fragile and unreliable relationships with peers, boys and girls can treat drugs as a means of immediately helping them go beyond themselves. Moreover, when they are in the same company with peers who use drugs, it is not difficult to understand how they can be “pressured,” especially if their status in the group also depends on drug use. A person with an established self-identity may resist such pressure, but adolescents with a diffuse self-identity may have difficulty complying.

It would be a mistake to assume that all aspects of adolescent behavior can be explained from the perspective of Erikson's theory. However, the concept of identity crisis is a preeminent theoretical approach for understanding many psychological problems of adolescence. In attempting to explain the basic lines of psychosocial development, Erikson made many lasting contributions.

Also, special neoplasms are characteristic of this age.

Age-related neoplasms are qualitative changes in personality development at certain age stages. They reveal the peculiarities of mental processes, states, and personality traits that characterize its transition to a higher degree of organization and functioning. Neoplasms of adolescence cover the cognitive, emotional, motivational, and volitional spheres of the psyche. They also manifest themselves in the structure of the personality: in interests, needs, inclinations, and character.

The central mental processes of adolescence are the development of consciousness and self-awareness. Thanks to the development of consciousness in the youth environment and to one’s own activities, the leading activity of the period of adolescence is educational and professional activity.

To the neoplasms of youth I.S. Cohn attributes the development of independent logical thinking, figurative memory, individual style of mental activity, interest in scientific research

The most important new development of this period is the development of self-education, that is, self-knowledge, and its essence is an attitude towards oneself. It includes a cognitive element (discovery of one’s “I,” a conceptual element (an idea of one’s individuality, qualities and essence) and an evaluative-volitional element (self-esteem, self-respect).

The main condition for the normal formation of personality is the experience of its emotional well-being. Self-esteem, the core characteristic of personality, depends on it. Emotional well-being is determined by the positive assessment of others. If a person experiences emotional well-being in a team, then its values and norms are perceived by him as his own, and an active position becomes meaningful and attractive. Only a benevolent attitude can awaken people's activity.

The development of reflection, that is, self-knowledge in the form of reflection on one’s own experiences, sensations and thoughts, determines a critical reassessment of previously established values and the meaning of life - perhaps their change and further development.

The meaning of life is the most important new formation of early youth. I.S. Cohn notes that it is during this period of life that everything becomes globally encompassing, taking into account the near and long term.

In adolescence, individualization of the individual is more pronounced; they form personal relationships that become especially important.

Friendship is the most important type of emotional attachment and interpersonal relationships in adolescence. Very often you can hear the opinion that under the influence of the increased mobility of society, the acceleration of the rhythm of life and the expansion of the circle of friends, the friendships of modern youth are becoming more superficial and extensive, that the ideal of exclusive and deep paired friendship, the friendship of Herzen and Ogarev, does not correspond to today's conditions that friendship is being replaced by wide groups of friends based on common entertainment, etc. But complaints about the impoverishment of friendship were heard at the beginning of our century, and in the era of romanticism, and in the Middle Ages, and in antiquity

The highest moral values - and friendship has always been considered such - have always been in short supply

The age dynamics of friendship, like other interpersonal relationships, are measured primarily by the degree of its selectivity, stability and intimacy. All these qualities increase with the transition from childhood to adolescence and from adolescence to youth.

The older a person is, the less influence external, situational factors have on his friendships. In youth, friendship can be maintained at a distance, since it is already internalized.

The increase in selectivity of friendships is accompanied by an increase in their stability. In the sphere of interpersonal relationships, this is expressed in an increase in tolerance: a quarrel, which in younger adolescents would mean the end of a friendship, in youth is perceived as a detail that can be neglected in order to preserve a deeper community.

Adolescence is the stage of making responsible decisions, one of which is the choice of profession. A student’s attitude toward a profession is determined by: his professional awareness, the dominant motivation for choice, and the personal qualities required by a particular profession.

The motives of a person are those internal forces that are associated with needs and encourage him to perform certain activities. Issues of the formation of professional motives, motives for choosing a profession are reflected in numerous works of domestic authors: I.S. Kona, E.A. Klimova, L.I. Bozhovich, V.D. Shadrikova, N.I. Kalugina.

The process of choosing a profession involves not one motive, but several. The variety of motives for choosing a profession can be reduced to three groups: a person chooses a profession because he likes the work process itself; because he understands how society needs the profession; because he wants to alleviate the suffering of the sick.

In adolescence, the group of peers retains the same important place in the lives of children as in adolescents. However, the nature of dependence on the collective is changing, and the demands of young men on the groups of which they are members are also changing. If the main thing for a teenager is to be included in collective relationships, then for boys and girls it is important not only to be accepted by their peers, but also to have a certain status in the group.

As for the nature of the structure of relationships in youth groups, it is significantly differentiated and stable. The difference in the position of the “stars” and the rejected or isolated members of the group becomes sharper.

A developed system of relationships in a group is the result of its formation as a psychological community.

Adolescence is not a phase of “preparation for life,” but an extremely important stage of the life path that has independent, absolute value. Whether the teenage years will be happy and creative or will remain in the memory of today's student as filled with petty conflicts, dull cramming and bitching, largely depends on the atmosphere prevailing in college, on his own relationships with teachers and peers.

Chapter II. Empirical study of interpersonal relationships

§ 1. Organization, methods and procedure of the study

Purpose of the study:consideration of theoretical and practical aspects of the problem of interpersonal relations in the student body

Research objectives:

1.Conduct an analysis of domestic and foreign literature, covering interpersonal relationships.

2.To measure the degree of cohesion in a student group, to identify the status of group members based on signs of sympathy and antipathy, to detect microgroups

.Analyze practical questions interpersonal relationships of students using the example of first-year students

.Develop recommendations for the formation of interpersonal relationships in a student group

Object of study- interpersonal relationships

Subject of study- formation of interpersonal relationships

Hypothesis:the level of interpersonal relationships between students will improve with the help of remedial classes in interpersonal relationships

Research stages:

.Selection of literature and search for experimental base

2.Comparative experimental and diagnostic studies of interpersonal relationships in adolescence

.Conducting classes aimed at improving interpersonal relationships

.Formative experimental and diagnostic studies

To solve the problems, the following research methods were used:

.Comparative method

2.Ascertaining and forming experiments

.Method of analysis of primary and secondary data processing

The study involved first-year subjects (students) of the experimental and control groups. The techniques were carried out on one day, which made it possible to exclude the influence of temporary situational factors. These organizational measures made it possible to increase the reliability of the results obtained.

In our study we used the following methods:

.Questionnaire "Motivation for entering college"; "Motive for choosing a medical specialty"

2.Sociometry "Method of sociometric measurements"

.Drawing test "Nonexistent animal"

To analyze the motivation of students to enroll in medical college and the motive for choosing a medical specialty, the following methodology was proposed - a survey.

Questionnaire No. 1

Dear student! Answer the question: "Why did you go to medical school?" Underline one answer. (Questions for questionnaire No. 1, Appendix 1) The results are processed using a five-point system. Questions 1-5 b; 2-4 b; 3-1 b; 4-3 b; 5-2 b.

Questionnaire No. 2

Dear student! Answer one question: “What prompted you to choose a medical specialty?” Underline one answer. (Questions for questionnaire No. 2, Appendix 1) The results are processed using a five-point system. Questions 1-4 b; 2-5 b; 3-3 b; 4-1b; 5 - 2 b.

To identify the student’s position in the system of interpersonal relationships, the sociometric method of J. Moreno is used.

Diagnostic goal:

a) measuring the degree of cohesion-disunity in the group;

b) identification of “sociometric positions”

c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may be headed by informal leaders

Sociometric methodology is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations with a view to their further change. Obviously, some aspects of the children’s relationships may be hidden from the teacher, due to the formality of the situation or the personal characteristics of the teacher himself.

The sociometric procedure is as follows.

There cannot be complete anonymity in this technique, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. When sociometry criteria are selected, they are entered into a special card. When conducting a survey with limited elections, to the right of each criterion, as many graphs are drawn on the card as the number of elections we expect to allow in a given group (Appendix 2). Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes, or vice versa, antipathies, trust or distrust. You cannot select members of other groups. As a result of the sociometric procedure and simple statistical calculations, it is possible to identify “leaders”, “preferred”, “rejected” in the group. It is possible to calculate indices of group cohesion and emotional expansiveness of the group.

First you need to build a sociomatrix. The election results are posted on the matrix. Analysis of the sociomatrix for each criterion gives a fairly clear picture of the relationships in the group. The main advantage of the sociomatrix is the ability to present elections in numerical form, which in turn allows you to rank group members according to the number of elections received and given, and to establish the order of influences in a particular group.

Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram is constructed - a map of sociometric elections. The sociogram allows you to produce comparative analysis structures of relationships in a group in space on the “shield” plane using special signs.

Analysis of the sociogram begins with finding the central, most influential members, then mutual pairs and groupings. Groups are made up of interconnected individuals who seek to choose each other.

If we talk about attitude, then we must keep in mind the subjective connection that is established by a person, an event and manifests itself in his emotional reactions and certain activities.

A person’s interaction with the social system is carried out through a set of connections, thanks to which he becomes a person, a subject of activity and individuality. Relations that arise between people in the process of communication, joint practical and spiritual activities are defined as social relations. The reasons for such relationships can be industrial, political, legal, moral, religious, psychological and others.

Relationships in groups naturally change. At first, at the initial stage of group development, they are relatively indifferent (people who do not know or know each other poorly cannot definitely relate to each other), then they can become conflictual, and under favorable conditions turn into collectivist.

Psychological characteristics include: intelligence, motivation, character, temperament, abilities.

To the individual - everything individually unique, determined by the characteristics of a person’s life.

Different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion of different levels of personality in communication. The greatest inclusion of personality, down to individual characteristics, occurs in friendly relationships.

According to the second criterion, the greatest selectivity is characterized by friendly, marital, and love relationships. The least selectivity is typical for acquaintance relationships.

Functions refer to tasks and issues that are resolved in interpersonal relationships.

In friendships, one can distinguish instrumental relationships and emotional-confessional ones.

The opposite of friendly relationships is hostile relationships. This type of relationship involves negative emotional attitudes towards the partner. hostile relationships manifest themselves in a lack of trust, violation of the partner’s plans, obstacles in activities, and deliberate lowering of the partner’s self-esteem.

At the center of this direction lies the idea of personality, the core of which is an individually holistic system of subjective-evaluative relations to reality.

In contrast to action, attitude:

1. Has no purpose and cannot be arbitrary

2. It is not a process and, therefore, does not have a spatio-temporal development; it is a state rather than a process;

3. Does not have culturally normalized external means of implementation and, therefore, cannot be presented and assimilated in a generalized form; it is always extremely individual and concrete.

Let's consider the influence of various factors on the structure of formal and informal relationships in a study group, and the characteristics of communication in a student group.

Communication is a prerequisite for the process of educating and training students. Its role and importance are determined by a number of factors.

Firstly, human life at any level involves the establishment of information connections and contacts, mutual understanding and interaction between people.

Secondly, no human communities, including student groups, can carry out full-fledged joint activities unless contact is established between people and mutual understanding is achieved among them.

Fourthly, the successful solution of educational tasks, activating students to complete them, making decisions, monitoring the execution of orders is carried out through communication.

In domestic social psychology, there are three different types of interpersonal communication in their orientation: imperative, manipulation and dialogue.

Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner. They resort to it in order to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of a partner, forcing him to take certain actions. The peculiarity of imperative communication is that the partner is a passive party. At the same time, during communication, its ultimate goal, its coercive nature, is not hidden.

The central component of the psychology of the student body, the core of the socio-psychological climate in it, is the relationship between students in two main forms.

