Early age
Educational objectives:
Introduce materials for construction (natural, waste, construction and paper);
With volumetric geometric shapes (brick, ball, cube, cylinder, cone, pyramid) included in building kits or construction sets;
Learn to place various geometric bodies in space;
Identify geometric shapes in familiar objects;
Introduce techniques used in design;
Experiment with paper, natural and waste materials in the process of creating basic crafts;
Connect parts using additional materials(plasticine, clay);
Identify familiar images in buildings and crafts.
Developmental tasks.
To develop a sense of form when creating elementary buildings and crafts;
Develop visually effective and visually imaginative thinking;
Promote the development of attention and memory;
Develop the ability to attach craft parts to each other.
Generate interest in constructive experimentation
Develop the ability to hear the teacher’s verbal instructions, his instructions, characteristics;
To develop the ability to see beauty in designs and crafts.
Features of training. Construction for young children is reminiscent of an experimental game in which the properties and characteristics of geometric shapes and various materials are studied. The three-dimensional volume of design products makes it possible to more thoroughly examine all the parts from which it is planned to create a structure.
In the learning process, where the leading method is play, it is advisable not only to demonstrate various figures, but also to name them as often as possible, give them figurative characterization, which helps children quickly incorporate examined materials into their own plans. It is important to activate all analyzers in order to form a more complete picture of the design.
At an early age, children, starting from the first year, are able to identify geometric shapes without naming them, but selecting a given shape from many others. This fact indicates that three-dimensional geometric bodies can not only be objects of manipulation and play for children at this age, but also an object of study.
The ability to identify a form, and subsequently name it, facilitates the process of learning to design at later stages, where the teacher will not need to introduce forms and develop the ability to create from them various buildings. In this case, the teacher can use verbal instructions, indicating the necessary forms, rather than a detailed demonstration, explaining the meaning of choosing certain forms for a particular building. After all, children are already prepared to work with these forms, since they know their properties and signs.
More time is left for the creative design process itself. There's no point in making things easier that are already so simple. In play, children acquire multiple skills that we, adults, do not always wisely use for their creative development. We are always afraid that children will not understand, will not be able to, will not cope. But sometimes we don’t even try to give them what they need. Often, in order to meet the time allotted for a lesson, we try to reduce the child’s activities to a minimum, and this is a fundamentally wrong approach.
You should not sacrifice the opportunity to develop some skill for the sake of the effectiveness of the craft. Let the design (craft) initially have an appearance that bears little resemblance, perhaps, to a real object, but it will testify to the path that the child has traveled. And here it is important to highlight his achievements, pointing out the prospects for further movement.
Lisa (1 year 4 months) made a “Joyful Caterpillar” from crumpled lumps of paper, which had to be placed one after another, fastening them together. At first, she had a hard time crumpling the paper into a ball (the sheet of paper kept straightening out, and she couldn’t get a single shape). The teacher suggested that she lightly wet her hands and only then roll lumps of paper, as is done with plasticine. As a result of Lisa’s efforts, the parts for the caterpillar were ready. When the lumps were connected, another problem arose: Lisa glued the eyes in different places (on the first link and on the last). Lisa’s mother immediately rushed to help her daughter: to glue it for her so that everything would be neat. But after explaining to the mother the inappropriateness of such an act, the teacher, together with the girl, found a way out by gluing one more eye to each link and dividing the caterpillar into two parts. Thus, we got two small caterpillars. Lisa was so happy that she got not one large caterpillar, but two small ones that she made herself. After class, she ran to show her handicraft to her mother, proudly clapping her chest, as if to show that she could do it herself.
When the child himself achieves the desired result with the indirect guidance of the teacher, the skill acquired by the child in the lesson becomes part of the constructive-visual experience. Even if the lesson is held with a subgroup of children, you should strive not to minimize their activity, but to think through its organization so that the children, performing simple actions, create a simple design (craft). It is important to place emphasis on techniques and techniques, variations of which expand the content and technical aspects of children's design products.
