Social conflict. Causes, types and examples of social conflicts

Social conflict is a necessary condition for the development of society, the result of the incompatibility of the views of individuals. Conflict makes it possible to expose and solve various problems of society, or reduce it to anarchy.

The heterogeneity of society, differences in position and well-being inevitably lead to the emergence and aggravation of social conflicts. Let us consider the basic concepts, essence and causes of social conflicts in more detail.

What it is

Social conflict is the result of the development of social contradictions, expressed in the confrontation between various social groups.

Such confrontation can arise in any social group. It can be called one of the necessary conditions for the development of society. After all, this process consists of conflicts and their overcoming.

The main source of social conflict is the very structure of society. The more complex it is, the more fragmented society is. New groups and social strata are emerging that have their own value systems, goals and methods of achieving them. All this leads to the emergence of new conflicts.

At the same time, the complex structure of society offers numerous ways to resolve these conflicts and mechanisms for finding consensus. The main task of society is to minimize the possible negative consequences of social conflict and resolve accumulated problems.

The life cycle of a social conflict includes four stages:

Pre-conflict situation. Its sign is the growth of tension in relations between subjects.
Conflict.
Attempts to resolve the conflict.
The end of the confrontation and the post-conflict stage.

Essence and theory

The problem of social conflicts dates back many millennia. However, before Adam Smith, the whole problem was that some should rule, others should obey, and the state should exercise control.

Adam Smith first pointed out the nature of conflict as a social problem. In his opinion, the basis of social conflict is class and economic struggle.

Since then, many theories have appeared to explain the essence of the contradictions:

According to adherents of the socio-biological theory, human conflict is explained by the aggression inherent in all animals.
Proponents of socio-psychological theory link the emergence of social conflicts with overpopulation and other environmental factors. However, this theory does not explain at what point a clear conflict arises.
According to functionalists, social conflict is dysfunction in relation to society. In an ideal system there should be no contradictions.

Causes of social conflict

There are many obvious and hidden reasons behind every conflict. The main social preconditions for contradictions are social inequality (there are always rich and poor, bosses and subordinates) and cultural heterogeneity (the existence in society of different value guidelines, behavioral systems, etc.).

There are many reasons why social conflicts arise. Let's look at the main ones:

Ideological reasons. There is a certain system of ideas and values that determine dominance and subordination. Participants may have different views on this system.
Different values. Each participant in the conflict, be it an individual or a social group, has his own set of value guidelines. Each set is strictly individual, and is often opposite to the same set of another participant. The ultimate goal – satisfaction of one’s own needs – is the same for many participants. As a result, an interaction of opposing interests arises (everyone wants to satisfy their own needs) and a conflict arises.
Social and economic reasons. Associated with the distribution of wealth and power, if one of the participants feels that he has been deprived. This is one of the most common causes of social conflict.
Other reasons: difference in tasks, introduction of innovations, competition between groups and leaders.

Structure

Conflict is a multidimensional process with a developed structure. Each specific conflict situation has its own objective and subjective components.

They can be considered in more detail, starting with the objective ones:

Subjects of the conflict. Every social conflict is, first of all, the inability to achieve mutual understanding between specific people. This is true both for interstate conflict and for family conflict. In each case the main characters– people acting, depending on the situation, as individuals or legal entities.
Item. This is the contradiction that underlies a particular conflict, which is why there is a clash of interests of the participants.
An object. This is a certain value that all subjects strive to obtain. The form can be any: material (money or other resource), spiritual (any idea), social (power). In each specific case, it is not easy to identify the object of the conflict. It is not always found in its pure form; it is often a mixture of at least two forms.
Microenvironment and macroenvironment. These are the conditions under which the parties have to operate. The microenvironment is the immediate surroundings of the participants. Macroenvironment is belonging to certain social groups.

Each individual conflict also has subjective components. This is the tactics and strategy of behavior of each side, the perception certain situation etc.

Types and classification

Various sociological schools put forward their own classifications of conflicts. The most common typology is:

For reasons of occurrence. The reasons can be both objective and subjective.
According to the characteristics of social disagreements. Such conflicts differ in the duration of action and the nature of disagreements, the scope of manifestation, etc.
According to the impact of the conflict on others. The forms of conflicts differ in duration (short-term, medium-term, long-term), severity, and scale.
According to the characteristics of specific participants. The conflict can be collective, interethnic, etc.
Based on the degree of openness there are hidden and open social conflicts. Hidden conflicts do not entail external aggression towards the opponent and take place using indirect methods of influence. In open conflicts, obvious clashes occur - quarrels, disputes.
The most well-known division of conflicts is horizontal and vertical.. This division occurs based on the position of the opponents. Vertical conflict occurs between a boss and a subordinate, horizontal conflict occurs between people at the same level. First of all, these are labor disputes.
Based on the composition of participants, separate interpersonal types of conflicts, group, organizational, political, etc. In interpersonal conflicts, confrontation occurs between people who do not belong to any social community. In groups - between separate social groups. Political conflicts can arise both within society (domestic political) and at the international level (foreign political).

It is worth considering that any attempt to classify conflicts is quite arbitrary. In practice, one can encounter, for example, a vertical closed interpersonal conflict with a unique set of properties.

Role and functions

In public life, social conflict plays a dual role. On the one hand, thanks to the conflict, society develops, certain agreements and agreements are reached. On the other hand, the consequences of an open clash for society are unpredictable.

Conflict has many private functions. Thanks to the adaptive function, individuals adapt to new circumstances. Thanks to the innovative feature, the participants' awareness of each other's pros and cons is increased.

In general, the functions of social conflict can be divided into two large groups:

Constructive. Include positive functions: defusing tension, bringing about social change, etc.
Destructive. This includes functions that are negative in nature: destabilization of relationships that have developed in a certain social environment, destruction of the social community.

Consequences

The consequences of the conflict can be viewed from two opposing points of view:

Functionalist.
Sociological.

Functionalists view conflict as a negative phenomenon that destabilizes society. They highlight the following possible consequences:

Destabilization of society. The emergence of chaotic processes with unpredictable results. Control mechanisms stop working.
Distracting the parties to the conflict from other problems, concentrating on certain interests and victory over the enemy.
Impossibility of further cooperation with the opponent.
Removal of conflict participants from society, dissatisfaction, etc.

Adherents of the sociological point of view, such as Dahrendorf, believe that if certain conditions are met, positive results can be achieved. Positive consequences include:

Resolving a problem in an optimal way that can be accepted by all parties involved. This will bring people together and strengthen their mutual understanding. If each participant feels that he has something to do with solving the problem, he will participate in the implementation of this solution.
Updating existing and creating new mechanisms and institutions. New social groups are formed and a certain balance of interests is maintained. This provides relative stability.
Additional incentives for participants. Managed conflict between people leads to the development of new ideas and solutions. Without participating in conflicts, a person stops developing.

Resolution paths

To analyze ways to resolve social conflicts, you need to understand how the participants in the conflict behave. The strategy for resolving social conflict depends on their characteristics.

Evasion– the participant has no desire to conflict or actively work to achieve his own goals. Such a participant can remove himself from the conflict.
Device. Participants are ready to cooperate, meet the other side halfway and at the same time work on their own interests.
Confrontation. The interests of other parties are not taken into account; each participant strives to achieve only his own goals and impose his opinion on others.
Cooperation. Each participant works to further their interests. However, I am ready to work to find a solution to the conflict in a team with other participants.
Compromise. This style is based on concessions. Each participant is limited to partially achieving his goals and is in some way inferior to the others. This style is preferable to others because... allows us to partially satisfy the desires of all interested parties.

The result of the conflict can be a complete or partial resolution. The first option means completely eliminating the causes of the conflict. In the second case, only part of the problems are solved; the rest may appear later.

Examples in society from history

A classic example of social conflict is the student strike in France in 1968. The reasons are the discrepancy between the values of the students of the sixties and the old French general de Gaulle.

Another reason is the “Fouche reform,” which consisted of accelerated training of specialists without eliminating shortcomings in the educational system. Following the students, there were mass strikes of workers, office workers, and engineers.

Ultimately, the president achieved a partial resolution of the conflict by taking advantage of the population's fear of another revolution. But a year later he resigned.

Video: Social conflict and ways to resolve it

Since the typologies of conflicts are very ambiguous, changeable and dissimilar, therefore there is no single form of conflict resolution.

L.A. Kozer believed that in a social conflict a clear agreement should be established between rivals regarding its completion. In the event that no mutual agreements have been reached at some point in the struggle, its end becomes possible only as a consequence of the death of at least one of the opponents. This means that the end of the conflict contains a number of problems that are not characteristic of final processes.

American researcher R. Dahl identifies three possible

alternatives to completion: deadlock, use of violence and peaceful settlement. Those. the conflict ends with the death of one or both parties, is “suspended until better times” or receives one or another constructive resolution. But the death of both or one side does not mean that the conflict is resolved. The end of a conflict is any ending, termination for any reason, and resolution is a positive action (decision) of the participants in the conflict themselves or a third party, the cessation of confrontation and the removal of contradictions by peaceful or forceful means. The prerequisites for constructive conflict resolution are determined to a large extent by the capabilities of the parties and other participants. A main premise ending the conflict is the elimination of the objective causes that gave rise to the conflict situation. Thus, the object-subject nature of the conflict also implies the object-subject nature of its resolution.

L. A. Petrovskaya believes that conflict resolution is possible:

1. By transforming the most objective conflict situation;

2. By transforming the images of the situation, the existing parties.

Moreover, both complete and partial resolution of the conflict is possible both at the objective and subjective levels.

According to researchers, in order to resolve and resolve a conflict, it is necessary to find out the conditions:

1) necessary for the resolution, institutionalization and regulation of the conflict;

2) creating the possibility of resolving the conflict directly

by the parties themselves included in it;

3) promoting competitive or cooperative conflict resolution.

The main prerequisites for resolving the conflict:

1. The conflicting parties must be organized on their own.

2. Each of the conflicting parties must be ready to recognize the legitimacy of the other party’s demands and accept the result of resolving the conflict, even if it turns out to be beyond its interests. If this kind of readiness is not felt by the warring parties, then they will not have the desire to resolve the conflict, especially if it in some way infringes on their interests.

3. The conflicting parties must belong to the same social community. In this case, the proximity of normative systems, common values and traditions facilitates communication between the parties to the conflict and speeds up its resolution.

Currently, within the framework of the object-subject approach, two models of conflict resolution are known: the arbitration model and the mediation model. The arbitrator examines the essence of the problem, discusses it with the parties to the conflict, and then makes a final and binding decision.