When communicating with a person with low self-esteem, he feels the person’s attitude toward himself on a subconscious level (subconsciously picking up facial expressions, gestures, intonations) and an elementary law comes into play: “Why would I make extra efforts and treat the person better than he expects?” People with low self-esteem generally do not strive for a leadership position in a team.

The most important feature of interpersonal relationships is that the emotional component plays a very significant role in information. This is not the case in other types of relations, such as industrial and political. The content and degree of expression of emotions and feelings that students can experience in relation to each other are extremely diverse: a deep sense of respect, indifference, hatred, willingness to sacrifice everything for a friend. All emotions and feelings associated with interpersonal relationships can be divided into two large groups - a group of positive and a group of negative feelings and emotions.

The second group includes bringing together and unifying feelings, when there is no desire to cooperate, interaction becomes impossible, antipathy, contempt, and negative emotions arise.

The set of subordinate positions of a group in the system of intragroup interpersonal preferences forms the sociometric structure of a small group. A system of emotional likes and dislikes between group members that determine the unofficial sociometric status of a group member.

A significant influence on the nature of interpersonal relationships is exerted by the structure of social power in a group, which, realized through the actual or potential right to influence on the part of certain group members, can be exercised in various forms, among which the phenomena of leadership and management are the most studied.

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………..3

1. THE PROBLEM OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND INTERACTION OF PEOPLE………………………………………………………………………………………5

1.1. The purpose and objectives of interpersonal interaction……………………5

1.2. Features of interpersonal relationships and human interaction…………………………………………………………………………………..7

2.1. Functions of communication in interpersonal relationships………………...10

2.2. Structure of communication in interpersonal relationships……………….14

2.3. Types of communication in the system of interpersonal relations……………15

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………..19

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST…………………………………………..21

APPENDIX……………………………………………………………….22

INTRODUCTION

Human interaction with the outside world is carried out in a system of objective relations that develop between people in their social life.

Objective relationships and connections inevitably and naturally arise in any real group. A reflection of these objective relationships between group members are subjective interpersonal relationships, which are studied by social psychology.

The main way to study interpersonal interaction and interaction within a group is an in-depth study of various social factors, as well as the interaction of people within a given group. No human community can carry out full-fledged joint activities unless contact is established between the people included in it and proper mutual understanding is not achieved between them. So, for example, in order for a teacher to teach something to students, he must enter into communication with them.

Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.

Over the past 20-25 years, the study of the problem of communication has become one of the leading areas of research in psychological science, and especially in social psychology. Its movement to the center of psychological research is explained by a change in the methodological situation that has clearly emerged in social psychology in the last two decades. From a subject of research, communication has simultaneously turned into a method, a principle for studying, first, cognitive processes, and then the personality of a person as a whole.

This course work will examine communication in the system of interpersonal relationships and human interaction.

The subject of this course work is to determine the place of communication in the structure of interpersonal interaction and interaction between people. The goal is to study the features of communication in the system of interpersonal interaction and communication between people. The objectives of this course work are:

1. Consider the features of interpersonal relationships, interpersonal interaction.

2.Study the specifics of communication in the system of interpersonal relationships.

To structure the numerous results of research on interpersonal interaction, a systematic approach is used, the elements of which are the subject, the object and the process of interpersonal interaction.

1. THE PROBLEM OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND INTERACTION

1.1. The purpose and objectives of interpersonal interaction

The concept of “person's perception by person” is not enough to fully understand people. Subsequently, the concept of “understanding a person” was added to it, which involves connecting other cognitive processes to the process of human perception. The effectiveness of perception is associated with socio-psychological observation - a personality trait that allows it to capture subtle, but essential for his understanding, features in a person’s behavior.

The characteristics of the perceiver depend on gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, attitudes, communication experience, professional and personal characteristics, etc.

With age, emotional states differentiate. A person perceives the world around him through the prism of his national way of life. Those people who have a higher level of social intelligence are more successful in identifying various mental states and interpersonal relationships; the object of cognition is both the physical and social appearance of a person; perception initially captures the physical appearance, which includes physiological, functional and paralinguistic characteristics. Anatomical (somatic) features include height, head, etc. Physiological characteristics include breathing, blood circulation, sweating, etc. Functional features include posture, posture and gait, linguistic (non-verbal) communication features include facial expressions, gestures, body movements. Unambiguous emotions are easy to differentiate, but mixed and unexpressed mental states are much more difficult to recognize. Social appearance presupposes the social design of appearance, speech, paralinguistic, proxemic and activity characteristics. Social appearance (appearance) includes a person’s clothing, shoes, singing and other accessories. Proxemic features of communication refer to the state between the communicators and their relative position. An example from fiction that demonstrates the ability to determine place of birth and profession by characteristics is phonetics professor Higgins from the play Pygmalion. Extralinguistic features of speech presuppose the originality of the voice, timbre, pitch, etc. When perceiving a person, social features, in comparison with the physical appearance, are the most informative. 1

The process of human cognition includes mechanisms that distort ideas about what is perceived, mechanisms of interpersonal cognition, feedback from the object and the conditions in which perception occurs. Mechanisms that distort the emerging image of what is perceived limit the possibility of objective knowledge of people. The most significant of them are: the mechanism of primacy, or novelty (reduces to the fact that the first impression of what is perceived influences the subsequent formation of the image of the cognizable object); projection mechanism (transfer to people of the mental characteristics of the perceivers); the mechanism of stereotyping (attributing the perceived person to one of the types of people known to the subject); the mechanism of ethnocentrism (passing all information through a filter associated with the ethnic lifestyle of the perceiver).

To perceive a person and understand him, the subject unconsciously chooses various mechanisms of interpersonal cognition. The main mechanism is the interpretation (correlation) of personal experience of knowing people in general with perception this person. The identification mechanism in interpersonal cognition represents the identification of oneself with another person. The subject also uses the mechanism of causal attribution (attributing to the perceived certain motives and reasons that explain his actions and other characteristics). The mechanism of reflection of another person in interpersonal cognition includes the subject’s awareness of how he is perceived by the object. In interpersonal perception and understanding of an object, there is a fairly strict order of functioning of the mechanisms of interpersonal cognition (from simple to complex).

In the course of interpersonal cognition, the subject takes into account information coming to him through various sensory channels, indicating a change in the state of the communication partner. Feedback from the object of perception performs an informative and corrective function for the subject in the process of perceiving the object.

The conditions for the perception of a person by a person include situations, time and place of communication. Reducing the time when perceiving an object reduces the ability of the perceiver to obtain sufficient information about it. With prolonged and close contact, evaluators begin to show condescension and favoritism.

1.2. Features of interpersonal relationships and human interaction

Interpersonal relationships are an integral part of interaction and are considered in its context. Interpersonal relationships are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people and their psychological characteristics. Unlike business relations interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive, emotional.

The development of interpersonal relationships is determined by gender, age, nationality and many other factors. Women have a much smaller social circle than men. In interpersonal communication, they feel the need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. They more often complain of loneliness (I.S. Kon). For women, characteristics that manifest themselves in interpersonal relationships are more significant, and for men, business qualities are more significant. In different national communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, belonging to various social strata, etc. 2

The process of development of interpersonal relationships includes dynamics, a mechanism for regulating interpersonal relationships and the conditions for their development.

Interpersonal relationships develop dynamically: they are born, consolidated, reach a certain maturity, after which they can gradually weaken. The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships go through several stages: acquaintance, friendly, comradely and friendly relations. Dating takes place depending on the sociocultural norms of society. Friendly relationships form readiness for further development of interpersonal relationships. At the stage of comradely relations, there is a convergence of views and support for each other (it’s not for nothing that they say “act like a comrade”, “comrade in arms”). Friendly relationships have a common subject content - common interests, goals of activity, etc. We can distinguish utilitarian (instrumental-business) and emotionally expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship (I. S. Kon).

The mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships is empathy - the response of one person to the experiences of another. Empathy has several levels (N. N. Obozov). The first level includes cognitive empathy, which manifests itself in the form of understanding the mental state of another person (without changing one’s state). The second level involves empathy in the form of not only understanding the state of the object, but also empathy with it, i.e. emotional empathy. The third level includes cognitive, emotional and, most importantly, behavioral components. This level involves interpersonal identification, which is mental (perceived and understood), sensory (empathetic) and effective. There are complex, hierarchically organized relationships between these three levels of empathy. Various forms of empathy and its intensity can be inherent in both the subject and the object of communication. A high level of empathy determines emotionality, responsiveness, etc.

The conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships significantly influence their dynamics and forms of manifestation. In urban conditions, compared to rural areas, interpersonal contacts are more numerous, quickly established and just as quickly interrupted. The influence of the time factor varies depending on the ethnic environment: in Eastern cultures, the development of interpersonal relationships is, as it were, extended over time, while in Western cultures it is compressed and dynamic.

2.1. Functions of communication in interpersonal relationships

The functions of communication are understood as those roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence. The functions of communication are diverse, and there are various bases for their classification.

One of the generally accepted bases for classification is the identification of three interconnected aspects or characteristics in communication - informational, interactive and perceptual (Andreeva G. M., 1980). In accordance with this, information-communicative, regulatory-communicative and affective-communicative functions are distinguished (Lomov B.F., 1984).

The information and communication function of communication consists of any type of exchange of information between interacting individuals. The exchange of information in human communication has its own specifics. First, we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of whom is an active subject (as opposed to a technical device). Secondly, the exchange of information necessarily involves the interaction of thoughts, feelings and behavior of partners. Thirdly, they must have a single or similar system of codification/decodification of messages.

The transmission of any information is possible through various sign systems. Usually, a distinction is made between verbal (speech is used as a sign system) and nonverbal (various non-speech sign systems) communication.

In turn, nonverbal communication also has several forms:

Kinetics (optical-kinetic system, including gestures, facial expressions, pantomime);

Proxemics (norms for organizing space and time in communication);

Visual communication (eye contact system).

Sometimes the set of odors possessed by communication partners is separately considered as a specific sign system. 3

The regulatory-communicative (interactive) function of communication is to regulate behavior and directly organize the joint activities of people in the process of their interaction. Here it is worth saying a few words about the tradition of using the concepts of interaction and communication in social psychology. The concept of interaction is used in two ways: firstly, to characterize the actual real contacts of people (actions, counteractions, assistance) in the process of joint activity; secondly, to describe mutual influences (impacts) on each other in the course of joint activities, or more broadly, in the process of social activity.

In the process of communication as interaction (verbal, physical, non-verbal), an individual can influence motives, goals, programs, decision-making, execution and control of actions, i.e., all components of his partner’s activities, including mutual stimulation and behavior correction.

Identification is the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas.

The affective-communicative function of communication is associated with the regulation of a person’s emotional sphere. Communication is the most important determinant of a person’s emotional states. The entire spectrum of specifically human emotions arises and develops in the conditions of human communication - either a rapprochement of emotional states occurs, or their polarization, mutual strengthening or weakening.

It is possible to give another classification scheme of communication functions, in which, along with those listed, other functions are separately identified: organization of joint activities; people getting to know each other; formation and development of interpersonal relationships. In part, this classification is given in the monograph by V.V. Znakov (1994); the cognitive function as a whole is included in the perceptual function identified by G. M. Andreeva (1988). A comparison of two classification schemes allows us to conditionally include the functions of cognition, the formation of interpersonal relationships and the affective-communicative function in the perceptual function of communication as more capacious and multidimensional (Andreeva G. M., 1988). When studying the perceptual side of communication, a special conceptual and terminological apparatus is used, which includes a number of concepts and definitions and allows one to analyze various aspects of social perception in the process of communication.