Junior preschool age
Educational objectives:
Continue to introduce materials for construction (natural, waste, construction and paper), their properties and expressive capabilities;
Introduce three-dimensional geometric bodies and architectural forms (domes, roofs, arches, columns, bridges, doors, stairs, windows) that are part of building kits or construction sets;
Continue to learn how to place various geometric bodies in space, creating a specific design;
Learn to identify and compare geometric shapes with each other;
Continue to introduce the methods and techniques used in constructive activities;
Learn to create constructive images in the process of experimenting with various materials and transforming various workpieces;
connect parts using additional materials (plasticine, clay, double-sided tape, glue, matches).
Developmental tasks:
Develop visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking, imagination, attention, memory;
To promote the mastery of constructive skills: arrange parts in different directions on different planes, connect parts, correlate buildings with diagrams, select adequate connection techniques;
Expand the child’s vocabulary with special concepts: “design”, “architecture”, “scheme”.
Educational tasks:
Arouse interest in design;
To develop the ability to see beauty in designs and crafts;
Cultivate accuracy when working with various materials and tools;
Ability to perform teamwork.
Features of training. In the process of teaching children of primary preschool age, it is advisable to use, in addition to the reproductive method, based on children repeating the teacher’s instrumental actions, but also partially search, heuristic methods that allow children to independently transform the experience gained into new situations. Undoubtedly, younger preschoolers are not yet able to fully realize their own plans without help, because, firstly, their plans are not stable, Secondly, constructive and visual experience is small. However, the ability to choose material, use, and maintain a constructive image forms in children creativity, manifested at the initial stages in the ability to give one’s construction an individual character.
When creating a garage for a car from a building set, you can show kids how the same parts can be used to create different garages for every car. To do this, you need to use parts made of self-adhesive paper as decoration: bricks, stones, slabs, eyes (surveillance cameras), etc., buttons, caps from plastic bottles for the construction of additional structural elements: locks, handles, cornices, etc. .
In the younger group, children try not only to create structures on their own, but to actively include them in the game.
Construction refers to those types of activities that, in terms of content, create the most favorable conditions for the development of collective creativity. For example, when preparing decorations, gifts for the holidays, attributes for story games, performances, aids for mathematics classes, familiarization with the outside world, buildings in a corner of nature, etc. Thus, children, starting from the younger age group, learn to participate in organizing the environment in which they live while they are in a preschool institution. This has a huge impact on them, therefore, in the content plan of design classes, it is necessary to take this moment into account in order to implement such directions in the development of creativity as satisfying personal and social needs.
At the age of three, children have a desire to express their “self.” This also needs to be taken into account; you should not impose a specific, planned type of construction just to decide specific task on the formation of any skill. Constructive skill and the content of a building are interconnected, but not static in nature. This allows you to use the principle of variability in the learning process, which gives some freedom to both the child and the teacher. It makes no difference which building the baby learns from. the right technique. The main thing is that he will master it in order to continue using it independently.
As part of learning to design from paper, children master the techniques of bending paper in various directions (vertically, horizontally, diagonally, double folding). This makes it possible to expand the content side of children's constructive images.
Middle preschool age
Educational objectives:
Strengthen the ability to work with various materials for construction (natural, waste, construction and paper), taking into account their properties and expressive capabilities during the design process;
To consolidate the ability to identify, name, and classify various volumetric geometric bodies (bar, ball, cube, cylinder, cone, pyramid, prism, tetrahedron, octahedron, polyhedron) and architectural forms (domes, roofs, arches, columns, doors, stairs, windows, balconies, bay windows) included in building kits or construction sets;
Continue to learn how to place various geometric bodies in space, using various compositions that reveal the essence of constructive images;
Learn to create plot compositions during the design process;
Continue learning to compare geometric shapes with each other and with objects in the surrounding life;
See the image in geometric shapes;
use various methods and techniques in the process of constructive activity;
Create constructive images in the process of experimenting with various materials and transforming various workpieces;
Connect parts using additional materials (plasticine, clay, double-sided tape, glue, matches).