A.G. Kovalev reduces different ways of resolving conflicts in a production organization to pedagogical and administrative decisions.

1. Pedagogical path involves the objectification of the conflict (transferring it from the emotional to the rational level), the ability to distinguish between the interests and positions of the participants in the conflict and convince them of the need to resolve the situation, taking into account their individual psychological characteristics.

2. The administrative path involves taking into account the possibilities of affect on both or one of the parties, collecting the necessary information about the conflicting parties and choosing the appropriate method of resolving the conflict, organizing monitoring of those who have emerged from the conflict.

T. M. Dankova believes that an effective way to resolve conflicts is to bring them up for discussion among the team and make a group decision.

S. E. Aksenenko identifies two ways to resolve conflicts:

1. self-generalization, i.e. creating conditions for a productive exchange of information in a conflict;

2. intervention of other people around, and especially officials. The author considers this path the most suitable for use in organizational and pedagogical work.

A. B. Dobrovich believes that the source of conflict is often the non-confirmation of role expectations presented to each other by communication partners or the relative psychological incompatibility of people forced to contact each other.

Offers the following direct methods of conflict resolution:

1. The leader invites the warring parties one by one, asks them to state the essence of the reason for the clash, clarifies the facts and makes a decision.

2. The teacher or leader invites those in conflict to express their grievances to each other in front of a group, at a meeting. The subsequent decision is made based on the speeches of the meeting participants on this issue.

3. If, despite these measures, the conflict does not subside, the teacher or manager resorts to sanctions against those in conflict (from critical comments to administrative penalties).

4. If this does not help, a way is found to separate those in conflict into different classes and workshops.

Dobrovich believes that direct methods of resolving conflict are less effective than indirect ones, therefore he proposes some principles for indirect resolving conflict:

1) The principle of “exiting feelings” is to allow a person to freely express their negative emotions, and then they themselves are gradually replaced by positive ones; After “the release of feelings,” a person more easily accepts the teacher’s reasonable arguments.

2) The principle of “emotional compensation”. You agree that he feels like a “victim” of the conflict (even if he is not), then appealing to his reason and conscience (if he is wrong) will be effective and lead to repentance.

4) The principle of “exposing aggression” is that a psychologist or teacher deliberately provides the warring parties with the opportunity to express their hostility towards each other, encourages them to quarrel in his presence and, having allowed them to speak out, continues to “work” with them.

5) The principle of “forced listening to the opponent” is, the author believes, that usually during a quarrel the conflicting parties do not listen to each other, attributing to the offender a tone and words that actually did not exist. Fixing the attention of those in conflict on this can remove or reduce the intensity of the struggle.

6) The principle of “exchange of positions”. Encourage those in conflict to look at the quarrel through the eyes of the opponent. This technique, according to A. B. Dobrovich, has universal effectiveness and is appropriate for resolving conflicts of any type.

7) The principle of “expanding the spiritual horizon” of those arguing is to sort out the quarrel, to show the dishonesty of the argumentation, the pettiness and unprincipledness of the causes of the conflict. It is necessary to show those in conflict that in higher-order values they are united and not hostile.

In addition to the above principles of conflict resolution, the author suggests using special psychological games, which contribute to more successful resolution and prevention of interpersonal conflicts.

V. M. Afonkova believes that at high stages of team development, self-regulation of conflict is possible. When this does not happen, then it is advisable to intervene in the conflict, which can be complete or partial and go in two ways:

1. Direct - the “explosion” method according to A. S. Makarenko, individual and group conversations, collective decision, collective therapy, compromise.

2. Indirect (pedagogical maneuver) - changing the number of participants in the conflict, changing activities, theoretical analysis of similar situations, switching the attention of those in conflict to another object.

1) cessation of real confrontation;

2) elimination of traumatic factors;

3) achieving the goal of one of the conflicting parties as a result of its successful strategy and tactics of behavior;

4) changing the individual’s position (meaning the removal or weakening of emotional tension);

5) the presence of the skill of active behavior of the individual in similar situations in the future.

Intermediary (mediator) activity in resolving conflicts is a new psychological reality. This issue is seriously considered in the works of N.V. Grishina. She believes that in domestic practice, “natural” intermediaries include managers and teachers, sociologists and psychologists engaged in practical activities.

1) Understanding the specific nature of mediation, the principles of behavior of the mediator;

2) The ability of the mediator to go beyond the usual boundaries of his professional experience.

J. McGrath puts forward three main multidirectional “forces” that influence the behavior of each participant and pursue goals:

1. defend the position that is assigned to be defended;

2. find agreement with the opposing party;

3. develop a solution that would be assessed as high-quality and constructive by a mediator representing the social community in which the conflict is “inscribed.”

The mediator himself is the object of the action of two “forces” that pose various purposes:

1) lead the negotiators to a position that will be approved by those behind it social system;

2) facilitate the achievement of agreement between the parties.

Osgood proposed the PRSN method (sequential and reciprocal initiatives in reducing tension), which is used in resolving conflicts at different levels: international, intergroup, interpersonal.

The method includes the following rules:

1. Make sincere public statements that one of the parties to the conflict wants to reduce tension and stop the escalation of the conflict.

2. Explain that conciliatory steps will definitely be taken. It is imperative to communicate what, how and when will be done.

3. Keep what you promise.

4. Encourage your opponent to exchange concessions, but do not demand them as a condition for fulfilling your own promises.

5. Concessions must be made over a sufficiently long period of time and even if the other party does not reciprocate.

But the concessions made should not lead to increased defenselessness and vulnerability of the party making them.

Conflict resolution is the achievement of agreement on a controversial issue between the participants. Therefore, it is useful that all actions to resolve the conflict are carried out not only by a third party, but also by the subjects themselves. Clarification of the essence of the conflict situation, its adequate

awareness by the parties to the conflict can serve as the basis for developing constructive solution, and in some cases completely resolve the conflict if it turns out that it is based on a distorted perception of the situation by the participants in the conflict.

The main emphasis in successful conflict resolution is placed on the individual, his adaptive capabilities and resources. In this case, we are talking about the transition from subject-object forms of communication to subject-subject, where each participant in the situation is a subject of activity and is responsible for everything that happens to him at the moment.

The communication situation is the creativity of both sides, and the elimination of any contradiction between people should be based on respect for each individuality and at the same time on the conviction that a person has multifaceted capabilities, for the most part capable of self-government and work on himself.

Based on the above, we can conclude that predicting and preventing conflict is an important component of a person’s work on himself. This increases his personal characteristics, therefore, helps to manage the dynamics of events in his own life. And also social conflict has its own cyclical nature in its inception, peak and attenuation. The ability to determine the stage of the conflict shapes the further choice of people’s strategy.

Introduction

1 History of the conflict

4 Conflicting parties

5 Types of conflicts

6 Types of conflict situations

7 Functions of social conflict

8 Causes of social conflicts

2 Prevention of social conflicts

3 Dynamics of social conflicts

4 Character and choice of strategy

5 Resolution of social conflict

2 Description of the methods and techniques used

3 Processing and interpretation of received data

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

In the twentieth century, conflicts became the main cause of death for a huge number of people. Two world wars, more than 200 large-scale wars, local wars, repressions of totalitarian regimes, armed struggle for power, suicides claimed about 300 million human lives in the 20th century. As civilization develops, culture and people's well-being grow, the world becomes more and more restless. Understanding this has led to a more realistic view of conflict. Since there is no way to avoid conflicts, you need to learn how to work with them.

The relevance of this topic is that in the modern world there is an active

restructuring of all spheres of society and is of great interest

problem of social conflicts. The increase in interest is associated with the widespread occurrence of conflicts in public life. Conflicts are inevitable in any social structure, since they are a necessary condition for social development. Each person strives to achieve a goal, often without paying attention to others, which gives rise to rivalry and tension between people. And then a conflict arises. People must find the best ways to resolve their differences and learn to negotiate without defeating each other. For this to happen painlessly, it is necessary to study the problems of conflicts as thoroughly and in detail as possible.

The purpose of this work is to consider conflict as a socio-psychological process characterized by certain stages and performing specific functions in relationships between people.

Based on the goal, the following tasks are defined:

Familiarize yourself with the origins, meaning, signals, types, functions and causes of conflict issues;

Determine ways to resolve social conflict;

Present the plan of the research part.

The subject of the work is the process of occurrence, course and resolution of conflicts.

The following authors served as the theoretical basis for the course work: Andreev V.I., Vasilyuk F.E., Deutsch M., Enikeev M.I., Zaitsev A.K., Zinchenko V.P., Meshcherikov B.G., Kozer L. A., Cornelius H., Fair Sh., Levin K., Leonov N. I., Petrovskaya L. A., Raigorodsky D. Ya., Rubin J., Pruit D., Kim Hye Sung, Tsybulskaya M. V. ., Yakhontova E. S.

I. General characteristics of the concept of social conflict

1.1 History of the conflict

Heraclitus is considered the spiritual father of conflict theory; there are references to Socrates and Plato, as well as references to Hegel, where researchers turn to his teaching about contradictions and the struggle of opposites.

Modern theories of conflict began with the research of a number of scientists at the beginning of the 20th century: the German sociologist G. Simmel, the Austrian sociologist L. Gumplowicz, and the Americans A. Small and W. Sumner.

The most famous is the German philosopher and sociologist Georg Simmel (1858-1918), who viewed conflicts as an inevitable phenomenon in social life, arising from the properties of human nature and the inherent instinct of aggressiveness. Coined the term “social conflict”. He argued that it is possible to discover a number of relatively stable forms of interaction that underlie the entire diversity of social phenomena. Such forms are competition, conflict, agreement, authority and some other relationships. The central idea of this teaching is the concept of conflict as a form of “socialization,” i.e., a factor that promotes the rapprochement and unification of people. He considered conflict to be a resolution of tension between opposites. In the course of mutual struggle, comparison and comparison occurs. As a result, people identify their special interests and become aware of the opposition of interests - this causes confrontation.

Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838-1910) supported the hypothesis of the origin of man from many primates independent of each other. Kinship and differences in blood find, in his opinion, a corresponding expression in the psyche - feelings of mutual attraction among relatives and attachment to “their own” and feelings of intolerance and hatred of “outsiders.” Positive feelings and emotions determine group solidarity, and negative ones determine intergroup antagonism, leading to conflicts. L. Gumplowicz depicts the history of mankind as the history of wars, noting their positive role in the development of society.

Austrian Field Marshal Gustav Ratzenhofer (1842-1904) saw conflict as the main factor in historical progress. But unlike Gumplowicz, he did not put racial contradictions in the foreground, but differences in people’s interests. Social conflict, in his opinion, is, first of all, a clash of conflicting human interests, purely personal desires and will of people. G. Ranzenhofer makes an attempt to prove the absolute irreconcilability and hostility of man to man, which is the specificity of social life itself.