Firstly, communication is impossible without a certain level of mutual understanding between the communicating subjects. Understanding is definite shape reproduction of an object in knowledge, which arises in the subject in the process of interaction with cognizable reality (Znakov V.V., 1994). In the case of communication, the object of cognizable reality is another person, a communication partner. At the same time, understanding can be considered from two sides: as a reflection in the consciousness of interacting subjects of each other’s goals, motives, emotions, attitudes; and how the acceptance of these goals allows relationships to be established. Therefore, in communication it is advisable to talk not about social perception in general, but about interpersonal perception or perception. Some researchers prefer to talk not about perception, but about the knowledge of another (Bodalev A. A., 1965, 1983).

The main mechanisms of mutual understanding in the communication process are identification, empathy and reflection. The term “identification” has several meanings in social psychology. In communication issues, identification is the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas. Empathy also refers to the mental process of likening oneself to another person, but with the goal of “understanding” the experiences and feelings of the person being cognized. The word "understanding" is used here in a metaphorical sense - empathy is "affective understanding."

As can be seen from the definitions, identification and empathy are very close in content and often in the psychological literature the term “empathy” has a broad interpretation - it includes the processes of understanding both the thoughts and feelings of a communication partner. At the same time, when speaking about the process of empathy, one must also keep in mind an unconditionally positive attitude towards the individual. This means two things:

a) acceptance of a person’s personality as a whole;

b) own emotional neutrality, absence of value judgments about what is perceived (Sosnin V. A., 1996).

Reflection in the problem of understanding each other is an individual’s understanding of how he is perceived and understood by his communication partner. In the course of mutual reflection of communication participants, reflection is a kind of feedback that contributes to the formation of both the behavioral strategy of the subjects of communication and the correction of their understanding of the characteristics of each other’s inner world.

Another mechanism of understanding in communication is interpersonal attraction. Attraction (from English - to attract, attract) is the process of forming the attractiveness of a person for the perceiver, the result of which is the formation of interpersonal relationships. Currently, an expanded interpretation of the attraction process is being formed as the formation of emotional and evaluative ideas about each other and about one’s interpersonal relationships (both positive and negative) as a kind of social attitude with a predominance of the emotional and evaluative component.

The considered classifications of communication functions, of course, do not exclude each other. Moreover, there are other classification options. This, in turn, suggests that the phenomenon of communication as a multidimensional phenomenon must be studied using systems analysis methods.

2.2. Structure of communication in interpersonal relationships

In Russian social psychology, the problem of the structure of communication occupies an important place. The methodological study of this issue at the moment allows us to identify a set of fairly generally accepted ideas about the structure of communication (Andreeva G. M., 1988; Lomov B. F., 1981; Znakov V. V., 1994), which serve as a general methodological guideline for organizing research.

The structure of an object in science is understood as the order of stable connections between the elements of the object of study, ensuring its integrity as a phenomenon during external and internal changes. The problem of the structure of communication can be approached in different ways, both by highlighting the levels of analysis of this phenomenon, and by listing its main functions. Usually there are at least three levels of analysis (Lomov B.F., 1984):

1. Macro level: an individual’s communication with other people is considered as the most important aspect of his lifestyle. At this level, the process of communication is studied in time intervals comparable to the duration of human life, with an emphasis on the analysis of the mental development of the individual. Communication here acts as a complex developing network of relationships between an individual and other people and social groups.

2. Mesa level (middle level): communication is considered as a changing set of purposeful, logically completed contacts or interaction situations in which people find themselves in the process of current life activity at specific time periods of their lives. The main emphasis in the study of communication at this level is on the content components of communication situations - “about what” and “for what purpose.” Around this core topic, the subject of communication, the dynamics of communication are revealed, the means used (verbal and non-verbal) and the phases or stages of communication are analyzed, during which the exchange of ideas, ideas, and experiences takes place.

3. Micro level: here the main emphasis is on the analysis of elementary units of communication as related acts, or transactions. It is important to emphasize that the elementary unit of communication is not a change in the intermittent behavioral acts of its participants, but their interaction. It includes not only the action of one and the partners, but also the associated assistance or opposition of the other (for example, “question-answer”, “incitement to action - action”, “communication of information and attitude towards it”, etc.). 4

Each of the listed levels of analysis requires special theoretical, methodological and methodological support, as well as its own special conceptual apparatus. And since many problems in psychology are complex, the task arises of developing ways to identify relationships between different levels and discover the principles of these relationships.

2.3. Types of communication in the system of interpersonal relations

Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. In social psychology, there are three types of interpersonal communication: imperative, manipulative and dialogical.

Imperative communication is authoritarian, directive interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. In this case, the communication partner is considered as an object of influence; he acts as a passive, “suffering” party. The ultimate goal of such communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. Orders, regulations and demands are used as means of exerting influence. It is possible to indicate a number of areas of activity where the use of imperative communication is quite effective. These areas include: relations of subordination and subordination in conditions of military activity, “superior-subordinate” relations in extreme conditions, under emergency circumstances, etc. But we can also identify those areas of interpersonal relationships where the use of the imperative is inappropriate. These are intimate-personal and marital relationships, child-parent contacts, as well as the entire system of pedagogical relations.

Manipulative communication is a type of interpersonal communication in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. Like the imperative, manipulation presupposes an objective perception of the communication partner, the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. The area of “permitted manipulation” is business and business relationships in general. This type of communication was symbolized by the concept of communication developed by Dale Carnegie and his followers. The manipulative style of communication is also widespread in the field of propaganda.

Dialogical communication is an equal subject-subject interaction aimed at mutual knowledge and self-knowledge of communication partners. Such communication is possible only if a number of rules of relationship are observed:

1. the presence of a psychological attitude towards the current state of the interlocutor and one’s own current psychological state (following the “here and now” principle).

2.Use of non-judgmental perception of the partner’s personality, an a priori attitude of trust in his intentions.

3. Perception of a partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinion and decisions.

5. You should personalize communication, that is, conduct a conversation on your own behalf (without reference to the opinions of authorities), present your true feelings and desires.

Dialogical communication allows you to achieve deeper mutual understanding, self-disclosure of partners’ personalities, and creates conditions for mutual personal growth.

The following types of communication can also be distinguished:

Formal-role communication, when both the content and means of communication are regulated and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role.

Business communication is a situation where the goal of interaction is to achieve some clear agreement or agreement. In business communication, the personality characteristics and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, first of all, to achieve the main goal in the interests of the business. Business communication is usually included as private moment into any joint productive activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, and not the problems that affect their inner world.

Intimate and personal communication is possible when you can touch on any topic and do not necessarily resort to words; the interlocutor will understand you by facial expression, movements, and intonation. In such communication, each participant has an image of the interlocutor, knows his personality, and can anticipate his reactions, interests, beliefs and attitudes. Most often, such communication occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships. Unlike business communication, this communication, on the contrary, is centered around psychological problems, interests and needs, which deeply and intimately affect a person’s personality: searching for the meaning of life, determining one’s attitude towards a significant person, to what is happening around, resolving any internal conflict, etc.

Social communication. The essence of secular communication is its pointlessness, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because people’s points of view on a particular issue do not matter and will not determine the nature of communications.

There is also instrumental communication, which is not an end in itself, is not independently stimulated by need, but pursues some goal other than obtaining satisfaction from the act of communication itself. In contrast, targeted communication itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need, in this case the need for communication.

Diagnostic communication aims to form a certain idea about the interlocutor or obtain some information from him. Partners are in different positions: one asks, the other answers.

Educational communication involves situations in which one of the participants purposefully influences the other, quite clearly imagining the desired result, that is, knowing what he wants to convince the interlocutor of, what he wants to teach him, etc.

CONCLUSION

Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychologically developed people, thanks to ample opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and quality. Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into a personality.

If from birth a person was deprived of the opportunity to communicate with people, he would never become a civilized, cultural and morally developed citizen, and would be doomed to remain a half-animal until the end of his life, only externally, anatomically and physiologically reminiscent of a person.

Communication with adults in the early stages of ontogenesis is especially important for the mental development of a child. At this time, he acquires all his human, mental and behavioral qualities almost exclusively through communication, since right up to the start of school, and even more definitely - before the onset of adolescence, he is deprived of the ability for self-education and self-education. The mental development of a child begins with communication. This is the first type of social activity that arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the baby receives the information necessary for its individual development. In communication, first through direct imitation (vicarious learning) , and then through verbal instructions (verbal learning) the child's basic life experience is acquired.

Communication constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people, the basis of interpersonal relationships. The increasing role of communication and the importance of its study is due to the fact that in modern society, decisions are made much more often in direct, immediate communication between people, which were previously made, as a rule, by individuals.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. – M., Aspect Press, 1996. – 504s.

Brudny A.A. Understanding and communication. M., 1989. - 341 p.

Zimnyaya I.A. Psychology of learning foreign language At school. – M., 1991. – 285 p.

Krizhanskaya Yu.S., Tretyakov V.V. Grammar of communication. L., 1990. - 476s.

Labunskaya V.A. Non-verbal communication. – Rostov-on-Don, 1979. – 259s.

Leontyev A.N. Problems of mental development. – M., 1972. – 404 p.

Lomov B.F. Communication and social regulation of individual behavior // Psychological problems of social regulation of behavior, - M., 1976. – 215 p.

Myers D. Social psychology. St. Petersburg, 1998. – 367 p.

Interpersonal perception and understanding / Ed. V. N. Druzhinina. – M.: Infra-M, 1999. – 589 p.

Nemov R.S. Psychology. Book 1: Fundamentals of general psychology. – M., Education, 1994. - 502 p.

Obozov N. N. Interpersonal relations. - L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1979. - 247 p.

Communication and optimization of joint activities. Edited by Andreeva G.M. and Yanoushek Y. - M., Moscow State University, 1987. – 486 p.

Shibutani T. Social psychology. Per. from English Rostov-on-Don, 1998. – 405s

APPLICATION

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION IN INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Information and communication

Regulatory-communicative

Affective-communicative

Scheme. Functions of communication in interpersonal relationships

		This is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.
	Causal attribution	interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the reasons and motives of other people's behavior
		(Greek empatheia-empathy) comprehension of the emotional states of another person in the form of experience
	Identification	the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas.
	Understanding	this is a certain form of reproduction of an object in knowledge that arises in the subject in the process of interaction with cognizable reality
	Reflection	the process of self-knowledge by the subject of internal mental acts and states.
	Attraction	(from English - attract, attract) a concept denoting the emergence, when a person perceives a person, of the attractiveness of one of them for another.
	Dialogical communication	equal subject-subject interaction, with the goal of mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. Such communication is possible only if a number of rules of relationships are observed.
	Manipulative communication	a type of interpersonal communication in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out secretly problem interpersonal relations child with other children. Attitude to others people constitutes the main fabric..., but are also realized, manifested in interaction of people. At the same time attitude to another, as opposed to communication... intimate interpersonal relationship Abstract >> Psychology ... interpersonal relations And interaction of people. The subject of my course work is to determine the place of communication in the structure interpersonal interaction And interaction of people ... interpersonal relationships In domestic social psychology problem ... Interpersonal relationship (2) Abstract >> Psychology One of the most important. Problems interpersonal relations In fact, with all group... so that two or more of people could to interact, remaining indifferent to each other... participating in a concerted action People simultaneously interact in two languages... Interpersonal relationship concept and main features Abstract >> Management ... problem studying interpersonal relations becomes very relevant in a team. Today in the psychological press there is much talk about interpersonal interaction ... Interpersonal relationship in the medical team Thesis >> Psychology Concept interpersonal relations. Interpersonal relationship of people– these are subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and... components under the influence of others of people. Problem interpersonal relations occupied a position in the team for a long time...

The problems identified in the title of this chapter are encountered quite often in practice. psychological counseling, and if the client does not directly talk about them, expressing complaints only about other personal problems, this does not mean that in fact he does not have problems with interpersonal relationships.

In most cases of life, the opposite is also true: if a client is concerned about the state of affairs in the field of interpersonal relationships, then almost always one can also find personal problems related to his character. In addition, the methods of practical solution of these and other problems are largely similar to each other.