Developmental tasks:
Continue to develop a sense of form when creating buildings and crafts;
To promote mastery of compositional patterns: scale, proportion, plasticity of volumes, texture, dynamics (statics);
Strengthen constructive skills: arrange parts in different directions on different planes, connect them, correlate buildings with diagrams, select adequate connection techniques;
Expand the child’s vocabulary with special concepts: “proportion”, “scale”, “texture”, “plasticity”, “proportion”.
Educational tasks:
Arouse interest in design and constructive creativity;
Develop the ability to follow the teacher’s verbal instructions during the exercises;
Aesthetic attitude towards works of architecture, design, products of one’s own constructive activities and the crafts of others;
Accuracy when working with various materials and tools;
The ability to work together with children and the teacher in the process of creating common work.
Features of training. In the middle group, children consolidate their constructive skills, on the basis of which they develop new ones. Thus, the ability to create a specific composition from the elements of a construction set contributes to the development of the ability to plan work. At this age, children learn not only to act according to the plan proposed by the teacher, but also to independently determine the stages of the future construction. This important factor when forming educational activities. When children design a building or craft, they mentally imagine what they will be like and plan in advance how they will be completed and in what sequence.
In the process of working with paper and cardboard, children learn to bend paper in different directions, using both simple and complex types of bending. In the middle group, this type of construction such as paper-plastic is becoming increasingly relevant. Along with building kits, paper, thanks to its expressive and plastic capabilities, allows you to create interesting designs and crafts that have both a realistic and decorative basis. Paper, or rather its transformation, develops children’s imagination and develops the ability to see new images in familiar forms. For example, a cone made of paper can, with appropriate modifications, turn into any animal, flower, vase, boat, completion for a tower, become part of a costume for a fairy-tale character, etc.
There are many options for using a cone. But in order for children to be able to transform it, it is necessary to show the possibilities of transformation using diagrams and pedagogical sketches.
The same wonderful transformations are obtained in the origami technique, which is based on the techniques of working with paper by bending it in different directions. The origami technique allows the use of scissors and glue only in exceptional cases. This allows us to classify it as a rather complex technique that requires great attention, patience and accuracy. Unevenly folded corners will not allow you to get the desired result. The initial stage of learning the origami technique in the middle group is mastering the simplest initial forms, by varying which you can get different images.
Another type of papermaking involves the use of scissors and glue, in addition to techniques for working with paper, allowing you to create three-dimensional structures and crafts using experience in working with appliqué images. It also requires the ability to work with scissors in order to obtain the necessary part for the design. In the middle group, children master only simple cutting methods. They score, cut paper and cut out elementary shapes from blanks. Along with cutting in the middle group, to create a constructive image, plucking (to convey the texture of the building) and tearing (to convey a certain character of the image, displaying the style of the building) can be used. Application techniques in this case can be both basic and additional.
Joint constructive activities of children (collective buildings, crafts) play a big role in developing the initial skills of working in a team - the ability to agree in advance (distribute responsibilities, select the material necessary to complete a building or craft, plan the process of their production, etc.) and work together, without interfering with each other.
Children making various crafts and toys as gifts for their mother, grandmother, sister, younger friend or peer fosters a caring and attentive attitude towards loved ones and a desire to do something nice for them. It is this desire that often stimulates the child to work with special diligence and diligence, which makes his work even more emotionally rich and brings him great satisfaction.
Constructive activities, due to their capabilities, make it possible to practically introduce children to such an art form as architecture. In the middle group, children not only study individual architectural forms, but also get acquainted with different styles, which has a positive effect on other types of fine art. It is knowledge of the features different forms architecture helps to enrich the content of children’s drawings and applique images. In this case, constructive activity is of great importance for the education of aesthetic feelings. When children become acquainted with architecture, they develop artistic taste, the ability to admire architectural forms and understand that the value of any structure lies not only in its functional purpose, but also in its design.