William Sumner (1840-1910) tried to derive habits and customs, socially useful, moral and legal norms of behavior from the practice of human conflicts, the struggle of people for their existence. He considered the root cause of all human activity to be their desire to satisfy the needs of hunger, sex, social recognition, as well as the desire to get rid of fear of deities.

American sociologist Albion Woodbury Small (1854-1926) views conflict as a basic and universal social process. He sought to prove that with the development of society, the interests of people are increasingly intertwined, as a result of which conflict develops into social harmony. Asocial problems in society that lead to conflicts must be “smoothed out,” “overcome” through “socialization.” All these researchers with their works drew attention to the problem of conflict and described some of its forms. Most of them focused on racial and ethnic conflicts, reducing all others to them.

Adam Smith (1723-1790) first formulated conflict as a social phenomenon in his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). It was suggested that the conflict was based on the division of society into classes and economic rivalry. This division is the driving force behind the development of society, performing useful functions.

The problem of social conflict was also substantiated in the works of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin. This fact served as the basis for Western scientists to classify Marxist concept among the “conflict theories”. In Marxism, the problem of conflict received a simplified interpretation. In essence, it boiled down to a clash between antagonistic classes.

The problem of conflict received its theoretical justification at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), considering social conflict from the standpoint of social Darwinism, considered it an inevitable phenomenon in the history of society and a stimulus for social development. The same position was held by the German sociologist (founder of understanding sociology and the theory of social action) Max Weber (1864-1920).

1.2 Meaning of the terms “Conflict” and “social conflict”

social conflict strategy resolution

Conflict (English conflict; from Latin conflictus - collision) is a broad term actively used in psychology, sociology, philosophy, conflictology and other sciences, as well as in everyday consciousness. In psychology, conflict is most often understood as an actualized contradiction, a collision of oppositely directed interests, goals, positions, opinions, views of the subjects of interaction or opponents (from the Latin opponentis - objector) and even a collision of the opponents themselves. The difficulties in accurately defining conflict stem not only from differences in disciplinary approaches, but also from the extremely wide variety of conflicts themselves. If you set a goal and find a definition that would not contradict any of the existing views on conflict, it would sound psychologically absolutely meaningless: conflict is a collision of something with something.

If conflict is handled incorrectly or suppressed, the following consequences occur: anxiety, withdrawal, procrastination, helplessness, confusion, loneliness, low productivity, lethargy, hidden anger, collapse, denial, withdrawal, escalation, polarization, high blood pressure, stress, fatigue, illness .

When conflict is resolved correctly, there is peace, fun, happiness, openness, efficiency, a sense of strength, relief, joy of communication, a sense of success, a sense of empowerment, change, growth of positive personal qualities, expansion of relationships, peace, relaxation, good health, restful sleep.

Thus, conflict can be positive or negative, constructive or destructive, depending on how it is resolved. It is rarely stagnant - change is possible at any time. Conflict resolution largely depends on the level of vigilance, because it manifests itself in more or less obvious signals.

The subject of the conflict is an existing or imagined problem that serves as its basis. This is the contradiction because of which and for the sake of the resolution of which the parties enter into confrontation.

The object of the conflict is a material (resource), social (power) or spiritual (idea, norm) value that both opponents strive to possess or use. To become the object of a conflict, an element of the material, social and spiritual sphere must be at the intersection of personal, group, public or state interests of subjects who seek control over it.

Social conflict has several definitions. The main ones: social conflict is:

) open confrontation, a collision of two or more subjects - participants in social interaction, the reasons for which are the incompatible needs, interests and values of the participants in the conflict;

) an extreme case of aggravation of social contradictions, expressed in the clash of interests of various social communities - classes, nations, states, various social groups, social institutions, etc., due to the opposition or significant difference in their interests, goals, development trends;

) an obvious or hidden state of confrontation between objectively divergent interests, goals and development trends of social subjects, a direct or indirect clash of social forces based on opposition to the existing social order, a special form of historical movement towards a new social unity;

) a situation when the parties (subjects) of conflict interaction pursue some of their own goals that contradict or mutually exclude each other.

1.3 Signals of social conflict

) A crisis is a conditional transition between stable periods. As a signal it is quite obvious. During a crisis, normal norms of behavior are no longer valid. A person becomes capable of extremes - in his imagination, and sometimes in his actions.

) Voltage is also an obvious signal. The state of tension distorts our perception of another person and many of his actions. Relationships are burdened by the weight of negative attitudes and preconceived opinions. Feelings towards the opponent change significantly for the worse. The very relationship with him becomes a source of continuous anxiety.

) Misunderstanding - by drawing false conclusions from a situation, a misunderstanding arises. Most often this happens due to insufficiently clear expression of thoughts or lack of mutual understanding. Sometimes the misunderstanding is due to the fact that one of the participants is emotionally tense. In this case, his thoughts tend to continually return to the same problem. Her perception is distorted.

) An incident is an action or a set of actions of participants in a conflict situation, provoking a sharp escalation of the contradiction and the beginning of a struggle between them. Such a signal is often insignificant. Some little thing may cause temporary excitement or irritation, but after a few days it is often forgotten. A minor incident in itself can, if perceived incorrectly, lead to an escalation of the conflict.

) Discomfort is an intuitive feeling that something is wrong, although it is difficult to express it in words. In this case, you should listen to your intuition. Some steps may come to mind to get out of this state. Or you just need to be on your guard.

1.4 Conflicting parties

“Participant” is a subject (person, group, organization, state) directly involved in all phases of a dispute, negotiation, conflict, or conflict situation.

An “enemy” is a subject (person, group, organization, state) who holds an opposing point of view in relation to the main, original one.

“Opponent” is a participant in a discussion-dispute who has a point of view, views, beliefs, arguments that are opposite, different from the main, original ones.

A “conflict person” is a person who more often than others creates and involves others in conflicts and conflict situations.

A “strong opponent” is an opponent who has a higher level of knowledge, skills, abilities and personal qualities in comparison with other participants in a dispute, negotiations, or conflict resolution.

Among the participants in the conflict, there are three behavioral types:

) Destructive - completely absorbed in his own interests and, in order to realize them, goes to the constant aggravation of the conflict. Persons of this type are characterized by constant defensive readiness, capture by their goal, and immunity to the tactical features of the behavior of the other side;

) Conformal - prone to unconditional concessions, encouraging the other side to increase aggressive behavior;

) Constructive - strives to resolve the conflict by finding mutually acceptable solutions.

Typology of conflict participants according to the degree of involvement and influence on the development of the conflict:

) warring parties - directly interact, trying to satisfy their interests. Their goals, objectively or subjectively, do not coincide;

) instigators, accomplices, organizers - make an indirect contribution to the development of the conflict. During the period of its growth they can become primary. They do not seek to be directly involved in the conflict.

) mediators, judges - make efforts to end the conflict. Interested in successful conflict resolution.

1.5 Types of conflicts

There are various classifications of conflicts:

) Intrapersonal conflict - the participants in the conflict are not people, but various psychological factors inner world personalities that often seem or are incompatible: needs, motives, values, feelings, etc. Intrapersonal conflicts associated with working in an organization can take various forms. One of the most common forms is role conflict, when a person's different roles make conflicting demands on him.

) Interpersonal conflict is the most common type of conflict. It manifests itself in different ways in organizations. Most often, this is a struggle for limited resources: material resources, production space, time to use equipment, labor etc. Everyone believes that it is he who needs the resources, and not the other.

) Intergroup - an organization consists of many formal and informal groups between which conflicts may arise. Intergroup conflicts are accompanied by:

a) Manifestations of deindividuation, i.e. group members do not perceive other people as individuals, as original individuals, but perceive them as members of another group to which negative behavior is attributed.

b) Manifestations of group attribution, i.e. they tend to believe that it is “an out-group that is responsible for negative events.”

) Between an individual and a group - informal groups establish their own standards of behavior and communication. Each member of such a group must comply with them. Deviation from accepted standards the group views it as a negative phenomenon, a conflict arises between the individual and the group. Another common conflict of this type is between the group and the leader.

) Social conflict is a situation when the parties (subjects) of interaction pursue some of their goals that contradict or mutually exclude each other.

Three key points in existing definitions of conflict:

a) an extreme case of aggravation of social contradictions, an obvious or hidden state of confrontation, as well as a situation of interaction;

b) social conflict is expressed in the clash of various social communities - classes, nations, states, social institutions, social subjects;

c) opposing parties pursue their various, opposing goals, interests and development trends, which, as a rule, contradict or mutually exclude each other.

Social conflict is a complex phenomenon that includes several aspects. But it is the presence of warring parties with their own needs, interests and goals that is the basis of the conflict, its center line.

The following classifications of conflicts are also possible:

)horizontally (between employees who are not subordinate to each other);

) vertically (between people subordinate to each other);

) mixed (in which both are represented).

Six types of conflicts according to G. Bisno:

) Conflicts of interest - characterized by actual intertwining of interests or obligations.

) Forced conflicts are deliberately created conflicts to achieve goals other than the declared ones.

) Falsely correlated - confused by the discrepancy between the characteristics of the participants’ behavior, content and reasons.

) Illusory conflicts - based on incorrect perceptions or misunderstandings.

) Displaced conflicts - in which the antagonism is directed at a person or considerations other than the actual offended participants or the real topics.

) Expressive conflicts - characterized by a desire to express hostility and antagonism.

Six types of conflicts according to M. Deutsch:

)Genuine conflict - a clash of interests exists objectively, is recognized by the participants and does not depend on any variable factor;

) Random or conditional conflict - it is based on random, easily changeable circumstances, but they are not realized by the conflicting parties;

)Displaced conflict - the perceived causes of the conflict are only indirectly related to its objective underlying causes;

)Misattributed conflict - either unintentionally or deliberately the conflict is attributed to the wrong parties between whom it actually occurs;

)Latent conflict - due to objective reasons, the conflict must take place, but is not actualized;

)False conflict - it has no objective basis; it arises from misconceptions or misunderstandings.

Three types of conflict according to R. Fisher:

)Economic conflict is based on the motives of possessing limited resources, including territory, and is one of the forms of real conflict;

) Conflict of values - is formed around incompatible preferences, principles that people believe in and which correlate with group identification (culture, religion, ideology);

)Force conflict - when one side seeks to maximize its influence on the other side through force.