Nevertheless, these problems are worth considering separately, since they are almost always solved somewhat differently than personal problems - by regulating the relationship of a given person with other people. In contrast, each person can solve personal problems individually and not necessarily in direct contact with other people.

In addition, there is a significant difference in the ways of solving personal and interpersonal problems. If personal problems are usually associated with the need for a radical change in a person’s inner world, then interpersonal problems are with the need to change mainly only the external forms of human behavior that affect the people around him.

Psychological problems related to a person’s relationships with other people can be different in nature. They may be related to a person’s personal and business relationships with the people around him, and relate to relationships with people close to him and quite distant from him, for example, with relatives and strangers.

These problems may also have a pronounced age-related connotation, for example, they arise in the client’s relationships with peers or with people of another generation, younger or older than himself.

The problems of interpersonal relationships can also concern people of different sexes: women and men, both in monosexual (identical) and heterosexual (different gender composition) social groups.

The multifaceted nature of these problems reflects the complexity of the actually existing system of human relationships. Although we will discuss many of these problems separately here, we should, however, remember that all these problems are practically interrelated and in most cases of life must be solved comprehensively.

There are, for example, some common causes of typical difficulties in the field of human relationships. Having discussed these reasons, we will no longer return to them and will further limit ourselves only to references to the relevant places in the text. However, there are also private, specific causes of difficulties that are characteristic of certain types of human relationships. Our attention will mainly be focused on them in the future.

Problems of the client’s personal relationships with people

This group of problems primarily includes those that relate to the client’s relationships with those people who are approximately the same age as him and differ in age from each other by no more than two or three years.

Let us note at the same time that the concepts of “peer” or “people of the same generation” in this case cover different age ranges for children and adults. If, for example, a preschool child’s peers, as a rule, do not differ from him or her by more than one year, then at school age the difference between peers can reach up to two years. Accordingly, peers can be called boys and girls aged from twenty to twenty-five years, i.e. people whose age difference is already up to five years.

When applied to adults in the age range from thirty to sixty years, the concept of “peer” already covers an interval of up to ten years. If we are talking about older people over sixty years old, then it is permissible to consider those whose age difference reaches even fifteen years as representatives of the same generation or - conditionally - peers.

A person’s psychological development gradually slows down with age, and the commonality of life experience, psychology and behavior of people becomes the main criterion for assessing them as peers.

Observations show that most often those who are over fifteen and under sixty years old turn to psychological consultation regarding problems in relationships with other people. As for the relationships of preschoolers, primary schoolchildren and older people with each other, they are less likely to cause concern among their participants and, moreover, have their own specific characteristics.

In preschool and primary school age, there are usually no serious problems in children’s relationships with peers that would require increased attention and psychological counseling. In old age, relationships between people are usually limited to a narrow circle of relatives, acquaintances and friends with whom these relationships have been established for a long time and are more or less regulated. In addition, the relationships of older people with others are relatively easily settled due to the extensive life experience accumulated by such people, and, therefore, the problems that arise with them are also relatively easily resolved without resorting to psychological counseling.

Lack of mutual sympathy in personal human relationships

Lack of reciprocity in personal human sympathies is a fairly common phenomenon. Relatively young people most often complain about it as a problem of vital concern to them.

When conducting consultations on this topic It is important to keep the following points in mind:

Firstly, this problem cannot always be practically solved only through the advice that a psychologist-consultant can give to a client. The fact is that the reasons for the lack of interpersonal sympathy among people can be very difficult to eliminate factors, for example, subconscious, insufficiently realized and, therefore, poorly controlled.

Secondly, there are usually several such reasons, and by eliminating one of them, you may not achieve the desired result in eliminating other reasons, since other, no less significant factors will remain actually active.

Thirdly, before starting psychological counseling on the topic of lack of mutual human sympathy, it is advisable to know a typical list of reasons for the occurrence of such a problem. Such knowledge will help to make a correct diagnosis and, therefore, quickly identify and eliminate possible causes.

Let us discuss the identified problems in more detail, but we will do this in a slightly different order than they were posed. Let's start by finding out the possible reasons for the lack of mutual sympathy between people.

First of all, it should be noted that according to completely natural laws, people of the opposite sex experience sympathy for each other more often than people of the same sex. Therefore, completely solve the problem of ensuring mutual sympathy between people

of the same gender is more difficult than solving a similar problem for people of different genders.

There are many individual psychological characteristics, due to which people, regardless of whom exactly they communicate with, may not experience special sympathy for each other. This could be, for example, a person’s constant dissatisfaction with himself, in which, being dissatisfied with himself, this person is unlikely to treat other people with expressed sympathy.

In turn, those people to whom he, being in a state of chronic dissatisfaction with himself, will not show special sympathy, may perceive this as a sign of a bad personal attitude towards them. They will be inclined to believe that this person treats them poorly, and in return they will pay him the same.

Many people have persistent negative character traits, such as distrust of people, suspicion, isolation, and aggressiveness. Possessing such, as a rule, insufficiently conscious and poorly controlled character traits, these people will unwittingly manifest them in their interactions with other people and thereby complicate their personal relationships with them.

The same case can be attributed to the presence of needs and interests in a person for various reasons that are incompatible with the needs and interests of other people. Due to this circumstance, conflicts will often arise between such people and, of course, there will be a lack of mutual sympathy.

This also includes cases when people simply do not know how to behave culturally, which causes antipathy from the people around them.

It can definitely be argued that a significant portion of the reasons for the lack of interpersonal sympathy among people lies in the person himself, in his personal psychology, and not in relationships or life circumstances. Nevertheless, a number of reasons are associated precisely with these circumstances. Let's take a closer look at them.

One of the reasons for human antipathies that are quite common in life is the following reason. Any person, without noticing it, involuntarily, with his ill-considered actions can significantly affect the vital interests of other people, hurt their pride, damage their prestige, violate the rules of behavior accepted in society or a group, which are very important for the people concerned. In any of these cases, the consequence of what is happening will most likely be a lack of sympathy for the person who violates established norms of behavior on the part of the people around him.

The second reason is related to the following circumstances. People may accidentally find themselves in a situation that forces them to behave in a less than ideal way towards each other. Because of this, they will involuntarily make a not entirely favorable impression on each other and therefore will not be able to count on mutual sympathy.

The third circumstance can be characterized as follows. Let's say that in your personal life someone has previously caused you a lot of trouble, and as a result of this, you have developed a stable negative attitude towards this person. Let us further assume that on your life path you accidentally met another person who looked similar to the one who caused you many unpleasant moments. He will not arouse your sympathy for the simple reason that he looks like a person who is unpleasant to you.

Another probable external reason for the lack of mutual sympathy between people may be the involuntarily formed negative social attitude of one person towards the personality of another person.

It is known that any social attitude includes cognitive, emotional and behavioral components as its main components. The first of these relates to a person’s knowledge about the object of a social attitude. The second contains emotional experiences associated with this object. The third concerns the practical actions taken in relation to the relevant object. Knowledge and experiences, in turn, are formed under the influence of life experience accumulated by a person, in particular the experience of knowing other people. For each individual person, this experience is always limited, since any person is not able to comprehensively know the people around him.

If, due to random circumstances, our knowledge about people is mainly negative, then in the future people will not arouse our sympathy. In this case, it will hardly be possible to count on reciprocal sympathy for us from the people around us.

How to conduct in psychological consultation diagnostics aimed at finding out the reasons for the lack of sympathy for the client on the part of people significant to him?

The easiest way to try to do this is through detailed, targeted questioning of the client himself. In order to receive from him not random, but purposeful and necessary information, it is advisable to consistently ask the client the following questions:

What relationships and with whom specifically, due to the lack of mutual sympathy, worry you the most?

When, in what situations and in what ways is the lack of mutual sympathy between you and the relevant people manifested?

What do you think caused this?

If the client easily and quite specifically answers these questions, and what he says actually already contains answers to one or more of the following questions, then they are not asked to the client. Otherwise, you should obtain specific answers from the client to the following questions.

Are there any reasons, either personally or because of your behavior, that prevent you from receiving the same sympathy from the people you discussed in your answers to the previous questions?

Is there anything in the behavior of these individuals that makes you dislike them?

Are there any life circumstances beyond your or any other person's control that are complicating relationships between you and other people beyond your wishes?

What have you already done to change the current situation?

What were the results of your efforts?

After carefully listening to the client’s answers to all these questions, the consulting psychologist, as a result of analyzing these answers and personal observation of the client’s behavior during a conversation with him, draws certain conclusions regarding the essence of the client’s problem, outlines possible ways to solve it, which he then discusses together with the client.

It should be remembered that the client is unlikely to be able to immediately give accurate, complete and comprehensive answers to all the questions asked to him. If this were so, then the client himself would be able to solve his problem without seeking help from a psychological consultation.

After the correct psychological diagnosis of the client’s problem has been made, the consultant can directly begin to develop recommendations together with the client practical solution his problems.

There are general tips that can be used in typical cases of psychological counseling on the topic under discussion. These tips given to the client are as follows.

Carefully analyze your own behavior, finding out whether there is anything in it that in itself can cause a negative reaction from other people. If this is so, then you should change your own behavior, making it such that it does not cause antipathy.

Observe the reactions of another person and at the same time experiment with your own communicative behavior, establishing and consolidating in your own experience of communicating with

by people those forms of it that cause positive reactions from people.

Try to influence the circumstances of life with the expectation of changing the current life situation for the better.

Convince the client that if he fails to solve his problem, then he will need to accept the current life situation as it is and simply come to terms with it.

If, after analyzing the client’s communicative actions, the consulting psychologist comes to the conclusion that the client really did everything in his power to solve his problem, then its cause most likely lies not in the client’s personality, but in circumstances beyond his control.

Presence of dislikes in the client’s communication with people

Although antipathy is actually something opposite to sympathy, however, it is practically impossible to solve the problem of eliminating antipathies from the sphere of the client’s interpersonal relationships only by replacing them with sympathies. It rarely or almost never happens that one of these opposite emotional manifestations immediately gives way to another, i.e. Antipathy almost never immediately turns into sympathy, and vice versa.

Between these two extremes in human relationships most often lies a relatively neutral or dual (ambivalent) attitude of one person towards another. This attitude includes both elements of sympathy and elements of antipathy in their rather contradictory combination with each other.

As extreme positions - sympathy or antipathy transform into each other in the complex dynamics of human, emotionally charged relationships, they are replaced by relatively neutral, normal and outwardly calm relationships.

Consequently, the first task that a psychologist-consultant must set and try to solve when providing practical assistance to a client is to rid him of emotional extremes in relationships with people - in this case, from their clearly expressed antipathy.

To do this, you first need to find out the reasons for the negative attitude of one person towards another. Among these typical reasons may be, for example, the following:

1. One person’s perception of another person as a fairly serious competitor in some matter important to him, when

provided that this other person, pursuing his personal interests, deliberately creates obstacles to the achievement of his goals for a competitor. So, for example, a client may be a competitor for another person from whom he experiences pronounced antipathy towards himself, or, conversely, this person may turn out to be a strong competitor for the client.

2. The client receives reliable information that some other person is humiliating his personal dignity, and does this purposefully and quite consciously, with the expectation of causing as much trouble as possible to the client.

3. The presence of a general negative attitude towards people in any person with whom the client often comes into contact.

4. Possessing any qualities or personal characteristics that, in the client’s opinion, are incompatible with his accepted moral standards.

5. Dissemination by some person of false rumors discrediting the honor and dignity of the client.

If one or more of the above reasons really exist, then the corresponding person objectively can and should cause antipathy on the part of the client.

However, it is not always obvious that someone about whom the client is complaining actually shows antipathy towards him or is quite consciously behaving in such a way as to evoke a similar feeling on the part of the client.