Senior preschool age
Educational objectives:
Improve the ability to work with various materials for construction (natural, waste, construction and paper), taking into account their properties and expressive capabilities during the design process;
To consolidate the ability to identify, name, and classify various volumetric geometric bodies (bar, ball, cube, cylinder, cone, pyramid, prism, tetrahedron, octahedron, polyhedron) and architectural forms (domes, roofs, arches, columns, doors, stairs, windows, balconies, bay windows) included in building kits or construction sets;
Use different types of composition to create three-dimensional structures;
Create plot constructive images;
Compare geometric shapes with each other and objects of surrounding life;
Identify an image in various geometric bodies;
Improve the ability to use various techniques and techniques in the process of creating a constructive image;
Continue to teach how to make a design according to verbal instructions, descriptions, conditions, diagrams;
Learn to independently transform materials in order to study their properties in the process of creating constructive images;
Strengthen the ability to select adequate ways to connect parts of a structural image, making them strong and stable;
Find replacements for some parts with others;
Improve paper folding skills various densities in different directions;
Learn to work according to ready-made patterns and drawings.
Developmental tasks:
Continue to develop a sense of form and plasticity when creating buildings and crafts;
Strengthen the ability to use compositional patterns: scale, proportion, plasticity of volumes, texture, dynamics (statics) in the design process;
Continue to develop visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking, imagination, attention, memory;
Improve the ability to plan your activities;
Consolidate and expand the child’s vocabulary with special concepts “substitute”, “structure”, “tectonics”.
Educational tasks:
Arouse interest in design and constructive creativity;
To cultivate an aesthetic attitude towards works of architecture, design, products of one’s constructive activities and the crafts of others;
Accuracy when working with various materials and tools; improve skills in working with scissors;
Develop the ability to work collectively.
Features of training. The constructive creativity of children of senior preschool age is distinguished by the content and technical diversity of buildings and crafts, due to the presence of a certain degree of artistic freedom.
Making crafts from natural materials develops in children not only technical skills and abilities, but also an aesthetic attitude towards nature, art, and their creativity. However, this becomes possible only with an integrated and systematic approach to the learning process. It is important that children be able to use the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during one type of construction in others.
To enhance children's constructive creativity, it is advisable to use a variety of stimulating materials: photographs, pictures, diagrams that guide their search activities. As for the materials used in the creation of a constructive image, there should be more of it than is required for a separate building (both in terms of elements and quantity). This is done in order to teach children to select only the necessary parts that correspond to their design. If a child is not able to make a choice and uses all the material provided to him in class, without trying to objectively assess its significance for the implementation of the plan, then this indicates a rather low level of creative development. It is important to teach children to analyze the material, to correlate its properties with the nature of the constructive images being created. Children of senior preschool age, when creating structures, do not build in general, but for a specific purpose, i.e. in order to apply the construction (craft) in practical activities. This gives the design meaning and purpose.
Considering the variety of materials used in construction, you should consider a system for its storage. It is most convenient to arrange the materials in boxes, depending on the type, while making it accessible to children. It is advisable to classify the material together with the children. Firstly, this will allow you to quickly remember its location, secondly, joint work on disassembling the material accustoms children to order and neatness, and thirdly, during such activities, preschoolers indirectly consolidate knowledge about the properties of different types of material.
In senior preschool age under the guidance of the teacher, children master new methods of connection, learn to create a variety of movable structures using pictures and drawings. Special attention refers to special training in children’s ability to connect parts using nuts and wrenches, since this requires the participation of the small muscles of the hand, which are still imperfect in a preschooler.
Sets of building materials and construction sets are not given all at once, but gradually, as children master them. After children, under the guidance of a teacher, have mastered one or another construction set, it can be placed in the creativity corner so that children have the opportunity to independently use it in free activities.
Paper is also widely used in older groups in the process of paper-making, which is used both as an independent form of creativity and in combination with others to make various crafts and toys. Children are given various varieties paper: thick desktop paper, writing paper, glossy paper, semi-whatman paper, as well as different types of cardboard.