Two types of conflict according to J. Himes, the main criterion of which is the breadth of the masses involved and the degree of impact on society:

)Private conflicts - in them the state or government does not occupy the main roles:

a) gang wars;

b) interreligious;

c) interethnic;

e) intertribal;

f) interregional clashes;

g) conflict between workers and managers.

)Civil disobedience:

a) riots - actions directed against the government (political demonstrations, strikes);

b) conspiracy;

c) internal war (uprising, riot, Civil War, revolution);

d) social control - government actions to counter collective conflicts;

d) war.

1.6 Types of conflict situations

Psychologically, conflict is characterized as a situation in which an individual is simultaneously affected by oppositely directed forces of equal magnitude. Accordingly, three types of conflict situations can be distinguished:

1) A person is between two positive valences (from lat.<#"justify">3) One of the two field vectors comes from positive, and the other from negative valence. In this case, conflict occurs when positive and negative valence are in the same place.

1.7 Functions of social conflict

Civilized conflict requires maintaining forceful interaction within the framework of cooperation and competition. Fighting means the conflict moves into an uncivilized framework. Hence the division of conflicts into constructive and destructive. There is a certain norm within which the conflict has a constructive content. Going beyond this framework leads to a pathological degeneration of a constructive conflict into a destructive one.

M. Deutsch believed that the conflict bad reputation due to its association with psychopathology, social unrest and war. But it is a source of personal and social change. Conflict is a means through which problems can be identified and resolved.

The concept of “pathology” makes sense only in connection with the concept of “norm” and means something abnormal from the point of view of legal or moral standard within the specific characteristics of society.

)Constructive (positive) functions of conflict:

a) the function of defusing tension between antagonists, an “exhaust valve”;

b) “communicative-informational” and “connecting” functions, during the implementation of which people can check each other and get closer;

c) function as a stimulant and driving force of social change;

d) the function of promoting the formation of a socially necessary balance;

e) guarantees for the development of society by revealing opposing interests, the possibilities of their scientific analysis and determining the necessary changes;

f) assisting in the reassessment of previous values and norms;

g) providing assistance in strengthening the loyalty of members of this structural unit.

)Destructive (negative) functions of conflict, i.e. conditions that interfere with achieving goals:

a) dissatisfaction, poor morale, increased staff turnover, decreased labor productivity;

b) a decrease in the degree of cooperation in the future, disruption of the communication system;

c) absolute devotion to one’s group and unproductive competition with other groups in the organization;

d) the idea of the other side as an enemy, of one’s goals as positive, and of the other side’s goals as negative;

e) curtailment of interaction between the conflicting parties;

f) an increase in hostility between the conflicting parties as communication decreases, an increase in mutual hostility and hatred;

g) shift of emphasis: giving more importance to victory in the conflict than to solving the problem;

h) the possibility of preparing for a new round of conflict;

i) consolidation in the social experience of an individual or group of violent methods of solving problems.

However, when assessing the constructiveness and destructiveness of conflict functions, it is necessary to keep in mind the following:

) lack of clear criteria for the differences between constructive and destructive conflicts. The line between constructive and destructive functions sometimes loses its clarity when it comes to assessing the consequences of a particular conflict;

) the vast majority of conflicts have both constructive and destructive functions;

) the degree of constructiveness and destructiveness of a particular conflict may change at different stages of its development;

) it is necessary to take into account for which of the participants in the conflict it is constructive and for whom it is destructive. It is not the warring parties themselves who may be interested in the conflict, but other participants (instigators, accomplices, organizers). Therefore, the functions of the conflict from the positions of different participants can be assessed differently.

1.8 Causes of social conflicts

The most common causes of social conflicts are:

) different or completely opposite perceptions of people's goals, values, interests and behavior;

) unequal position of people in imperatively coordinated associations (some control, others obey);

) discord between people's expectations and actions;

) misunderstandings, logical errors and generally semantic difficulties in the communication process;

) lack and poor quality of information;

) imperfection of the human psyche, the discrepancy between reality and ideas about it.

) incompatibility of the parties' claims due to the limited possibilities of satisfying them.

Based on the above, we can say that the origins of the conflict problem go back to 500-400. BC, the classification of conflicts is varied. G. Bisno, M. Deutsch, R. Fischer, J. Himes and many others offered their options. The functions of conflict have their negative and positive sides, which can direct a person to develop positive personal qualities.

II. Ways to resolve social conflicts

1 Forecasting social conflicts

Forecasting the possible consequences of one's actions is an integral characteristic of a person who is able not only to control his own personal manifestations, but also to control the dynamics of events in his own life.

Forecasting the possibility of the emergence and development of a social conflict gives a person:

) an idea of the social and personal consequences of this conflict, including the resource costs of participation in it and its resolution;

) allows a person to bypass and prevent the occurrence of conflicts that are undesirable for him;

) regulate its flow, minimizing losses and using constructive potential.

The most accurate predictors of the emergence and development of social contradictions, including conflicts, are professionals: conflictologists and sociologists. Based on the symptoms of emerging contradictions and diagnostics, it is possible to model a possible conflict and draw up a program of action to minimize its negative consequences for society.

Forecasting social conflicts as a special type of activity is based on fairly deep and systematized knowledge:

Personality Psychology;

Social and psychological patterns of human interaction;

Socio-political patterns of development of society;

Patterns of economic life of society;

Legal mechanisms regulating public life;

Social conflicts (their essence, genesis of development, classification, cause-and-effect relationships, and so on).

Forecasting specific social conflicts necessarily requires knowledge of the most complete set of factors that determine the behavior of all people drawn “into the orbit” of the emerging contradiction.

The necessary skills that determine the effectiveness of forecasting include the following:

) communication skills (verbal and non-verbal communication, establishment and use of various information transmission channels);

) analytical skills (collecting and processing multifaceted information about the situation and the people causing it, modeling the situation and people’s behavior);

) skills of psychological correlation and self-correlation (control and management of emotional-volitional states, providing a positive impact on others and others);

) skills to identify, prevent and resolve problem situations (emergency, conflict).

In the everyday life of an ordinary person, forecasting is a type of activity that often occurs at the subconscious level and is largely determined by uncontrolled (or partially controlled) forms of behavior, such as conditioned reflexes and habits. Typically, behavior is controlled by consciousness only at the moment of learning.

Therefore, the tendency to predict and model the future is due to certain habits:

a) the habit of rationalizing one’s actions (thinking before acting);

b) the habit of reducing the gap between distant (strategic) goals and immediate (tactical) goals;

c) the habit of balancing desires and possibilities;

d) the habit of taking into account not only one’s own interests and plans, but also the interests and plans of other people;

e) the habit of treating other people with respect, no matter how different their appearance, lifestyle and habits are from your own.

Determinants of forecasting are divided:

)Intrapersonal factors:

a) knowledge;

b) skills;

c) relationships.

(Analytical abilities, experience, character traits, habits, conditional).

)External factors:

a) availability of the necessary information;

b) reliability.

(Availability of time to comprehend facts and make decisions,

presence/absence of powerful sources of disinformation).

The forecasting process consists of the following sequence of actions:

Identification of symptoms - some facts and events that, taken together, do not provide grounds for drawing certain conclusions, but are alarming and encourage activity in searching for additional information;

Search and analysis of information - collection and processing of various facts that give grounds to draw a certain conclusion (diagnosis) and make a decision regarding the subject of concern;

Modeling:

A) possible options developments of events;

b) alternatives to their actions;

c) the consequences of the development of the situation and their actions.

The purpose of forecasting is to make a decision that will allow the subject to most effectively solve the tasks assigned to him in specific conditions.

Methods for this activity:

1) Inductive method - by identifying and studying diverse conflicts in everyday life, leisure, and sports, one can analyze, explain and predict the occurrence of more complex conflicts;

) Deductive method - allows, based on knowledge of general patterns and awareness of social programs, to predict conflicts in certain social spheres or regions.

2.2 Prevention of social conflicts

Social action such as conflict prevention is positive. Activities for the prevention and prevention of conflicts are highly humane, much more economical in terms of resource expenditure, compared to efforts to resolve social conflicts that have already arisen.

Conflict prevention is an activity to eliminate the destructive potential of social contradictions before the start of confrontation between those interested in resolving them in their favor. In a broad sense, conflict prevention is a multifaceted activity aimed at creating and strengthening living conditions in which the possibility of conflicts (primarily destructive types) is excluded.

Conflict prevention can be carried out by:

) subjects who want to protect themselves from the role of an opposing party or an accomplice to the conflict;

) subjects who want to help others, preventing the emergence of a conflict and knowing in advance that they will not have to play the role of the opposing party.

However, the effectiveness of conflict prevention is not as significant as many would like, which is due to a number of objective and subjective reasons.

Subjective obstacles to conflict prevention lie in the characteristics of a person’s personality and his ability to predict the possible consequences of his actions. Such qualities as the desire to demonstrate superiority, rudeness, boasting, disrespect for people and others in mandatory will create a lot of problems for the individual and will minimize the possibility of preventing conflicts.

Objective obstacles to outside interference in a situation fraught with conflict are characterized by:

a) these obstacles are of a socio-psychological nature. People build their relationships on their own; interference from outsiders is often viewed by the parties as undesirable and perceived as an intrusive influence;

b) there are moral obstacles. Often, and not without reason, a conflict is viewed as a private matter of the parties. From the standpoint of humanism, forcing the parties to agree is unethical;

c) there are obstacles legal nature. Thus, infringement of an individual’s right to self-determination, forcing one to choose a certain model of behavior (even with the best intentions) may contradict the law and be illegal.

Intervention in a conflict is possible only if it outgrows the scope of personal or group relationships and becomes socially dangerous (significant).

Conflict prevention activities are varied and largely depend on the nature of the conflict itself, however, there are four levels at which this activity is possible:

Macro level (global, civilizational, state and national) - the creation of objective conditions that prevent the emergence of conflicts at the general social level. Of course, it is impossible to completely eliminate the occurrence of conflicts by creating “ideal” living conditions. However, it is quite possible to create conditions to minimize the destructive potential of social contradictions and reduce their number. You can also learn to resolve many contradictions in a non-conflict way;

Micro level (formal communities, which include specific subjects) - improvement and optimization of management. People spend most of their time in work and educational groups, so creating conditions for the effective functioning of these organizations prevents the emergence of many social conflicts;

Level of interpersonal relations of the subject - elimination of socio-psychological causes of conflicts at the level of interpersonal relations;

Intrapersonal level - eliminating or blocking the personal causes of conflicts through a positive impact on the consciousness and behavior of destructively minded subjects, including efforts at self-correction.

It is important that conflict is present only when the parties interact. Without interdependence there is no conflict. If the elements are not connected, do not depend on each other or on the same resources, then there will be no competition and no conflict.