In any situation, you first need to carefully understand it in order to accurately determine the actual causes and consequences of what is happening. Without this, it is unlikely that it will be possible to change the situation and neutralize antipathies, much less replace them with sympathies.

In this regard, it makes sense to identify and discuss diagnostic methods, as well as practical ways to eliminate antipathies based on misunderstandings or misunderstandings that often arise in the sphere of human relationships.

In practice, it is possible to establish what the real reasons for antipathy between the client and other people are by asking the client the following questions:

1. Is there any business in which a person who has a clear antipathy towards you acts as your potential competitor?

2. How does he usually react to your success in this matter?

3. Do you know anything about a person towards whom you yourself have a clear antipathy that definitely indicates his humiliation of your human dignity or the dignity of people close to you and significant to you?

4. Does this person you dislike have a tendency to deliberately do something that causes you trouble?

5. Does this person take pleasure in causing you trouble?

6. Does this person have a general negative attitude towards people that characterizes him as a person?

7. Does this person have character traits that are unpleasant to you personally?

8. Is there anything in the behavior or actions of this person that makes you dislike?

9. Does this person spread rumors that humiliate you or denigrate the dignity of others significant to you?

When answering each of the questions formulated above, the client must justify his answer, citing specific evidence confirming its correctness, real facts from life.

If the client gives a definite answer to a particular question, but is not able to justify it, the consulting psychologist may have reasonable doubts about the correctness of the client’s answers.

If the client supports his answer with convincing arguments and facts, this answer can be trusted. The client's lack of conviction and uncertainty when he gives arguments to confirm the correctness of his answer most likely indicates that the reasons for his antipathies are subjective.

If it turns out that the reason for antipathy is that one person - the client or his partner - perceives the other as a competitor in some important matter, to eliminate antipathy, it is recommended to do the following:

First, find out whether the behavior of a potential competitor really prevents the client from achieving his important goals (it may well be that this opinion is wrong).

Secondly, the client needs to think about (and a psychologist-consultant can help him with this) whether it is possible to do so in order to still achieve his goal without opposition from a competitor.

Thirdly, it is desirable to determine how justified the competitor’s response to the client’s behavior is, and whether the client has the moral right to behave exactly as he actually behaves when communicating with his potential competitor.

Finally, fourthly, it is advisable to determine whether it is possible to simply agree with a competitor on joint, coordinated actions - ones that will reduce competition to a minimum and allow each of the participants to achieve their goals without interference from the other person and with minimal losses.

Finding answers to all these questions in itself can significantly clarify the situation, significantly reduce or completely eliminate the manifestation of antipathy between the people concerned.

If it turns out that the reason for antipathy is that one person humiliates the dignity of another and does it consciously, deriving pleasure from such actions, the client should be asked to additionally answer the following questions:

Why does the person who humiliates the dignity of another do it and behave this way?

What should be done to change his behavior?

The answer to the first of these questions allows you to psychologically better understand the behavior of the person in question, and the answer to the second question allows you to identify and think through specific actions aimed at truly changing the behavior of the person in question for the better.

The situation is somewhat more complicated when the person causing antipathy is attributed a general negative attitude towards people, relatively independent of their individual characteristics. This attitude, in addition, can quite often act as a result of the psychological mechanism of projection, which manifests itself in the unreasonable attribution to another person of a personality quality - usually negative - that this person actually possesses.

In this case, it can be quite difficult to convince the client that he is projecting his shortcoming onto the personality of another person, since here, among other things, the mechanism of the so-called psychological defense is also triggered. But you can still try to do this by acting not directly, but indirectly, by asking, for example, the client to consistently answer the following series of questions:

Do you think anyone else other than the person you complain about and dislike exhibits the same character traits to which you react emotionally negatively?

Have you ever had a time in your personal life where you mistakenly thought someone was hostile towards you, only to find out that they weren't?

Do you think it happens that some life circumstances, against the will of the people themselves, who accidentally find themselves in the corresponding life circumstances, force them to behave differently than they would like?

Have there been any cases in your life when you were personally accused of something that you yourself are now accusing another person of, i.e. in provoking antipathy?

By thinking about these questions and seeking answers to them, the client will eventually be able to understand and admit that he is not entirely right in blaming the other person for creating an emotionally negative relationship, in this case, antipathy.

If it turns out that the reason for antipathy lies in the fact that its object has personality qualities or forms of behavior that are incompatible with moral standards accepted among people, then in this case the consulting psychologist is recommended to act as follows.

Firstly, it is advisable to ask the client whether the person whose behavior he is complaining about always and everywhere behaves exactly like this and displays the corresponding negative personal qualities. Secondly, it is necessary to find out whether it is possible to find reasons that justify the behavior of a given person in some life situations. Thirdly, it is important to ask the client the following question: do all the people around them perceive the person in question the way the client perceives him? Finally, fourthly, you need to find out from the client whether he could personally change his behavior and influence the behavior of another person if he were his close friend.

If antipathy towards a person is due to the fact that, in the client’s opinion, his competitor is spreading false rumors and gossip that discredit the client’s human dignity, the consulting psychologist is recommended to find out first of all whether these rumors and gossip contain at least some that's some truth. Then you need to find out whether the person who spreads these rumors has the right to openly say what he thinks and publicly express his opinion without the consent of other people.

After this, the client can ask next question: “Could you yourself openly say something unpleasant to another person about a third person if you considered yourself right and were convinced that you were telling the truth?” It is also helpful to ask the client why he thinks some people engage in rumor-mongering and whether there is any justification for their doing so.

Finally, the following question could play a positive role in understanding the reasons for another person’s behavior and reducing antipathy towards him: “If some other person very close to you was spreading rumors, how would you react to his behavior?”

whether it is worth continuing to experience such pronounced antipathy towards this person.

The client's inability to be himself

If the client complains that he is dissatisfied with himself, that he is not completely satisfied with his own behavior, and also that when deciding how to behave in a particular life situation, he nevertheless behaves completely differently. to another, it means that the client is not fully capable of being himself.

In this case, in order to help the client, the consulting psychologist must, firstly, clarify where, when and under what circumstances the client becomes dissatisfied with himself. Secondly, determine how exactly the unnaturalness of his behavior is manifested. Thirdly, try to help the client figure out for himself what he really is, what his natural behavior is. Fourth, help the client identify and develop new forms of more natural behavior that allow him to be himself.

Let us consider sequentially and in more detail all these steps in psychological counseling. At the psychodiagnostic stage of consulting work, it is recommended to ask the client the following specific questions:

Where, when and under what circumstances do you most often and most acutely feel (experience) your inability to be yourself?

What actions and behaviors typically demonstrate your inability to be yourself?

What specifically prevents you from being yourself in relevant life situations?

After listening carefully to the client’s answers to all these questions, the consulting psychologist must determine and further agree with the client himself on what the client should change in himself, in his own behavior.

In order to establish what is natural and unnatural for the client, additional work with him is required. Part of this work is to find out where, when and under what circumstances, after performing what actions and actions, the client feels best and is most often satisfied with himself. These are those moments in his life when he behaves quite naturally.

The task of the psychologist-consultant working together with the client at this stage of counseling is to determine the forms of natural behavior of the client. This is necessary in order to

in order to subsequently consolidate them in the client’s individual life experience, to make these forms of behavior habitual for him.

The next stage of working with the client is to conduct a psychodiagnostic of the client. The purpose of psychodiagnostics is to accurately determine those personal psychological qualities of the client that are naturally inherent in him and about the existence of which he knows very little. We are talking, in particular, about the client’s awareness of those individual characteristics that he needs to know in order to be himself and behave naturally.

The result of this part of the psychologist-consultant’s work with the client should be an adequate image of the client’s Self, agreed upon with the consulting psychologist. Based on this image, the consultant and the client will then have to establish what it means for the client to be himself, to behave in a natural way, taking into account the characteristics of his self-image.

The final stage of work on solving the problem under discussion should consist in the fact that the psychologist-consultant, together with the client, outlines and implements a plan of specific actions to develop and consolidate in the client’s experience new, more natural forms of behavior and response to various life situations.

At the very end of the joint work, the psychologist-consultant and the client agree on how they will continue to contact and discuss the current results of implementing the developed practical recommendations.

The impossibility of effective business interaction between the client and people

To solve problems of business interaction with people, business people and heads of institutions usually turn to psychological consultation. Corresponding problems most often arise for them in the initial stages of their business life, especially when they have to independently organize the work of other people, manage them and their business and personal relationships.

Here we will focus on the features of conducting psychological counseling in the field of business relations regarding the psychological compatibility of people and their interaction at work, as well as the ability to be a good leader and organizer of a business.

The essence of the problem that we will discuss first is this: people entering into business contacts with each other often find that they cannot establish them successfully. This, for example, manifests itself in the fact that they are unable to distribute responsibilities among themselves without conflict in such a way that

so that this completely suits them, they cannot agree on coordinated joint actions related to certain issues, they expect from each other what does not fully correspond to their capabilities, they claim greater rights, but they themselves do not want to take on additional responsibilities.

We will discuss the typical reasons for this state of affairs, and then possible ways to resolve relevant issues in the practice of psychological counseling.

There can be quite a few possible reasons for the emergence of intractable problems in business relationships. This includes a person’s lack of sufficient personal experience of participating in the relevant business, and the presence of negative character traits that interfere with normal business relationships with people, and a lack of abilities, and large individual differences that give rise to psychological incompatibility, and special circumstances that arise during teamwork. .

Therefore, before starting to develop practical recommendations for the client regarding solving the problem of business relations, it is necessary to accurately find out the essence of the problem itself and its causes. At the same time, from the very beginning of psychological counseling, one must be able to clearly distinguish between what the client himself says about the causes of his problem and what actually exists. As a rule, the client’s own version of the essence of his business problem does not always completely coincide with reality, i.e. with the results of accurate psychodiagnostics.

The client’s lack of the necessary experience in organizing a business is a problem that can be overcome relatively easily as he gains such experience. However, the lack of personal experience in business relationships can hardly be completely replaced even by the most reasonable psychological recommendations. This is due to the fact that in the course of accumulating life experience, a person acquires knowledge, skills and abilities that immediately and finished form impossible to comprehend. A person is also unable to control the process of acquiring relevant knowledge, skills and abilities for the reason that neither he himself nor anyone else knows exactly how this knowledge, skills and abilities are actually formed.

As for the presence of negative character traits that prevent the establishment of normal business relationships with people, this problem is much more difficult to deal with than acquiring the necessary life experience. It is very difficult to change character traits at the age at which a person usually enters an active business life, since most of these character traits are formed and consolidated in early childhood. However, external

Phenomena and forms of behavior that are functionally related to character traits can be changed, although this is not always easy to do.

In order for this to become truly possible, the client must first of all realize what he needs to change in himself, in his character. Convincing a client of this with words alone is quite difficult. But even if this can be done, he will not immediately have a strong desire to change himself.

This is, in part, due to the fact that the client, as a rule, does not see his shortcomings as well as other people see them. He knows about them only from the words of the people around him with whom he has to communicate. Until his personal desire to change himself is supported by the corresponding reactions of the people around him, he can hardly count on success.

In this case, it is advisable to let the client understand how he actually looks from the outside, i.e. provide him with the opportunity to see himself in real business relationships with people. The technique of video recording, viewing and commenting on video recordings made by a psychologist-consultant can bring significant benefits in this regard (the video recording may include a series of fragments from the client’s business contacts with different people). It is important to select for comparison for video recordings such moments from the client’s business life in which he shows himself at his best and at his worst.

To practically change the client’s character, you can use a technique based on the so-called anonymous systematic receipt of feedback (communication). In this case, it refers to the regular, targeted collection by a person from a variety of anonymous sources of information about how people around them actually perceive and evaluate the client’s business character traits. A recommendation to the client to undergo special training in business communication under the guidance of an experienced practical psychologist may be very useful and, perhaps, the most effective in this case.