The diversity of natural material and ease of processing allow it to be used in many ways when working with preschoolers. The teacher, together with the children, prepares natural materials. Its reserves are replenished throughout the year. To create a complete craft or structure from natural material, you need to choose an adequate fastening method. In that age group, such as an awl, a needle, or wire may already be used as an additional means, which, due to their unsafety, is not recommended for use in younger groups. However, even for older preschoolers, instruction about the features of working with these tools is necessary, as well as control over the work.
Natural material allows you to create structures of both small and large sizes, and then the work will be of a collective nature. For example, the construction of buildings made of sand or snow on the site. In this case, children will develop the ability to work together, where they need to negotiate and find a common solution.
Artistic manual labor
This is an artistic and labor activity consisting of children making artistic and aesthetic objects. useful crafts, necessary in various areas of life of preschool children.
The practical orientation of artistic manual labor contributes to the formation of labor skills in preschool children. Children learn not only to create, coming up with interesting crafts, but also to organize the space of their life, create beautiful things that fill it. To do this, they need to master the necessary skills and abilities that allow them to transform materials, achieving the intended results - the implementation of creative ideas.
Their own crafts, which preschoolers subsequently use not only in play, but also in the process of educational and work activities, acquire a certain value for them. For example, having made a stand for a brush, children treat it much more carefully than one bought in a store. From this we can conclude that artistic manual labor is an important means of developing the personal qualities of a preschooler: the desire for hard work, attentiveness towards others, accuracy, patience, etc.
The techniques and methods used are the same as in the design and application process. The tasks have the same focus. The main difference is that children learn to purposefully create useful things necessary in their practical activities.
Control questions
1. Define children's constructive creativity.
2. What types of constructive creativity can be conditionally distinguished? What is the essence of each type of constructive creativity?
3. What materials are most often used when working on appliqué?
4. What are the differences and similarities between appliqué, design and artistic handiwork?
5. At what age is it best to teach how to use scissors? Why?
6. For what purpose are sketches used in the process of learning appliqué?
7. What is the importance of diagrams in the process of learning to design?
8. What constructive techniques do children of primary preschool age learn?
The foundation of a construction site is a mass of soil that lies under the foundation and steadily bears the entire load of the structure. The soils that serve as the foundation are divided into two types: natural, or natural and artificial.
thirdly, the soils must be free of heaving qualities; when they freeze, all such soils expand, and when they thaw, they shrink, which leads to disruption of the correct shrinkage of the structure and the formation of deformation cracks and gaps;
fourthly, soils must have the ability to withstand all impacts of groundwater and liquids.
They have the following construction classification:
- rocky- virtually non-compressible, not at all heaving, very water-resistant (the best base). For example, Manhattan in New York.
- coarse-clastic, that is, pieces of rock type (about 50 percent with a volume of over two millimeters): gravel and crushed stone (a fairly good base);
- sands- and the larger the particles, the greater their potential for construction. Gravelly sand (large particles) becomes significantly compacted under loads, they do not exhibit heaving (a fairly good base). And small, almost dust-like particles begin to swell when exposed to moisture;
- clayey they take on significant loads when dry, but during the process of moistening their load-bearing capacity is significantly reduced and they become heaving;
- loess-like, that is, macroporous, usually have good strength, but during the moistening process they often give significant drawdowns; they can be used provided they are strengthened;
- bulk- are formed when filling pits, garbage dumps, and canals. They have disproportionate compressibility (require hardening);
- alluvial- are formed as a result of the cleansing of a dried-up river or lake. A good foundation made of soil;
- quicksand- are formed by small particles of sand containing silty mixtures. They are not suitable for natural foundations.