2.3 Dynamics of social conflicts

Conflict is a complex dynamic formation that has its own boundaries, content, stages and its own forms of dynamics.

All the variety of forms of conflict dynamics can be reduced to three main forms.

Conflict is cyclical and goes through a predictable sequence of stages. The conflict arises, develops, the intensity of combat reaches its climax, and then, after measures have been taken to resolve the situation, the tension gradually or quickly subsides.

Conflict is a phase process. The interaction of subjects leads to the transformation of the social situation. Living conditions, character and content change public relations, principles and rules of individual behavior, social structure and status of individuals or social groups.

A conflict is an interaction between two subjects (individuals, social groups), in which the actions of one side are a reaction to the actions of the other side. This form of conflict dialectics can be called behaviorist, since its content is interaction

subjects according to the basic formula of behaviorism: stimulus -> response (S -> R). In this case, the actions of each side are aimed at taking the position of the opposite side, which is considered as more attractive and favorable. The severity and nature of conflict interaction are determined by the subject of disagreement, the balance of forces and external conditions (socio-political, organizational, socio-psychological, spatial, etc.).

As a rule, conflicts have mixed forms. Very often, a conflict first takes one form and then moves into another. This is especially true for protracted conflicts. Even a strike, representing a relatively pure form of cyclical conflict with pronounced

stages, can pass into phase form. Since the cyclic form of conflict is more common, let us consider it in more detail.

R. Ramel proposed a universal dynamics scheme consisting of five successive stages in the development of a conflict:

Latent, which precedes the actual collision. At this stage, unnoticed by external observation, differences arise in dispositions, values, circumstances, and rules of behavior, which form the potential for confrontation. Social tension arises, indicating the presence of a conflict situation.

Initiating, in which some event provokes individuals to take active action.

Balancing forces. The parties evaluate each other's potential capabilities, accumulate strength, and look for a solution to the problem. As a result of these actions, the parties adapt to the circumstances and the fourth stage begins.

Balance of power. At this stage, actions are taken to change circumstances, solve problems, and eliminate contradictions. These changes lead to the fifth stage.

A split, when the parties again enter into combat.

This approach corresponds to the model of the conflict state of society, which helps maintain a constant background of social tension, when the stage of finding a solution to the problem is essentially the latent period of the next stage in the development of the conflict, i.e. the launch of a subsequent conflict.

To analyze industrial conflicts, in particular strikes, A.K. Zaitsev identifies four stages:

1) Emergence - at this stage, many phenomena have a nature hidden from external observation. Actions develop primarily at the socio-psychological level and are of a purely verbal nature;

) Formation - the requirements of the parties are formulated. Preliminary balancing of forces occurs in the form of negotiations. The stage ends with either an incident or a strike;

) Heyday is a time of active action when there is a complete or partial stop in production. Escalation reaches its peak, the number of participants is maximum. Coordination of interests is carried out through negotiations. Actively works in the strike committee, trade union committee, conciliation commission;

) Transformation is the stage of conflict fading. It occurs either after the resources of one or both parties have been exhausted, or when an agreement is reached as a result of negotiations. This stage usually ends with the resumption of work.

Thus, it is assumed that industrial conflict has a beginning and an end. A change in the nature of the conflict, an aggravation or subsidence of tension can occur at any stage.

In the dynamics of conflict, A. Ya. Antsupov and A. I. Shipilov distinguish a latent (pre-conflict) period, an open period (the conflict itself), and a latent period (post-conflict situation).

The latent period (pre-conflict) includes the following stages: the emergence of an objective problem situation; awareness of the objective problem situation by the subjects of interaction; attempts by the parties to resolve an objective problem situation in non-conflict ways; the emergence of a pre-conflict situation.

a) The emergence of an objective problem situation. Apart from cases of false conflict, conflict is usually generated by an objective problem situation. The essence of such a situation is the emergence of a contradiction between subjects (their goals, actions, motives, aspirations, etc.). Since the contradiction has not yet been realized and there are no conflicting actions, this situation is called problematic. It is the result of the action of predominantly objective reasons. Many problematic situations arise every day in production, business, everyday life, family and other areas of life.

long time without showing yourself.

One of the conditions for such a transition is awareness of the objective problem situation.

b) Awareness of an objective problem situation. The perception of reality as problematic, the understanding of the need to take some action to resolve the contradiction constitute the meaning of this stage. The presence of an obstacle to the realization of interests contributes to the fact that the problem situation is perceived subjectively, with distortions. Subjectivity of perception is generated not only by the nature of the psyche, but also by the social differences of the participants in communication. These include values, social attitudes, ideals and interests. Individuality of awareness is also generated by differences in knowledge, needs, and other characteristics of the participants in the interaction. How the situation is more complicated and the faster it develops, the greater the likelihood of it being distorted by opponents.

c) An attempt by the parties to resolve an objective problem situation in non-conflict ways. Awareness of a contradiction does not always automatically entail conflicting opposition from the parties. Often at least one of them tries to solve the problem in non-conflict ways (persuasion, explanation, requests, informing the opposing side). Sometimes the participant in the interaction gives in, not wanting the problem situation to escalate into a conflict. In any case, at this stage the parties argue their interests and fix their positions.

d) The emergence of a pre-conflict situation. The conflict is perceived as a threat to the security of one of the parties to the interaction, a threat to some socially important interests. Moreover, the opponent’s actions are considered not as a potential threat (this is typical for a problematic situation), but as an immediate one.

It is the feeling of an immediate threat that contributes to the development of the situation towards conflict and is the “trigger” of conflict behavior.

The open period is often called conflict interaction or conflict itself. It includes: incident; escalation of the conflict; balanced counteraction; ending the conflict.

a) The incident represents the first clash of the parties, a test of strength, an attempt to use force to solve the problem in one’s favor. If the resources involved by one of the parties are sufficient to tip the balance of forces in their favor, then the conflict may be limited to an incident. However, often the conflict develops further as a series of conflict events and incidents. Mutual conflict actions can modify and complicate the initial structure of the conflict, introducing new incentives for further actions. This process can be represented as follows: the transition from negotiations to struggle - the struggle heats up emotions - emotions increase perception errors - intensification of the struggle, etc. This process is called “conflict escalation”.

b) Escalation consists of a sharp intensification of the opponents’ struggle.

c) Balanced opposition. The parties continue to oppose, but the intensity of the struggle is decreasing. The parties realize that continuing the conflict by force does not produce results, but actions to reach agreement have not yet been taken.

d) Ending the conflict consists of moving from conflict resistance to finding a solution to the problem and ending the conflict for any reason. The main forms of ending a conflict: resolution, settlement, fading, elimination or escalation into another conflict.

The post-conflict period includes two stages: partial normalization of relations between opponents and complete normalization of their relations.

a) Partial normalization of relations occurs in conditions where the negative emotions that occur in the conflict have not disappeared. The stage is characterized by experiences and understanding of one’s position. There is a correction of self-esteem, levels of aspiration, and attitude towards the partner. The feeling of guilt for one’s actions in the conflict intensifies. Negative attitudes towards each other do not make it possible to immediately normalize relations.

b) Complete normalization of relations occurs when the parties realize the importance of further constructive interaction. This is facilitated by overcoming negative attitudes, productive participation in joint activities, and establishing trust.

The considered periods and stages may have different durations in time, so in a conflict we can distinguish a time period:

) Differentiation of parties. The conflict is developing upward, disagreements between the parties are intensifying. The confrontation continues until further escalation becomes pointless.

) Integration. Participants begin to strive for an agreement acceptable to both parties.

In conflict, as a complex dynamic phenomenon, three aspects of determining the boundaries of the conflict can be distinguished: spatial, temporal and intrasystemic.

The spatial boundaries of the conflict are determined by the territory on which the conflict occurs.

Time boundaries are the duration of the conflict, its beginning and end.

Determining the intrasystem boundaries of a conflict is closely related to a clear identification of the subjects of the conflict from the entire circle of its participants. Intrasystem connections are complex and diverse, since the boundaries of the conflict in the system depend on how wide a circle of participants will be involved in it. It is important to know the intrasystem boundaries of the conflict in order to effectively influence ongoing processes.

During the active phase of the conflict, conflict behavior appears. These are actions aimed at directly or indirectly blocking the opposing party from achieving its goals, intentions, and so on.

A necessary condition, a sign of conflict behavior is its awareness by the parties as precisely conflict behavior.

Conflict actions sharply aggravate the emotional background of the conflict, and emotions stimulate conflict behavior. Mutual conflict actions can modify and complicate the initial conflict structure, introducing new incentives for further actions.

At the same time, conflicting actions perform, in a certain sense, a cognitive function. The parties come into conflict with certain hypothetical, a priori pictures of their interests, capabilities, etc., intentions, values of the other party and certain presumptive assessments of the environment. In the course of conflicting actions, the parties are faced with reality itself, which corrects their initial a priori pictures. This correction leads to a more adequate understanding by the parties of the existing situation, which, in turn, usually contributes to the resolution of the conflict, at least in the form of cessation of conflicting actions.

2.4 Nature and choice of strategy

There are 3 types of strategy:

) Offensive strategy of rivalry - involves any attempts to resolve the conflict on the terms of one side without taking into account the interests of the other. If one side chooses this strategy, it seeks satisfaction of its claims and tries to convince or force the other side to make concessions. This strategy uses different tactics: threats; intimidation with punishments with the condition that they will be canceled if the other party gives in to persuasion; investing in activities aimed at resolving the conflict without prior agreement with the other party. If the competitive strategy is used in negotiations when agreement is to be reached, persuasive arguments may be used; demands that far exceed existing capabilities; the “unchangeable” position is declared, from which they will not retreat, no matter what happens; Strict restrictions are introduced on the timing or nature of solutions to the issue.

) In a problem resolution strategy, efforts are made to identify the issues dividing the parties and develop and accept a mutually beneficial solution. With this strategy, the parties do not renounce their claims, but try to reconcile them with the claims of each other. To implement this strategy, you can use steps such as offering one party concessions in the hope of receiving the same concessions from the other party, putting forward compromise terms for discussion, and disclosing one’s main interests. Possible compromises are only hinted at or people who are not responsible are sent to discuss the terms; they resort to back door negotiations and the services of intermediaries.

) The strategy of concessions, in which a party reduces its claims, does not mean, however, complete capitulation. Here concessions can also be partial.

Choice of strategy.

The three basic strategies have the property of being substitutable in the sense that choosing one of them makes choosing the others less likely. Although it is sometimes necessary to use a combination of these strategies, they are not entirely compatible with each other for three reasons:

) Strategies are alternative means of achieving the same goal - agreement with the other party. If one of the parties cannot use one of them, it will most likely choose others.