When there are large individual differences that give rise to psychological incompatibility between people, the problem of ensuring normal business interaction between them is solved in the following way: it is found out in what ways these people differ from each other and what prevents them from interacting normally with each other. Each participant in business communication must understand all this. The very fact of awareness of existing individual differences in most cases is enough for each of the participants to take them into account and adapt to other participants.

If this does not help, then the psychologist-consultant will have to tell the client how best to behave in business communication with those people who differ significantly from him in psychology and behavior. In this case, it is advisable to offer the client not one, but several different options for socially adaptive behavior and try each of them during a psychological consultation. Then the client will have to apply all these behaviors in life and determine the best option for himself. This usually becomes a way of behavior that allows people to successfully solve business problems and at the same time maintain good relationships with business partners.

At the final stage of psychological counseling, the client himself shares his impressions with the consulting psychologist and then, on the advice of the consulting psychologist, selects and consolidates in his life experience the most appropriate forms of business interpersonal behavior.

Client's inability to be a leader

There are two different theoretical explanations for a person's ability or inability to lead others: charismatic and situational.

The charismatic explanation of leadership is based on the belief that not every person can become a leader among people, but only one who has special psychological qualities of a leader given to him by nature. The essence of the second explanation - the situational one - is the idea that in order to become a leader, you do not need to have any special qualities. To do this, it is quite enough to find yourself in a suitable life situation, in an environment favorable for the manifestation of ordinary positive qualities that a given person has. These should be personality traits that other people need.

Both points of view are partly correct, since both special qualities and a life situation suitable for their manifestation are important for a leader. But, taken separately, each of these points of view is limited both theoretically and practically. It is from this recognition that we will proceed when proposing various solutions to the leadership problem.

First of all, let’s find out who and when turns to psychological counseling about this. The problem of inability to be a leader is not relevant for a person until he actually has to play the role of a leader. Before adolescence, the problem of leadership usually does not arise, and the younger student rarely worries about this.

Older people can seek psychological advice on this issue when they actually already act as leaders-organizers of a business or leaders of a certain team. The reason for their turning to psychological counseling is usually the difficulties that arise in the process of leading people. In any of these cases, a person, having a pronounced need to be a leader, at the same time feels his inability to successfully cope with this role. It seems to him that he is not succeeding, but he is not able to accurately and definitely say why this is happening.

Among all the possible cases of seeking psychological advice regarding leadership, the following can be identified as typical:

Case 1. A person has never had to, but will have to act as a leader. He, however, fears that not everything will work out as it should, and at the same time does not know exactly how to behave in this case. He turns to psychological counseling in order to receive from a consulting psychologist good advice on this matter.

Case 2. A person has already been in the role of a leader once, but it was not a completely successful life experience for him. At this moment in time, a person is in a state of confusion. He doesn’t know why everything doesn’t work out for him, and he has little idea of what to do next, how to correct the current state of affairs.

Case 3. A person already has quite a lot of experience in playing the role of a leader in various teams. When he was just beginning to play the role of leader, it seemed to him that everything would be fine. And, indeed, at first everything went fine. However, over time, he began to understand that not everything was going as smoothly as he would like and as it seemed before. He tried to independently analyze his experience and mistakes. But he did not find answers to all his questions that satisfied him. In this regard, he turned to psychological counseling.

Case 4. A person already has extensive and generally quite successful leadership experience. He figured out many of the problems related to this quite independently. However, he still had some questions regarding improving the effectiveness of leadership, and to solve them he turned to a consulting psychologist. He would like to discuss them with a consultant, counting on his professional assistance.

Let's consider how a psychologist-consultant should behave, what recommendations he can give to the client in each of these cases separately.

In the first case, as a result of a deeper study of the problem faced by the client, it is often discovered that his fears that he is not succeeding with leadership are not completely justified. The real inclusion of the client in the process of playing the role of a leader, his first experience of leadership, convinces both himself and the consulting psychologist that he has many of the personal qualities and forms of behavior necessary for a good leader. Therefore, the consultant's task in this case comes down to convincing the client, with facts in his hands, that he already has much of what a good leader needs.

But this is not enough. It is also important to tell the client how to avoid possible mistakes related to leadership in the future and develop personal qualities and master forms of behavior that he currently lacks.

In this regard, let us note the typical mistakes that a novice leader can make and about which the consulting psychologist should warn him in advance.

The first such mistake is that the novice leader either takes on too many responsibilities that are unusual for him in his leadership role, or, on the contrary, he transfers everything to others, including his direct leadership responsibilities. He either begins to do what his subordinates should do, or he just commands, completely withdrawing from business, only demanding, but not really helping his subordinates.

In fact, the role of a good leader is to delegate as much of what subordinates can do without him, reserving only those functions that they themselves are not able to cope with. In addition, a good leader in any matter and at any time must be ready to come to the aid of his subordinates, including in the work in which they are directly involved. And to do this, he must be competent in almost all issues that may arise in the work of his subordinates.

The second typical mistake that novice leaders often make is that they establish either too close, almost familiar, relationships with their subordinates, or, on the contrary, completely distance themselves from them, establishing a large psychological distance between them and themselves, impassable psychological barrier, without entering into any other relationship with them other than business.

Neither one nor the other extreme in the relationship between leader and subordinates is reasonable and justified. On the one hand, a leader really should not get so close to his subordinates that he is unable to influence them with the measures of power given to him. On the other hand, a good leader should not become so psychologically distant from the people he leads that a psychological barrier of misunderstanding and alienation arises between him and his subordinates.

The third typical mistake made by novice leaders is such a performance of their role in which a person, having become a leader, seems to cease to be himself and begins to behave unnaturally, in a manner unusual for him. A good leader is one who, having become a leader, remains himself and does not change his psychology, his behavior, or his attitude towards people.

In the second of the cases discussed, the feeling of failure of the first experience of playing the role of a leader is most often only partially justified. Initially, worrying about his possible failure in the future, anticipating it in emotionally negative experiences and corresponding expectations, a person painfully and acutely perceives everything that happens to him and around him, noticing and clearly exaggerating his minor mistakes. In his perception of what is happening, he mainly highlights what he fails to do and does not pay due attention to what he actually does well.

Therefore, the first task of the consulting psychologist in this case is to reassure the client, and then, together with him, calmly figure out what is happening or has already happened. This task is considered solved when the client admits not only his mistakes, but also obvious successes.

In the third of the cases discussed, the real problem that the client has is that he unconsciously makes mistakes, the meaning of which he himself is not sufficiently aware of. In this regard, the client needs help from a psychological consultant, and this help is necessary, first of all, for the correct diagnosis of the problem that has arisen. To do this, it is advisable to obtain the necessary information from the client by asking him, for example, the following series of questions:

What specifically concerns you about your work as a manager (leader)?

When, under what conditions and in what circumstances do you most often experience the problems you just talked about?

What do you think are the reasons for these problems?

How have you tried to practically solve your problems?

What were the results of your attempts to solve these problems yourself?

How do you explain your past failures in solving these problems?

Having received detailed answers to all these questions from the client (their content, meaning and quantity are determined by the consultant and can change during his conversation with the client), the consultant psychologist, together with the client, outlines ways to eliminate previously made mistakes, develops a plan and program for implementing the relevant recommendations.

In the fourth of the cases discussed, the role of the consulting psychologist is mainly passive and comes down to a clear and timely response to the client’s actions. The client himself here offers possible solutions to his problem, and the consultant-psychologist only expresses an opinion about what the client offers. The conversation between the consultant and the client is conducted on equal terms, and on his own behalf, the consulting psychologist offers something to the client only if the client asks him about it.

Client's inability to obey others

In life, a person’s inability to obey other people is very often combined with an inability to lead people. On the contrary, this deficiency is quite rare in those people who are themselves good leaders. This is due to the fact that, having become a good leader, a person begins to better understand how a subordinate and performer should behave, and begins to value more the ability to obey in other people. Relevant value orientations he, naturally, transfers it to himself.

In this regard, a consultant psychologist, faced with a case of a client demonstrating an inability to obey other people, must first of all turn his attention to the client’s ability to be a leader. And if the client shows shortcomings in this regard, then it will be necessary to simultaneously teach him to be a good leader and subordinate.

How exactly can a person demonstrate his inability to obey others? Firstly, in the fact that he, wittingly or unwittingly, resists being led by anyone at all. Secondly, the fact that this person always strives to do everything in his own way, even if he does it worse than it could have happened if he had followed the advice of other people. Thirdly, the fact that a person almost always questions what others say

People. Fourthly, in any matter where there is freedom of choice, he tries to take on the role of a leader, lead people, direct them, teach, command.

If, while working with a client, a consulting psychologist detects one or more of the above signs in him, this indicates that this person may have problems associated with the inability to obey other people.

In order to further successfully work on solving these problems, the consulting psychologist needs to clarify why the client behaves this way, what feelings he experiences in cases where other people try to lead him, how he justifies his rebellious and intractable behavior.

Sometimes it is enough to ask the client the following series of questions:

How often do other people try to manage you?

Are they trying to manipulate you?

In what situations does this happen most often?

What exactly do these people do to influence you?

How does this make you feel?

How do you resist psychological pressure exerted on you?

What do you manage or fail to actually do in this regard?

Can you explain why you don't like it when other people try to manage you?

If the client’s inability to obey other people is manifested in the fact that he simply resists psychological pressure being applied to him, then the client should be asked to think about how reasonable such behavior actually is, whether it will lead to adverse consequences primarily for himself.

The following arguments can be cited as proof of the unreasonableness of such a negativistic attitude:

Firstly, all people in life, since they are forced to live in a community, must be able not only to lead, but also to obey. Without this, normal human life is impossible.

Secondly, there are certain benefits not only in leading people, but also in playing the role of a subordinate. The last of the roles is associated with less responsibility for what is happening and much less work intensity.

Thirdly, refusal to submit to others opposes, isolates a given person, deprives him of support, and limits the possibilities for his growth and development psychologically.

If a person’s inability to obey others is manifested in the fact that he too often and unreasonably questions and challenges the opinions of other people, then the most effective method to rid him of this shortcoming is as follows.

It is advisable to offer the client to be a leader for some time, and in relation to himself, as a leader, to begin to behave the way he usually behaves in relation to other leaders. A similar psychological experiment conducted with a client in consultation, where the role of an inflexible subordinate is played by a consulting psychologist, usually convinces the client that his behavior is wrong.

In other cases, you can turn to other methods of psychocorrection this deficiency. Among such methods are, for example, the following:

Instead of behavior that manifests itself in criticism and resistance to other people, propose and demonstrate a different form of behavior aimed at agreement and compromise, while explaining why the newly proposed form of behavior is better than the previous one.

Invite the client to listen to the opinions of other people whom he personally trusts on the same issue.

Invite the client to listen to the objections of those people whose opinions he himself questions and whose influence he actively resists.

Invite the client to identify and objectively evaluate both the positive and negative consequences of what he himself proposes and what other people advise him to do.

If the client, without listening to the opinions of other people, almost always strives to do everything his own way, you need to work differently with the client in psychological consultation. First, you should ask the client to rationally explain why he so often rejects other people's suggestions. Secondly, it is desirable that the client prove that what he himself offers is better than what other people offer. At the same time, the client must demonstrate the ability to see the rational grain in what is proposed by other people. If he only criticizes their proposals, then this means that he is clearly biased in assessing the opinions of other people.

If you find that in all situations the client prefers to take on the role of leader and avoids obeying others, then, first of all, it would be advisable to carefully understand why he does this. It is likely that the essence of the matter lies in his legality or excessively inflated self-esteem. In this case, it will be necessary to correct the client’s personality.