Strengthening methods:
Firstly, seal. Conventional pneumatic tamping or tamping with special plates, in some cases crushed stone is added. Rollers are used on large areas;
Secondly, pillow device. In cases where it is difficult to strengthen the soil, the layer of unreliable soil is removed and replaced with a more stable one (for example, sand or gravel). The thickness of such a pillow is usually 10 centimeters or more;
Thirdly, silicization- used for fine dusty sand. In such cases, mixtures of liquid glass with various chemical additives. After the soil hardens, it will acquire good bearing capacity;
fourthly, cementation, that is, supplying a cement mixture in liquid form or a liquid mixture of cement with sand under the base;
fifthly, burning, that is thermal method, burning of various flammable materials in the depths of wells. Used for loess-like soil types. Thus, the soil foundation will be reliable if all these requirements and conditions are met during construction.
The density of the load-bearing soil underneath is critical to their safe and long-lasting performance. In our country, cases when buildings, structures and roads are erected on dense continental soils that do not require additional strengthening are relatively rare; most often it is necessary to carry out a number of measures to strengthen the soil, and most of them have a volume and final cost comparable to all subsequent construction.
There are only three ways to strengthen soil, both natural and artificially filled. This:
- Complete replacement of natural soil with low bearing capacity.
- Physical compaction of natural soils.
- Strengthening with additional materials
Complete replacement of natural soil with low bearing capacity can be accomplished in two ways.
First: excavation of soil (usually fine-grained, pulverized sands, water-saturated gley soils on the site of former swamps) to the continental base (usually gravel), followed by filling the pit with gravel, crushed stone or pouring a solid concrete slab. Gravel and crushed stone are compacted using vibratory rammers or heavy equipment, for example, road rollers weighing 10-15 tons.
Second: frequent driving of piles into upper layer fragile soil to the continental base. Currently, they are used exclusively, although history knows other examples, for example, oak piles were used in the construction of St. Petersburg.
Strengthening soils with the help of additional materials has become possible in last years when geotextiles, better known as non-woven, appeared synthetic material. It combines several useful properties and forms a durable, non-rotting, water-permeable base on the soil surface. With its help, you can strengthen the slopes of embankments or canals, make the foundation for pedestrian paths and even highways. It is used both independently and as a finishing coating gravel or crushed stone backfill.
Physical compaction of bulk and natural soils is carried out in any case to form a denser “cushion”. Only materials with a medium discrete structure are suitable for such a process - gravel, crushed stone (sand with natural stones), in rare cases it is used. Depending on the volume of work and the size of the material fractions, both light tools (vibrating rammers) and heavy equipment are used.
Samarkand – contemporary Ancient Rome: The age of its cultural lower strata dates back to the 1st millennium BC.
At the turn of the 14th – 15th centuries, a new flourishing of Samarkand began. This happened during the reign of the great conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who decided to make Samarkand the capital of his empire. Timur wanted to make his capital unattainably beautiful and grandiose, superior to all other cities in the world. Therefore, the villages around Samarkand received new names and were henceforth called: Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo - the greatest cities of the world should have seemed like villages in comparison with the new capital of Timur. There were 13 gardens rustling around Samarkand, the largest of which was so extensive that once (as ancient chronicles say) the architect’s horse got lost there and they searched for it for a whole month.
The architectural ensemble of Samarkand, stretching from the Iron Gate to the east in the form of a street, was lined with ceremonial tombs and religious buildings on the sides. On the outskirts of Samarkand, on the slope of Afrasiab Hill, are the Shahi-Zinda mausoleums. No one planned or designed this magical street, the ensemble arose on its own, and it took hundreds of years to build it - one mausoleum after another. “Shahi-Zinda” means “living king,” whose cult existed long before the arrival of Islam here.
Timur had many wives, but only one beloved - the beautiful Bibi-khanum. The great ruler was on a long journey when she gathered the best architects of Samarkand, who, at the hour indicated by the stars, began building the mosque.
The mosque was built by a young architect who, captivated by the beauty of Bibi Khanum, became a victim of crazy and unrequited love. The slender walls of the mosque already shine with beautiful glaze, its dome already competes with the vault of heaven, all that remains is to close the arch of the portal. But the architect in love hesitates, because the completion of the work means separation from Bibi Khan.