) Strategies require a certain psychological orientation (it is not entirely correct to put pressure on the other side if it is one team at work or there is a desire to adapt to it).

) The chosen strategies often give the other side a false impression of the first (if the first side chooses a strategy of concessions, the other may suspect it of weakness, which is incompatible with exerting effective pressure on it. Rivalry undermines the trust of the second side, thereby reducing the possibility of constructively resolving the problem) .

As a result of these features, direct and indirect conditions are found that favor each of the strategies. Indirect factors influence the possibility of choosing one of the strategies by strengthening or weakening others.

2.5 Resolving social conflict

Since the typologies of conflicts are very ambiguous, changeable and dissimilar, therefore there is no single form of conflict resolution.

American researcher R. Dahl identifies three possible

alternatives to completion: deadlock, use of violence and peaceful settlement. Those. the conflict ends with the death of one or both parties, is “suspended until better times” or receives one or another constructive resolution. But the death of both or one side does not mean that the conflict is resolved. End of the conflict -any ending, termination for any reason, and resolution is a positive action (decision) of the participants in the conflict themselves or a third party, the cessation of confrontation and the removal of contradictions by peaceful or forceful means. The prerequisites for constructive conflict resolution are determined to a large extent by the capabilities of the parties and other participants. And the main prerequisite for ending the conflict is the elimination of the objective causes that gave rise to the conflict situation. Thus, the object-subject nature of the conflict also implies the object-subject nature of its resolution.

L. A. Petrovskaya believes that conflict resolution is possible:

By transforming the most objective conflict situation;

By transforming the images of the situation and the available parties.

Moreover, both complete and partial resolution of the conflict is possible both at the objective and subjective levels.

According to researchers, in order to resolve and resolve a conflict, it is necessary to find out the conditions:

) necessary for the resolution, institutionalization and regulation of the conflict;

) creating the possibility of resolving the conflict directly

by the parties themselves included in it;

) promoting competitive or cooperative conflict resolution.

The main prerequisites for resolving the conflict:

The conflicting parties must themselves be organized.

Each of the conflicting parties must be ready to recognize the legitimacy of the other party’s demands and accept the result of the conflict resolution, even if it turns out to be beyond its interests. If this kind of readiness is not felt by the warring parties, then they will not have the desire to resolve the conflict, especially if it in some way infringes on their interests.

The conflicting parties must belong to the same social community. In this case, the proximity of normative systems, common values and traditions facilitates communication between the parties to the conflict and speeds up its resolution.

A.G. Kovalev reduces different ways of resolving conflicts in a production organization to pedagogical and administrative decisions.

The pedagogical path involves the objectification of the conflict (transferring it from the emotional to the rational level), the ability to distinguish between the interests and positions of the participants in the conflict and convince them of the need to resolve the situation, taking into account their individual psychological characteristics.

The administrative path involves taking into account the possibilities of affect on both or one of the parties, collecting the necessary information about the conflicting parties and choosing the appropriate method of resolving the conflict, organizing monitoring of those who have emerged from the conflict.

T. M. Dankova believes that an effective way to resolve conflicts is to bring them up for discussion among the team and make a group decision.

S. E. Aksenenko identifies two ways to resolve conflicts:

Self-generalization, i.e. creating conditions for productive exchange of information in a conflict;

Intervention of other persons around, and above all officials. The author considers this path the most suitable for use in organizational and pedagogical work.

Offers the following direct methods of conflict resolution:

The leader invites the warring parties one by one, asks them to explain the essence of the reason for the clash, clarifies the facts and makes a decision.

The teacher or leader invites those in conflict to express their grievances to each other in front of a group, at a meeting. The subsequent decision is made based on the speeches of the meeting participants on this issue.

If, despite these measures, the conflict does not subside, the teacher or manager resorts to sanctions against those in conflict (from critical remarks to administrative penalties).

If this does not help, a way is found to separate those in conflict into different classes and workshops.

Dobrovich believes that direct methods of resolving conflict are less effective than indirect ones, therefore he proposes some principles for indirect resolving conflict:

) The principle of “exiting feelings” is to allow a person to freely express their negative emotions, and then they themselves are gradually replaced by positive ones; After “the release of feelings,” a person more easily accepts the teacher’s reasonable arguments.

) The principle of “emotional compensation”. You agree that he feels like a “victim” of the conflict (even if he is not), then appealing to his reason and conscience (if he is wrong) will be effective and lead to repentance.

) The principle of “exposing aggression” is that a psychologist or teacher deliberately provides the warring parties with the opportunity to express their hostility towards each other, encourages them to quarrel in his presence and, having allowed them to speak out, continues to “work” with them.

) The principle of “forced listening to the opponent” is, the author believes, that usually during a quarrel the conflicting parties do not listen to each other, attributing to the offender a tone and words that did not actually exist. Fixing the attention of those in conflict on this can remove or reduce the intensity of the struggle.

) The principle of “exchange of positions”. Encourage those in conflict to look at the quarrel through the eyes of the opponent. This technique, according to A. B. Dobrovich, has universal effectiveness and is appropriate for resolving conflicts of any type.

) The principle of “expanding the spiritual horizon” of those arguing is to sort out the quarrel, to show the dishonesty of the argumentation, the pettiness and unprincipledness of the causes of the conflict. It is necessary to show those in conflict that in higher-order values they are united and not hostile.

In addition to the above principles of conflict resolution, the author suggests using special psychological games that contribute to more successful resolution and prevention of interpersonal conflicts.

Direct - the “explosion” method according to A. S. Makarenko, individual and group conversations, collective decision, collective therapy, compromise.

Indirect (pedagogical maneuver) - changing the number of participants in the conflict, changing activities, theoretical analysis of similar situations, switching the attention of those in conflict to another object.

) cessation of real confrontation;

) elimination of traumatic factors;

) achieving the goal of one of the conflicting parties as a result of its successful strategy and tactics of behavior;

) changing the individual’s position (meaning the removal or weakening of emotional tension);

) the presence of the skill of active behavior of an individual in similar situations in the future.

Intermediary (mediator) activity to resolve conflicts is a new psychological reality. This issue is seriously considered in the works of N.V. Grishina. She believes that in domestic practice, “natural” intermediaries include managers and teachers, sociologists and psychologists engaged in practical activities.

) Understanding the specific nature of mediation, the principles of behavior of the mediator;

) The ability of the mediator to go beyond the usual boundaries of his professional experience.

J. McGrath puts forward three main multidirectional “forces” that influence the behavior of each participant and pursue goals:

Defend the position that is assigned to be defended;

Find agreement with the opposing party;

To develop a solution that would be assessed as high-quality and constructive by a mediator representing the social community in which the conflict is “inscribed.”

The mediator himself is the object of the action of two “forces” that set different goals:

) lead the negotiators to a position that will be approved by the social system behind it;

) facilitate the achievement of agreement between the parties.

Osgood proposed the PRSN method (sequential and reciprocal initiatives in reducing tension), which is used in resolving conflicts at different levels: international, intergroup, interpersonal.

The method includes the following rules:

Make sincere public statements that one of the parties to the conflict wants to reduce tension and stop the escalation of the conflict.

Explain that conciliatory steps will definitely be taken. It is imperative to communicate what, how and when will be done.

Keep what you promise.

Encourage your opponent to exchange concessions, but do not demand them as a condition for fulfilling your own promises.

Concessions must be made over a sufficiently long period of time and even if the other party does not reciprocate.

But the concessions made should not lead to increased defenselessness and vulnerability of the party making them.

awareness of the conflict participants can serve as the basis for developing a constructive solution, and in some cases completely resolve the conflict if it turns out that it is based on a distorted perception of the situation by the conflict participants.

III. Social Conflict Research Plan

Purpose: to conduct a study aimed at determining differences in behavior in conflict situations and the choice of behavior strategy in conflict between men and women.

3.1 Sampling and description of research stages

Characteristics and sample: the study was conducted in the primary workforce - LLC "XXX", consisting of 52 people, of which 27 were women and 25 men. 40 people (20 women and 20 men) took part in the study.

Age composition of team members: from 30 to 45 years.

Education: secondary specialized and higher education.

Hypothesis: let’s imagine that there are no significant differences between men and women in the level of aggressiveness, communicative control and the individual’s predisposition to conflict behavior, which in turn affects behavior in conflict situations and the choice of strategy in conflict.

The following methods were used for the study:

1)Personality questionnaire for diagnosing aggressive and hostile reactions, developed by A. Bass and A. Darkey;

Methodology for diagnosing a person’s predisposition to conflict behavior by K. Thomas;

M. Snyder's diagnostic method for assessing self-control in communication.

)Methods of mathematical processing.

3.2 Description of methods and techniques used

1) Methodology for diagnosing a person’s predisposition to conflict behavior by K. Thomas. Adaptation by N.V. Grishina.

In his approach to the study of conflict phenomena, K. Thomas emphasized conflict resolution and management. In accordance with this, K. Thomas considers it necessary to concentrate attention on what forms of behavior in conflict situations are characteristic of people, which of them are more productive or destructive, and how it is possible to stimulate productive behavior.

Thomas identifies the following methods of conflict resolution: competition, cooperation, compromise, avoidance, adaptation.

In a questionnaire to identify typical forms of behavior, Thomas describes each of the five listed possible options with twelve judgments about the individual's behavior in a conflict situation. IN different situations they are grouped into 30 pairs, in each of which the respondent is asked to choose the judgment that is most typical for characterizing his behavior.

) Methodology for diagnosing indicators and forms of aggression A. Bass and A. Darki.

Adaptation by A. K. Osnitsky

A. Bass and A. Darkey proposed a questionnaire to identify, in their opinion, important indicators and forms of aggression:

Using physical force against another person is physical aggression.

The expression of negative feelings both through form (quarrel, screaming, screeching) and through the content of verbal addresses to other persons (threats, curses, swearing) is verbal aggression.

Using gossip and jokes directed at others in a roundabout way and displaying undirected, disordered, outbursts of rage is indirect aggression.

An oppositional form of behavior, usually directed against authority and leadership, which can grow from passive resistance to active action against requirements, rules, laws - negativism.

Tendency to irritation, readiness at the slightest excitement to erupt in hot temper, harshness, rudeness - irritation.

Tendency to mistrust and careful attitude towards people stemming from the belief that others intend to cause harm - suspicion.

7. Manifestations of envy and hatred towards others, caused by a feeling of anger, dissatisfaction with someone specifically or with the whole world for real or imaginary suffering - resentment.