It may well turn out that the client simply does not have the necessary special skills and abilities necessary for subordination

For the first time in Russian literature, interpersonal (interpersonal) relationships were analyzed in 1975 in the book “Social Psychology”.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychological science has been studied to a certain extent. The monograph by N. N. Obozov (1979) summarizes the results of empirical research by domestic and foreign specialists. This is the most in-depth and detailed study and currently remains relevant. In subsequent publications, little attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal relationships. Abroad, this problem is analyzed in reference books on social psychology. The most interesting joint study by T. Huston and G. Levinger is “Interpersonal Attraction and Interpersonal Relationships” (Huston, Levinger, 1978), which has not lost its significance to this day.

Nowadays, many works appear in the press that examine the problems of interpersonal and business contacts (business communication), and give practical recommendations for their optimization (Deryabo, Yasvin, 1996; Evening, 1996; Kuzin, 1996). Some of these publications are a popular presentation of the results of psychological research, sometimes without references or a list of references.

The concept of “interpersonal relationships”. Interpersonal relationships are closely related to various types of social relations. G. M. Andreeva emphasizes that the existence of interpersonal relationships within various forms of social relations is the implementation of impersonal (social) relations in the activities of specific people, in the acts of their communication and interaction (Andreeva, 1999).

Social relations are official, formally established, objectified, effective connections. They are leaders in regulating all types of relationships, including interpersonal ones.

Interpersonal relationships - these are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people. Unlike business (instrumental) relationships, which can be either officially established or unsecured, interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive, emphasizing their emotional content. The relationship between business and interpersonal relationships has not been sufficiently developed scientifically.

Interpersonal relationships include three elements - cognitive (gnostic, informational), affective and behavioral (practical, regulatory).

Cognitive element involves awareness of what is liked or disliked in interpersonal relationships.

Affective aspect finds its expression in various emotional experiences of people about the relationships between them. The emotional component is usually the leading one. “These are, first of all, positive and negative emotional states, conflict states (intrapersonal, interpersonal), emotional sensitivity, satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.” (Obozov, 1979, p. 5).

The emotional content of interpersonal relationships (sometimes called valence) changes in two opposite directions: from conjunctive (positive, bringing together) to indifferent (neutral) and disjunctive (negative, separating) and vice versa. The options for manifestations of interpersonal relationships are enormous. Conjunctive feelings manifest themselves in various forms of positive emotions and states, the demonstration of which indicates a readiness for rapprochement and joint activity. Indifferent feelings involve manifestations of a neutral attitude towards a partner. This may include indifference, indifference, indifference, etc. Disjunctive feelings are expressed in the manifestation of various forms of negative emotions and states, which are regarded by the partner as a lack of readiness for further rapprochement and communication. In some cases, the emotional content of interpersonal relationships may be ambivalent (contradictory).

Conventional manifestations of emotions and feelings in forms and methods characteristic of those groups whose representatives enter into interpersonal contacts can, on the one hand, contribute to mutual understanding of the communicators, and, on the other hand, complicate interaction (for example, if the communicators belong to different ethnic, professional, social and other groups and use various non-verbal means of communication).

Behavioral the component of interpersonal relationships is realized in specific actions. If one of the partners likes the other, the behavior will be friendly, aimed at providing assistance and productive cooperation. If the object is not attractive, then the interactive side of communication will be difficult. Between these behavioral poles there are a large number of forms of interaction, the implementation of which is determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong.

Interpersonal relationships are built vertically (between a manager and a subordinate and vice versa) and horizontally (between persons occupying the same status). The emotional manifestations of interpersonal connections are determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong, and by individual differences that vary within the limits of these norms. Interpersonal relationships can be formed from the positions of dominance-equality-subordination and dependence-independence.

Social distance presupposes a combination of official and interpersonal relations that determines the closeness of the communicating people, corresponding to the sociocultural norms of the communities to which they belong. Social distance allows you to maintain an adequate level of breadth and depth of relationships when establishing interpersonal relationships. Its violation leads initially to disjunctive interpersonal relationships (in power relations up to 52%, and in equal-status relationships up to 33%), and then to conflicts (Obozov, 1979).

Psychological distance characterizes the degree of closeness of interpersonal relationships between communication partners (friendly, comradely, friendly, trusting). In our opinion, this concept emphasizes a certain stage in the dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal compatibility- This optimal combination psychological characteristics of partners that contribute to the optimization of their communication and activities. “Harmonization”, “coherence”, “consolidation”, etc. are used as equivalent words. Interpersonal compatibility is based on the principles of similarity and complementarity. Its indicators are satisfaction with joint interaction and its result. The secondary result is the emergence of mutual sympathy. The opposite phenomenon of compatibility is incompatibility, and the feelings it evokes are antipathy. Interpersonal compatibility is considered as a state, process and result (Obozov, 1979). It develops within a spatiotemporal framework and specific conditions (normal, extreme, etc.), which influence its manifestation. To determine interpersonal compatibility, hardware and technical techniques and homeostat are used.

Interpersonal Attraction- this is a complex psychological property of a person, which, as it were, “attracts” a communication partner and involuntarily evokes a feeling of sympathy in him. The charm of her personality allows her to win people over. A person's attractiveness depends on his physical and social appearance, ability to empathize, etc.

Interpersonal attractiveness promotes the development of interpersonal connections and evokes a cognitive, emotional and behavioral response in a partner. The phenomenon of interpersonal attractiveness in friendly couples is thoroughly disclosed in the research of N. N. Obozov.

In scientific and popular literature such a concept as "emotional appeal"- the ability of an individual to understand the mental states of a communication partner and especially to empathize with him. The latter (the ability to empathize) is manifested in the responsiveness of feelings to various states of the partner. This concept is somewhat narrower than “interpersonal attractiveness.”

In our opinion, interpersonal attractiveness has not been sufficiently studied scientifically. At the same time, from an applied point of view, this concept is studied as a phenomenon of the formation of a certain image. In domestic science, this approach has been actively developing since 1991, when there was a real need for psychological recommendations on forming the image of a politician or business person. Publications on this issue provide advice on creating an attractive image of a politician (in appearance, voice, use of verbal and non-verbal means of communication, etc.). Specialists on this problem have appeared - image makers. For psychologists, this problem seems promising.

Taking into account the practical significance of the problem of interpersonal attractiveness in educational institutions where psychologists are trained, it is advisable to introduce a special course “Formation of the image of a psychologist.” This will allow graduates to more successfully prepare for future work, look more attractive in the eyes of clients and establish the necessary contacts with them.

Concept "attraction" is closely related to interpersonal attractiveness. Some researchers consider attraction as a process and at the same time a result of the attractiveness of one person to another; distinguish levels in it (sympathy, friendship, love) and connect it with the perceptual side of communication (Andreeva, 1999). Others believe that attraction is a kind of social attitude in which a positive emotional component predominates (Gozman, 1987). V. N. Kunitsyna understands attraction as the process of preferring some people over others, mutual attraction between people, mutual sympathy. In her opinion, attraction is determined by external factors (the degree of expression of a person’s need for affiliation, the emotional state of communication partners, the spatial proximity of the place of residence or work of those communicating) and internal, actually interpersonal determinants (physical attractiveness, demonstrated style of behavior, the factor of similarity between partners, expression of personal attitude towards a partner in the process of communication) (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001). As can be seen from the above, the polysemy of the concept of “attraction” and its overlap with other phenomena complicates the use of this term and explains the lack of research in Russian psychology. This concept is borrowed from Anglo-American psychology and is covered by the domestic term “interpersonal attractiveness.” In this regard, it seems appropriate to use these terms as equivalent.

Under the concept "attraction" the need of one person to be together with another who has certain characteristics that receive a positive assessment from the perceiver is understood. It denotes experienced sympathy for another person. Attraction can be unidirectional or bidirectional (Obozov, 1979). The opposite concept of “repulsion” (negation) is associated with the psychological characteristics of a communication partner that are perceived and assessed negatively; therefore, the partner causes negative emotions.

Personality characteristics influencing the formation of interpersonal relationships. A favorable prerequisite for the successful formation of interpersonal relationships is the mutual awareness of partners about each other, formed on the basis of interpersonal knowledge. The development of interpersonal relationships is largely determined by the characteristics of those communicating. These include gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, profession, experience in communicating with people and some personal characteristics.

Floor. The uniqueness of interpersonal relationships between the sexes manifests itself already in childhood. Boys, compared to girls, even in childhood are more active in making contacts, participating in group games, and interacting with peers. This picture is also observed in adult men. Girls tend to communicate in a narrower circle. They establish relationships with those they like. The content of joint activities is not very important for them (for boys it’s the opposite). Women have a much smaller social circle than men. In interpersonal communication, they experience a much greater need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. More often they complain of loneliness (Kohn, 1987).

For women, characteristics that manifest themselves in interpersonal relationships are more significant, and for men, business qualities are more significant.

In interpersonal relationships women's style aimed at reducing social distance and establishing psychological intimacy with people. In friendships, women emphasize trust, emotional support and intimacy. “Women’s friendships are less stable. The intimacy inherent in female friendship on a very wide range of issues, the discussion of the nuances of one’s own relationships complicates them” (Kohn, 1987, p. 267). Discrepancies, misunderstandings and emotionality undermine women's interpersonal relationships.

In men, interpersonal relationships are characterized by greater emotional restraint and objectivity. They open up more easily strangers. Their style of interpersonal relationships is aimed at maintaining their image in the eyes of their communication partner, showing their achievements and aspirations. In friendships, men experience a sense of camaraderie and mutual support.

Age. The need for emotional warmth appears in infancy and with age gradually turns into varying degrees of awareness of the psychological attachment of children to people who create psychological comfort for them (Kon, 1987, 1989). With age, people gradually lose the openness characteristic of youth in interpersonal relationships. Their behavior is influenced by numerous sociocultural norms (especially professional and ethnic ones). The circle of contacts especially narrows after young people get married and have children in the family. Numerous interpersonal relationships are reduced and manifested in production and related areas. In middle age, as children grow older, interpersonal relationships expand again. In older and older age, interpersonal relationships acquire weight. This is explained by the fact that children have grown up and have their own attachments, active work ends, and their social circle is sharply narrowed. In old age, old friendships play a special role.

Nationality. Ethnic norms determine sociability, boundaries of behavior, and rules for the formation of interpersonal relationships. In different ethnic communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, membership in social strata and religious groups, etc.

Some properties temperament influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. It has been experimentally established that choleric and sanguine people easily establish contacts, while phlegmatic and melancholic people have difficulty. Consolidating interpersonal relationships in pairs of “choleric with choleric,” “sanguine with sanguine,” and “choleric with sanguine” is difficult. Stable interpersonal connections are formed in pairs of “melancholic with phlegmatic”, “melancholic with sanguine” and “phlegmatic with sanguine” (Obozov, 1979).

Health status. External physical disabilities, as a rule, have a negative impact on the “self-concept” and ultimately make it difficult to form interpersonal relationships.

Temporary illnesses affect sociability and the stability of interpersonal contacts. Diseases of the thyroid gland, various neuroses, etc., associated with increased excitability, irritability, anxiety, mental instability, etc. - all this seems to “rock” interpersonal relationships and negatively affects them.

Profession. Interpersonal relationships are formed in all spheres of human life, but the most stable are those that appear as a result of joint work activities. In the course of performing functional duties, not only business contacts are consolidated, but also interpersonal relationships emerge and develop, which later acquire a multifaceted and deep character. If, due to the nature of his professional activity, a person has to constantly communicate with people, then he develops the skills and abilities to establish interpersonal contacts (for example, lawyers, journalists, etc.).

Experience communicating with people promotes the acquisition of stable skills in interpersonal relationships, based on social norms of regulation, with representatives of different groups in society (Bobneva, 1978). Communication experience allows you to practically master and apply various norms of communication with different people and form social control over the manifestation of your emotions.

Self-esteem. Adequate self-esteem allows an individual to objectively assess their characteristics and correlate them with the individual psychological qualities of a communication partner, with the situation, choose the appropriate style of interpersonal relationships and adjust it if necessary.