Timur himself is buried in the Gur-Emir mausoleum, which is located near a small pond on Registan Square. At first, Gur-Emir was intended for the burial of Muhamed Sultan, Timur’s beloved grandson, but now Timur himself, his sons and another grandson, the great medieval scientist Ulugbek, are buried here, under whom the mausoleum turned into the family tomb of the Timurids. The blue ribbed dome of the mausoleum rises to a height of 40 meters, wooden doors with inlay from Ivory lead to the main hall... The rays of the sun, breaking through the marble gratings, fall in stripes on eight tombstones; the graves themselves are located below - in the dungeon.
The central square of old Samarkand is Registan; streets approach it from all sides, radially crossing the territory of the Old City. In ancient times, a powerful canal flowed through the area, leaving a mass of sandy deposits. Sand deposits probably gave the name to this place, since “Registan” literally means “place of sand”, “sandy field”.
Until the 15th century, Registan was a large trade and craft area, but then its importance as a market square receded into the background. Under Khan Ulugbek, who was the ruler of Samarkand from 1409 to 1447, Registan became a ceremonial and official square: ceremonial reviews of troops began to take place here, khan’s decrees were proclaimed, etc.
During the time of Ulugbek, Samarkand was the center scientific life Central Asia, famous mathematicians, astronomers, historians came here... In the madrasah, for which Ulugbek personally selected teachers, and his observatory, scientists touched on the secrets of science. Merchants and artisans, pilgrims and poets, wanderers and diplomats - everyone flocked here, all roads led to " pearl of great price world" - the sparkling city of Samarkand.
Sections: History and social studies
The range of problems that are relevant for the current stage of development of improving the educational and educational system “museum - school” is large. In this sense, the museum is entrusted with serious tasks. The nature of interest in the museum has changed significantly - the museum is becoming one of the most powerful means of education, since the museum today is not a collection of exhibits, but a complex unity of architecture, science, and art. Constantly developing and improving, the “museum-school” system requires both teachers and museum workers to have appropriate professional knowledge and skills. It is obvious that in order to intensify contacts between the school and the museum, it is extremely important guidelines both for a teacher who wants to use the museum in the teaching and educational process, and for research fellow museum, which is interested in using the experience of colleagues as widely as possible in its work. It was the fact of the merger of some sections of pedagogy and museology that became the platform for the creation of “museum pedagogy,” the need for the use of which in the work of secondary schools and modern museums was dictated by the time itself.
Some teachers believe that a tour or lecture at a museum can replace a lesson. But a visit to the museum should not repeat, but enrich the lesson. The museum’s help to the school is not in duplicating the lesson, but in expanding children’s understanding of the world around them, in developing aesthetic taste (Appendix 1). A museum exhibition contributes to a special perception of the topic, a reliable assessment of the historical authenticity of an event or object. It is the object that is the object of comprehensive study by the museum; it is through the object as a monument of human culture that the museum communicates with the visitor. Therefore, one of the tasks of museum pedagogy is to create the prerequisites and conditions for the activation of museum visitors, in particular to improve contacts with museum objects, to organize the perception of the information contained in them.
The work of any museum is based on the object. It is a carrier of social and natural scientific information - an authentic source of knowledge and emotions, cultural and historical value - part of the national heritage. Important feature museum object, which distinguishes it from other sources, is the ability of the object to influence emotional sphere person. It is no coincidence that all researchers, along with other properties of a museum object, such as informativeness, representativeness (reflection of reality), name the following: - expressiveness - the ability to influence a person through its signs, attractiveness - attracting attention, associativity - a sense of belonging, empathy (1, 89.). In addition, each item is a sign of its time, a reflection of the characteristics of a particular era.
One of the main properties of the subject is information content. Usage various items as a visual material in the classroom, it is widespread and powerful as a methodological technique. The main difference between a museum object and an ordinary visual aid is its authenticity, function historical memory that preserves the experience of past generations. A museum object must be a primary source of social information, be authentic, and be stored for a long time. No less important is the moral, aesthetic, memorial value of an object - everything that makes an object of cultural value.