8. Attitudes and actions towards oneself and others, stemming from the possible conviction of the person being examined that he is a bad person, does something bad: harmful, malicious or unscrupulous - auto-aggression or feelings of guilt.

3) Methodology for diagnosing the assessment of self-control in communication by M. Snyder.

People with high communicative control constantly monitor themselves, know well where and how to behave, and control the expression of their emotions. At the same time, spontaneity of self-expression is difficult for them; they do not like unpredictable situations.

3.3 Processing and interpretation of received data

) Methodology for diagnosing a person’s predisposition to conflict behavior by K. Thomas.

The number of points on each scale is calculated, which gives an idea of the individual’s tendency to display appropriate forms of behavior in conflict situations.

Optimal behavior in conflicts is considered to be when all strategies are applied and each of them has a value in the range from 5 to 7 points (minimum - 0 points, maximum - 12 points).

) Personality questionnaire for diagnosing aggressive and hostile reactions, developed by A. Bass and A. Darkie.

Question numbers with a “-” sign are registered as “+” and vice versa. The sum of points, multiplied by the coefficient indicated in parentheses for each aggressiveness parameter, allows us to obtain normalized indicators that are convenient for comparison, characterizing individual and group results (zero values are not calculated).

Total indicators: ( ?1? + ?2? + ?3?): 3 = IA - aggressiveness index;

(?6? + ?7?): 2 = IV - hostility index.

3) M. Snyder’s diagnostic method for assessing self-control in communication.

One point is awarded for answering “H” to questions 1, 5 and 7 and for answering “B” to all others. The sum of points is calculated.

3 points - low communicative control (stable behavior);

4-6 points - average communicative control (sincere, but not restrained in their emotional manifestations);

7-10 points - high communicative control (flexible reaction to changing situations).

Based on the above, it is possible to summarize the calculations and identify a predisposition to conflict behavior, calculate an index of aggressiveness and hostility, and also identify the level of self-control in communication. After which you can accept or reject the hypothesis.

Conclusion

In the course of the work, literary sources on the problem of the emergence and resolution of social conflict were analyzed. Conflict is a complex but necessary social phenomenon. Problems of conflict are carried away in 500-400. BC. Each conflict is unique in its own way, inimitable in its causes, forms of interaction between two or more parties, outcome and consequences. Any conflict has a certain standard development pattern. An effective solution to the problem that led to a conflict situation requires each subject to have a clear understanding of the general nature and specifics of this type of conflict, a certain style of behavior, the choice of which depends on personal characteristics. The ability to predict and prevent social conflicts shapes the further choice of people's strategies.

Conflicts permeate all spheres of social life and, therefore, a person constantly faces them, but one cannot attribute only negative functions to them, because Often in the process of conflict you can find a new, interesting solution to a problem.

Further development of research on social conflicts is possible in the direction of conflict resolution at different stages of its dynamics.

Bibliography

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Few people approve of conflict processes, but almost everyone participates in them. If in competitive processes rivals simply try to get ahead of each other, to be better, then in a conflict attempts are made to impose their will on the enemy, change his behavior, or even eliminate him altogether. In this regard, under conflict understand the attempt to achieve reward by subjugating, imposing one's will, removing or even destroying an opponent seeking to achieve the same reward. An individual murder or an entire battle, threats, recourse to the law to influence the enemy, the creation of coalitions to unite efforts in the fight - these are just some of the manifestations of social conflicts. The conflict process that has arisen is difficult to stop. This is because the conflict has cumulative nature, i.e. every aggressive action leads to a response or retaliation, moreover, stronger than the initial one. The conflict is escalating and affecting more and more people.

Conflict Analysis It is useful to start from the elementary, simplest level, from the origins of conflict relations. Traditionally, it begins with a structure of needs, the set of which is specific to each individual and social group. A. Maslow divides all these needs into five main types: 1) physical needs (food, sex, material well-being, etc.); 2) security needs; 3) social needs (needs for communication, social contacts, interaction); 4) the need to achieve prestige, knowledge, respect, a certain level of competence; 5) higher needs for self-expression, self-affirmation (for example, the need for creativity). All desires, aspirations of individuals and social groups can be attributed to some type of these needs. Consciously or unconsciously, individuals dream of achieving their goals according to their needs. For a social conflict to arise, it is necessary, firstly, that the cause of frustration be the behavior of other people and, secondly, that a response or interaction arises in response to an aggressive social action.

All conflicts can be classified depending on the areas of disagreement as follows.

1. Personal conflict. This zone includes conflicts occurring within the personality, at the level of individual consciousness. Such conflicts may be associated, for example, with excessive dependence or role tension. This is a purely psychological conflict, but it can be a catalyst for the emergence of group tension if the individual seeks the cause of his internal conflict among group members.

2. Interpersonal conflict. This zone includes disagreements between two or more members of one group or several groups. In this conflict, individuals stand “face to face”, like two boxers, and individuals who do not form a group are also involved.

3. Intergroup conflict. A certain number of individuals forming a group (i.e., a social community capable of joint coordinated actions) come into conflict with another group that does not include individuals from the first group. This is the most common type of conflict, because individuals, when starting to influence others, usually try to attract supporters and form a group that will facilitate actions in the conflict.

4. Conflict of belonging occurs due to the dual affiliation of individuals, for example, when they form a group within another, larger group or when an individual simultaneously belongs to two competitive groups pursuing the same goal.

1. Pre-conflict stage. No social conflict arises instantly. Emotional stress, irritation and anger usually accumulate over some time, so the Pre-conflict stage sometimes drags on so much that the root cause of the conflict is forgotten.

The pre-conflict stage is the period during which the conflicting parties evaluate their resources before deciding to take aggressive actions or retreat.

2. Direct conflict. This stage is characterized primarily by the presence of an incident, i.e. social actions aimed at changing the behavior of rivals. This is an active, active part of the conflict. Thus, the entire conflict consists of a conflict situation that forms at the pre-conflict stage and an incident.

According to their internal content, social conflicts are divided into rational and emotional. TO rational include such conflicts that cover the sphere of reasonable, business-like competition, redistribution of resources and improvement of managerial or social structure. However, during conflict interactions and clashes, the aggression of its participants is often transferred from the cause of the conflict to the individual. In this case, the original cause of the conflict is simply forgotten and the participants act on the basis of personal hostility. Such a conflict is called emotional. The development of emotional conflicts is unpredictable, and in the vast majority of cases they are uncontrollable. Therefore, the desire of some organizational leaders to artificially cause a conflict to resolve a controversial situation threatens with serious consequences, since the conflict can be controlled only to a certain limit and after the conflict moves to the emotional level, it can no longer be extinguished, but can only be localized.

3. Conflict resolution. An external sign of conflict resolution can be the end of the incident. It is completion, not temporary cessation. This means that conflictual interaction between the conflicting parties ceases. Elimination or cessation of the incident is a necessary but not sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. Often, having stopped active conflict interaction, people continue to experience a frustrating state and look for its cause. And then the conflict that had died out flares up again. Resolution of social conflict is possible only when the conflict situation changes. This change can take many forms. But the most effective change in a conflict situation, allowing to extinguish the conflict, is considered eliminating the cause of the conflict.

Topic: Social conflicts: methods of resolution

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Moscow 2011

Table of contents
Introduction 2
The essence and characteristics of conflicts 3
Ways to resolve social conflicts. 10
Practical part 12
Conclusion 13
References 14

Introduction
The social heterogeneity of society, differences in levels of income, power, and prestige often lead to conflicts. Conflicts are an integral part of social life. Conflicts are born on the basis of daily differences in views, disagreements and confrontation between different opinions, desires, interests, hopes, personal characteristics, and lifestyles. Especially rich in conflicts modern life Russian society. All this calls for close attention to the study of conflicts. The wide distribution of this phenomenon served as the basis for this work.
The problem of social conflicts became the subject of study by sociologists only in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Within the framework of sociology, a special scientific direction has emerged, which is currently designated as “sociology of conflict.” The problems of social conflicts (in particular, for the theoretical explanation of sociocultural changes in modern society) were paid attention in their works by many classics of sociology: G. Spencer, M. Weber, K. Marx, E. Durheim, R. Dahrendorf, K. E. Boulding and others.
The study of conflicts means, first of all, familiarization with the very rich and diverse literature on this issue, assimilation of theoretical and practical knowledge accumulated within the framework of this direction of sociological thought.
To develop the right line of behavior in various conflict situations, you need to know what conflict is and how people come to agreement. Knowledge of conflicts improves the culture of communication and makes a person’s life not only calmer, but also more psychologically stable.

The essence and characteristics of conflicts
Social conflict is a type of social interaction that is characterized by confrontation between several individuals over the distribution of values, resources, or power.
Social conflict is an attempt to achieve some reward by subjugating, imposing one's will, removing or destroying an opponent seeking to achieve the same reward.
Conflict is a real struggle between acting people or groups, regardless of the origins, methods and means mobilized by each side. To understand the nature of conflict, the “Thomas theorem” is of particular importance: “If people perceive a certain situation as real, then it will be real in its consequences.” In relation to social conflict, this means that if people do not feel a discrepancy between their interests, then conflict does not arise, and vice versa: if interests are common, but their bearers are hostile to each other, then conflict arises.
The causes of conflict are varied and often intricately intertwined.
The following can be roughly distinguished:
social inequality (i.e. the unequal position of individuals in society; the wealth, power and high positions of some act as a contrast to the poverty and subordination of others);
shortage of life's goods (material, spiritual, prestigious positions, jobs, etc.);
discrepancy between the values of the individual and society (which is clearly manifested in acute contradictions between the moral guidelines of most people and the antisocial behavior of criminals);
the opposition of people's interests;
selfishness of people.
Conflict arises only when a benefit (money, power, living space, resources, prestige, etc.) cannot be divided. If it could be calmly divided, then no quarrel, fight or war would arise. And this is the main thing - what is indivisible is divided between the two sides. On a bus, conflict arises over free space, conflict between nations over vital territory, between religions over a creed or the true interpretation of that symbol.
Thus, the main cause of social conflicts is the incompatibility of the interests, goals, desires of the conflicting parties, because the needs (needs) of people are great and constantly growing, and the opportunities and resources to satisfy them are always limited. Therefore, the poorer the society and the scarcer the goods of life, the more frequent and acute the conflicts between people in it.
Kinds

By participants (subjects)

By area

The nature

By regulation method

By type of interaction

1. Intrapersonal

2. Inter-individual

3. Between the group and the individual

4. Between the individual and society

5. Intergroup

6. Intra- and inter-institutional

7. Interstate

1. Economic

2. political

3. Ideological

4. International

5. Religious

6. Household
and etc.

1. Genuine (real, arising due to a truly existing incompatibility of interests)

2. Imaginary (false, far-fetched or specially “fabricated”)

1. Institutionalized

2. Non-institutionalized

(depending on the existence or absence of generally accepted rules of conflict behavior,
mutual obligations of the parties, agreement of participants regarding symbols
victory or defeat, etc.)