Inflated self-esteem introduces elements of arrogance and condescension into interpersonal relationships. If the communication partner is satisfied with this style of interpersonal relationships, then they will be quite stable, otherwise they will become tense.

Low self-esteem of an individual forces her to adapt to the style of interpersonal relationships offered by her communication partner. At the same time, this can introduce a certain mental tension into interpersonal relationships due to the internal discomfort of the individual.

The need for communication and establishing interpersonal contacts with people is a fundamental characteristic of a person. At the same time, among people there are people whose need for confidential communication (affiliation) and mercy (altruism) is somewhat overestimated. Friendly interpersonal relationships are most often formed with one person or several individuals, while affiliation and altruism tend to be expressed among many people. Research results indicate that helping behavior has been identified in people who have empathy, a high level of self-control and are inclined to make independent decisions. Indicators of affiliative behavior are positive verbal statements, prolonged eye contact, a friendly facial expression, increased manifestation of verbal and non-verbal signs of agreement, confidential telephone calls, etc. The described characteristics of affiliative behavior in form resemble the stage of friendly relations, and its indicators are criteria for the development of positive interpersonal relationships. During the research, we identified personal qualities that make it difficult development of interpersonal relationships. The first group included narcissism, arrogance, arrogance, complacency and vanity. The second group includes dogmatism, a constant tendency to disagree with a partner. The third group included duplicity and insincerity (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001)

The process of forming interpersonal relationships. It includes the dynamics, the regulatory mechanism (empathy) and the conditions for their development.

Dynamics of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships are born, strengthened, reach a certain maturity, after which they can weaken and then cease. They develop in a continuum and have a certain dynamics.

In his works, N. N. Obozov explores the main types of interpersonal relationships, but does not consider their dynamics. American researchers also identify several categories of groups, the basis of which is the closeness of interpersonal relationships (acquaintances, good friends, close friends and best friends), but analyze them somewhat in isolation, without revealing the course of their development (Huston, Levinger, 1978).

The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships in the time continuum goes through several stages (stages): acquaintance, friendship, companionship and friendly relations. The process of weakening interpersonal relationships in the “reverse” direction has the same dynamics (the transition from friendly to comradely, friendly, and then the termination of the relationship). The duration of each stage depends on many components of interpersonal relationships.

Dating process carried out depending on the sociocultural and professional norms of the society to which future communication partners belong.

Friendship form readiness or unpreparedness for further development of interpersonal relationships. If the partners have a positive attitude, then this is a favorable prerequisite for further communication.

Companionship allow you to strengthen interpersonal contact. Here there is a convergence of views and support for each other (at this stage such concepts as “act in a comradely manner”, “comrade in arms”, etc.) are used. Interpersonal relationships at this stage are characterized by stability and a certain mutual trust. Numerous popular publications on optimizing interpersonal relationships provide recommendations on the use of various techniques to induce goodwill and sympathy among communication partners (Snell, 1990; Deryabo, Yasvin, 1996; Kuzin, 1996).

When researching friendly (trusting) relationships the most interesting and profound results were obtained by I. S. Kon, N. N. Obozov, T. P. Skripkina (Obozov, 1979; Kon, 1987, 1989; Skripkina, 1997). According to I. S. Kon, friendly relations always have a common substantive content - a community of interests, goals of activity, in the name of which friends unite (unite), and at the same time presuppose mutual affection (Kon, 1987).

Despite the similarities views, providing emotional and activity support to each other, certain disagreements may exist between friends. We can distinguish utilitarian (instrumental-business, practically effective) and emotional-expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship. Friendships manifest themselves in various forms:

from interpersonal sympathy to mutual need for communication. Such relationships can develop both in a formal and informal setting. Friendly relationships, compared to companionship, are characterized by greater depth and trust (Kohn, 1987). Friends openly discuss with each other many aspects of their lives, including the personal characteristics of those communicating and mutual acquaintances.

An important characteristic of friendships is trust. T. P. Skripkina in her research reveals the empirical correlates of people’s trust in other people and in themselves (Skripkina, 1997).

Interesting results on the problem of trust relationships were obtained in a study conducted under the leadership of V. N. Kunitsyna on a student sample. “Trusting relationships in the surveyed group prevail over dependency relationships. A third of respondents define their relationship with their mother as a trusting, partnership; More than half of them believe that, despite all this, dependent relationships often arise with their mother, while relationships with a friend are assessed only as trusting and partnership. It turned out that dependent relationships with one significant person are often compensated by building partnerships with another significant person. If, during the accumulation of experience, a person has formed insufficient hope for establishing close relationships with people, then relationships of trust and support more often arise with a friend than with a mother” (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001). Friendships can weaken and end if one of the friends fails to keep secrets entrusted to him, does not protect the friend in his absence, and is also jealous of his other relationships (Argyle, 1990).

Friendships in young years are accompanied by intense contacts, psychological richness and greater significance. At the same time, a sense of humor and sociability are highly valued.

Adults value responsiveness, honesty, and social availability more in friendships. Friendships at this age are more stable. “In active middle age, the emphasis on psychological intimacy as the most important sign of friendship weakens somewhat and friendly relationships lose their aura of totality” (Kohn, 1987, p. 251).

Friendships among the older generation are mostly related to family ties and people who have the same life experiences and values.

The problem of criteria for friendly relations has not been sufficiently studied. Some researchers include mutual assistance, fidelity and psychological intimacy among them, others point to competence in communicating with partners, caring for them, actions and predictability of behavior.

Empathy as a mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships. Empathy is the response of one person to the experiences of another. Some researchers believe that it is an emotional process, others - an emotional and cognitive process. There are conflicting opinions about whether a given phenomenon is a process or a property.

N. N. Obozov considers empathy as a process (mechanism) and includes cognitive, emotional and effective components. According to him, empathy has three levels.

The hierarchical structural-dynamic model is based on cognitive empathy (first level), manifested in the form of understanding the mental state of another person without changing one’s own state.

Second level of empathy implies emotional empathy, not only in the form of understanding the state of another person, but also empathy and sympathy for him, an empathic response. This form of empathy includes two options. The first is associated with the simplest empathy, which is based on the need for one’s own well-being. Another, transitional form from emotional to effective empathy, is expressed in the form of sympathy, which is based on the need for the well-being of another person.

The third level of empathy is the highest form, including cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. It fully expresses interpersonal identification, which is not only mental (perceived and understood) and sensory (empathetic), but also effective. At this level of empathy, real actions and behavioral acts are manifested to provide assistance and support to a communication partner (sometimes such style of behavior is called helping). There are complex interdependencies between the three forms of empathy (Obozov, 1979). In the approach outlined, the second and third levels of empathy (emotional and effective) are quite convincingly and logically substantiated. At the same time, its first level (cognitive empathy), associated with understanding the state of other people without changing one’s state), is, in our opinion, a purely cognitive process.

As evidenced by the results of experimental studies in Russia and abroad, sympathy is one of the main forms of manifestation of empathy. It is determined by the principle of similarity of certain biosocial characteristics of communicating people. The principle of similarity is presented in numerous works by I. S. Kohn, N. N. Obozov, T. P. Gavrilova, F. Heider, T. Newcomb, L. Festinger, C. Osgood and P. Tannenbaum.

If the principle of similarity does not manifest itself among those communicating, then this indicates indifference of feelings. When they experience inconsistency and especially contradiction, this leads to disharmony (imbalance) in cognitive structures and leads to the emergence of antipathy.

As research results show, most often interpersonal relationships are based on the principle of similarity (resemblance), and sometimes on the principle of complementarity. The latter is expressed in the fact that, for example, when choosing comrades, friends, future spouses, etc., people unconsciously, and sometimes consciously, choose persons who can satisfy mutual needs. Based on this, positive interpersonal relationships can develop.

Showing sympathy can intensify the transition from one stage of interpersonal relationships to another, as well as expand and deepen interpersonal relationships. Sympathy, like antipathy, can be unidirectional (without reciprocity) or multidirectional (with reciprocity).

The concept is very close to the concept of “empathy”. "syntonicity" which is understood as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, due to the need for emotional contact. In Russian literature, this concept is found quite rarely.

Various forms of empathy are based on a person’s sensitivity to his own and others’ world. During the development of empathy as a personality trait, emotional responsiveness and the ability to predict the emotional state of people are formed. Empathy can be conscious to varying degrees. It can be possessed by one or both communication partners. The level of empathy was experimentally determined in the studies of T. P. Gavrilova and N. N. Obozov. Persons with high level empaths show interest in other people, are flexible, emotional and optimistic. Individuals with a low level of empathy are characterized by difficulties in establishing contacts, introversion, rigidity and self-centeredness.

Empathy can manifest itself not only in real communication between people, but also in the perception of works of fine art, in the theater, etc.

Empathy as a mechanism for the formation of interpersonal relationships contributes to their development and stabilization, allows you to provide support to your partner not only in ordinary, but also in difficult, extreme conditions, when he especially needs it. Based on the mechanism of empathy, emotional and business impact becomes possible.

Conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships are formed under certain conditions that influence their dynamics, breadth and depth (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

In urban conditions, compared to rural areas, there is a fairly high pace of life, frequent changes of places of work and residence, and a high level of public control. The result is a large number of interpersonal contacts, their short duration and the manifestation of functional-role communication. This leads to the fact that interpersonal relationships in the city place higher psychological demands on the partner. In order to maintain close ties, those communicating often have to pay with the loss of personal time, mental overload, material resources, etc.

Studies abroad show that the more often people meet, the more attractive they seem to each other. Apparently, and vice versa, the less often acquaintances meet, the faster interpersonal relationships between them weaken and cease. Spatial proximity particularly affects interpersonal relationships in children. If parents move or children move from one school to another, their contacts usually cease.

The specific conditions in which people communicate are important in the formation of interpersonal relationships. First of all, this is due to the types of joint activities during which interpersonal contacts are established (study, work, leisure), with the situation (usual or extreme), the ethnic environment (mono- or polyethnic), material resources, etc.

It is well known that interpersonal relationships develop quickly (go through all stages up to the level of trust) in certain places (for example, in a hospital, train, etc.). This phenomenon is apparently due to strong dependence on external factors, short-term joint life activities and spatial proximity. Unfortunately, we do not carry out very many comparative studies on interpersonal relationships in these conditions.

The importance of the time factor in interpersonal relationships depends on the specific sociocultural environment in which they develop (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

The time factor influences the ethnic environment differently. In Eastern cultures, the development of interpersonal relationships is, as it were, extended over time, while in Western cultures it is “compressed”, dynamic. There are almost no works presenting studies of the influence of the time factor on interpersonal relationships in our literature.

Numerous techniques and tests are available to measure various aspects of interpersonal relationships. Among them are the diagnosis of interpersonal relationships by T. Leary (dominance-submission, friendliness-aggression), the “Q-sorting” technique (dependence-independence, sociability-unsociability, acceptance of struggle-avoidance of struggle), K. Thomas’ behavior description test (competition, cooperation , compromise, avoidance, adaptation), J. Moreno’s method of interpersonal preferences for measuring sociometric status in a group (preference-rejection), A. Mehrabyan and N. Epstein’s empathic tendencies questionnaire, V. V. Boyko’s method of the level of empathic abilities, I. M. Yusupov to measure the level of empathy tendencies, the author’s methods of V. N. Kunitsyna, the questionnaire method of V. Azarov for studying impulsivity and volitional regulation in communication, the method of assessing the level of sociability of V. F. Ryakhovsky, etc.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychological science has been studied to a certain extent. There is currently very little scientific research on interpersonal relationships. Prospective problems are: compatibility in business and interpersonal relationships, social distance in them, trust in different types of interpersonal relationships and its criteria, as well as the peculiarities of interpersonal relationships in various types professional activity in a market economy.