1. Confrontation (struggle, incompatible interests)

2. Rivalry (implies some unity of goals and interests of the participant)

3. Competition (the success of one side is possible only if the interests of the other are suppressed or infringed)

The role of conflicts
Thus, conflicts play a contradictory role in society.
There are other classifications of functions in the literature.
Let us first note such a general function as information and cognitive. Conflict stimulates the knowledge of interests, values, positions, and colliding subjects.
Another universal function of conflict is integrative. Conflict promotes integration, uniting people, and establishing stability in society. Conflict resolution unites groups and communities and promotes the harmonization of social relations.
One of the general functions of conflict is the function of stimulating the adaptation of conflict subjects to a changing environment. Social groups and individuals have to constantly face new conditions and new needs generated by ongoing changes. Hence the need for adaptation, adaptation to a new situation by reassessing values, criticizing outdated patterns of behavior and thinking.
The severity of the conflict
L. Koser, having examined the conditions influencing the severity of the conflict, formulated the following conclusions:
the severity of the conflict depends on the conditions that cause it: the more similar conditions, the more acute the conflict that arises,
the severity of the conflict is determined by the degree of emotionality of the parties involved in the conflict,
in turn, emotional intensity depends on the number of groups involved in it and the primacy of connections between their members; the smaller the group, the more primary the connections within it, the more emotional the resulting conflict can be,
the severity of the conflict depends on the rigidity of the social structure; the more stringent it is, the less institutionalized funds are available to pay it off,
the degree of severity of the conflict decreases when the parties involved in it pursue their real interests and, conversely, it increases if the conflicting groups confront on abstract (detached from reality or imaginary, far-fetched) issues,
Conflicts over values are more acute.
Subjects of the conflict. A participant in a conflict can be any person, organization, or group of people who take part in the conflict, but are not aware of the purpose of the conflict contradiction.
The main subject of the conflict is an individual or large social groups capable of creating conflict, i.e. firmly and relatively independently influence the course of the conflict in accordance with their interests, influence the behavior of others, and cause various changes in social relations.
A well-known specialist in the field of conflict theory, Ralf Dahrendorf, classifies three types of social groups as subjects of conflict. 1). Primary groups are direct participants in the conflict who are in a state of interaction regarding the achievement of objectively or subjectively incompatible goals. 2). Secondary groups - tend not to be directly involved in the conflict, but contribute to fueling the conflict. At the acute stage, they can become the primary side. 3). Third forces are interested in resolving the conflict.
The subject of the conflict is the main contradiction because of which and for the sake of which the subjects enter into confrontation. It can be the territory of residence, money, housing, power, etc. The cause and reason for the conflict differ from the subject of the conflict. A minor incident may be the reason for the conflict. This is how the First World War broke out.
Conflict takes different forms and scales. The most common form is everyday quarrel between friends, relatives, strangers at home, on the street, in transport. This is an interpersonal conflict. A more serious form is a quarrel, divorce, strike. A rebellion is a spontaneous mass form of protest; it can end in a revolution, war, or coup. We are talking about a conflict between different ethnic groups, different generations (conflict between fathers and children), between law-abiding citizens and criminals. The scale of a conflict refers to the number of people involved and the severity of the consequences.
Stages of social conflicts.
Any social conflict has a rather complex internal structure. It is advisable to analyze the content and characteristics of the course of a social conflict in four main stages:
- pre-conflict stage
- direct conflict
- conflict resolution stage
- post-conflict stage.
The pre-conflict stage is the period during which the conflicting parties evaluate their resources before deciding to take conflicting actions or retreat. Such resources include material values, information, connections, prestige, power with the help of which you can influence your opponent. At the same time, the consolidation of the forces of the warring parties takes place, the search for supporters and the formation of groups participating in the conflict. The pre-conflict stage is also characteristic of the formation of a strategy or even several strategies by each of the conflicting parties.
Direct conflict. This stage is characterized primarily by the presence of an incident, i.e. social actions aimed at changing the behavior of rivals. This is an active, active part of the conflict. Thus, the entire conflict consists of a conflict situation that forms at the pre-conflict stage and an incident.
Conflict resolution.
An external sign of conflict resolution can be the end of the incident. Resolution of social conflict is possible only when the conflict situation changes. This change can take many forms. But the most effective change in a conflict situation, allowing to extinguish the conflict, is considered to be the elimination of the cause of the conflict.
Modern conflictology has formulated the conditions under which successful resolution of social conflicts is possible.
a) One of the important conditions is a timely and accurate analysis of its causes. And this involves identifying objectively existing contradictions, interests, and goals. Based on this analysis, the so-called “business zone” of the conflict situation is determined.
b) Others, no less an important condition is a mutual interest in overcoming contradictions on the basis of mutual recognition of the interests of each party. To do this, the parties to the conflict must strive to free themselves from hostility and mistrust of each other.
c) The third, indispensable condition is a joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Here it is possible to use a whole arsenal of means and methods: direct dialogue between the parties, negotiations with the participation of a third party, etc.
Post-conflict stage
The final post-conflict stage is of great importance.
At this stage, efforts should be made to finalize
elimination of conflicts of interests, goals, attitudes, liquidated
socio-psychological tension and any struggle is stopped.
A resolved conflict contributes to the improvement of social
psychological characteristics, both of individual groups and
intergroup interaction. It promotes group cohesion,
increases the level of identification of its members with common goals and
satisfaction in the group. At the same time, he develops respectful
attitude towards former opponents allows you to better understand their interests,
goals and motivations.

Ways to resolve social conflicts.
It is known that the time spent on the conflict itself is many times less than the time spent on post-conflict experiences. In the case of a tactless statement from a work colleague, the latter is 14 times higher than the first, in the case of a rude boss - 20 times. Post-conflict tension - negative emotions, severe negative experiences - is a powerful destructive factor. It dramatically reduces group productivity and cohesion.
For this reason, it is wiser to prevent conflicts than to eliminate the consequences of an ongoing conflict. Modern conflictology has accumulated an extensive arsenal of conflict resolution methods. These methods include:
compromise - solving a problem through mutual concessions;
adaptation - the desire to smooth out contradictions by changing one’s position;
cooperation - an attempt to jointly develop a solution that takes into account the interests of all parties;
negotiations - a peaceful conversation between both parties to resolve the problem;
mediation - the use of a third party in solving a problem in absentia;
ignoring is an attempt to get out of the conflict by avoiding it;
rivalry, competition - an uncompromising struggle for victory by any means, stubbornly defending one’s position;
prevention - an attempt to eliminate at an early stage the conditions for the emergence of a conflict;
arbitration - an appeal to a government authority vested with special powers for help in solving a problem;
management - regulation of the process in order to minimize losses and maximize gains;
the use of force, authority, law - the unilateral use of power or force by the side that considers itself stronger.
In the technique of negotiations (business, political, etc.), a distinction is made between interpersonal (for example, between wife and husband) and intergroup negotiations, in which representatives of the two parties participate (negotiations between the employer and trade unions).
The most difficult case is the resolution of interethnic conflicts. In most interethnic conflicts, a fair solution for all warring parties does not objectively exist, because each is guided by its own truth, its own historical events and facts.
Experience shows that major conflicts in which countries, world systems, peoples and ethnic groups are drawn are resolved the faster the shorter the history of conflict relations. A clear example of this is the war in Chechnya, which began even before the revolution with the liberation movement of Shamil, then died down for some time, after which it arose in the 30s after the deportation of Chechens by the Stalin regime. After this, the conflict subsided, but flared up twice in 1994 and turned into an open war with the use of the regular army, and in 1994. In the period from 1996 to the summer of 1999 there was a brief lull, which had a pronounced conflict character.

Practical part
The German sociologist R. Dahrendorf has the following expression: “Whoever knows how to cope with conflicts by recognizing them takes control of the rhythm of history. Whoever misses this opportunity receives rhythm as resistance.”
The possibility of conflict exists in all spheres of society. Conflicts arise from daily differences in views, desires, lifestyles, and personal characteristics. Difficulties and conflicts inevitably arise in relationships between people; they are a natural part of our lives. Few people approve of conflict processes, but almost everyone participates in them.
Often, condemnation of the existence of conflicts and the naive belief that one can live life without ever having a conflict with anyone is associated with insufficient distinctions between the conflict itself and the method of resolving it. But there are effective ways to resolve conflicts caused by differences in views, discrepancies in goals and actions. They strengthen relationships and are therefore extremely valuable.
In my opinion, sociologist R. Dahrendorf with this expression wanted to convey to us the following: in the current conflict situation, its participants must definitely take measures to mitigate the conflict, relieve its severity, and find methods for resolving it. Having resolved the conflict, the participants take control of the further development of the relationship.
Successfully resolving differences together can bring people closer together. At the same time, it helps to develop a respectful attitude towards former opponents, allowing you to better understand their interests, goals and motivations.
And suppression and “cancellation” of the conflict leads to its aggravation.

Conclusion
To sum up the study of social conflicts, it can be argued that the existence of a society without conflicts is impossible. It is impossible to categorically call conflict a manifestation of the dysfunction of organizations, deviant behavior of individuals and groups, a phenomenon of social life; most likely, conflict is a necessary form of social interaction between people.
So, we can draw the following conclusion. Since conflicts are inevitable in our lives, we need to learn how to manage them. Based on the experience accumulated in the very rich and diverse literature on this issue, the assimilation of theoretical and practical knowledge obtained within this direction of sociological thought, strive to ensure that they lead to the least costs for society and the individuals participating in them.
Understanding the nature of the conflict, the causes of its occurrence and development will help to develop rules of behavior and ways of settlement to the mutual consent of the warring parties.

List of used literature
1. Conflictology: textbook for universities / edited by prof. V.P. Ratnikova, 2nd ed. – M., 2005.
2. General sociology. A.I. Kravchenko / studies. manual for universities - M., UNITIDANA, 2001 - 479 p.
3. Sociology: Textbook for universities / edited by prof. V.N. Lavrinenko, 3rd ed. – M., 2004.
4. Sociology. A.N.Ovshinov / studies. manual, ed. "Dzhangar" - Elista, 2006.
5. Sociology of conflict. Zdravomyslov A.G. / Uch. allowance. M., 2005.

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