Working on the basis of a museum allows you to collect a wide variety of sources in one space: written monuments, material relics, visual materials, photographs, objects of archaeology, numismatics, bonistics, philately, ethnography and many other materials. All this makes it possible not only to show the diversity of sources, but also to teach children the language of museum objects and give them the basics of independent research work with sources. Modern families keep few things that belonged to their ancestors, which would personify the “connection of generations.” Many children have never had the experience of studying ancient objects before visiting the museum. Therefore, one of the tasks is not just to draw attention to a museum object, but also to reveal its character, features, and properties. This attention to the historical source is realized through a system of classes, with one or another subject becoming the main character.
One of the main forms of museum educational work is an excursion. The basis of the excursion is the presence of two elements: showing and telling. An excursion is a golden mean, where the guide needs a stable balance between showing visual objects and telling about them and the events associated with them. A demonstration is an observation of an object under the guidance of a qualified guide. When shown, a person perceives not only the appearance of an object, a monument, but also, with the help of a guide, distinguishes its individual parts, takes part in their analysis, with the help of additional materials: auxiliary visual aids. The story during the excursion is an addition to the analysis of the visual series; it is especially necessary in cases where the visual material is poorly preserved or completely lost. But stories cannot be overused. As a rule, everything that is discussed in the excursion should be presented in the visual range that is observed by the excursionists. If there are no objects that reveal the topic, there cannot be an excursion itself. (2.144)
An attempt to prepare a tour of the street on which the student lives, or any other street, neighborhood, or settlement is an excellent final task for consolidation immediately large volume information obtained during museum lessons. As an option and result of an integrated lesson in local history and computer science using museum technologies - a virtual excursion in multimedia.
Another way to show the result of a student’s research and local history activities through museum technologies is to organize an exhibition on a given topic, make changes to the exhibition of the school museum, update and supplement it. This work, like preparing an excursion, requires extensive preparatory research work and in practice consolidates the acquired knowledge, in addition, it contributes to the development of aesthetic skills in children and artistic taste.
Currently, the issue of local history work in school is relevant. We are considering the solution to this issue from the point of view of integrating local history with general educational disciplines (historical local history, geographical and natural history, literary, etc.). The use of basic museum technologies will allow many teachers to effectively organize the educational process in a new way. Non-standard forms and methods of study school discipline, creative control tasks will certainly contribute to the activation of the student’s mental activity and the development of his creativity, aesthetic perception and artistic taste. But most importantly, the totality of these innovations helps school and museum teachers solve one of the primary tasks of pedagogy - instilling a sense of patriotism, which is achieved through knowledge of the history of their native land.
Extracurricular forms of work should not be overlooked. Local history clubs and sections, organizing and maintaining a school museum, active participation in local history competitions and olympiads are one of the important ways to conduct meaningful and interesting work with students, the main way to transfer knowledge and skills not covered by the school curriculum. The strict framework of the lesson does not always allow answering many questions that interest children; it does not always provide an opportunity to help the child learn additional techniques and skills necessary for success. educational process schoolboy. In this case, extracurricular activities come to the rescue, where students acquire the necessary knowledge.
The activities of the local history and museum circle are aimed at children mastering the skills of independent search and research work in archives, libraries, museums, interviewing people of interest to the museum or researcher, etc. The cycle of classes should include excursion visits to the above institutions, independent work to search for the necessary information specified by the teacher, process it, analyze the work done during club meetings, further planning the study, defining goals and objectives. Mastery of the above skills gives the student a clear orientation in the information space, which in the future greatly facilitates the work of preparing various kinds of abstracts, local history research works, etc. In addition, members of the circle provide practical assistance to the school museum, thereby delving into the essence of its work, realizing the importance and significance of the existence of the museum business, and becoming involved in its activities.
The most receptive audience is children, and it is to them that the educational activities of museums are primarily focused; It is with children that the school works, providing education and raising the younger generation to be worthy citizens of their country.
References:
- Lebedeva P.G. Specifics of working with museum objects in the Children's Historical Museum // Museum of the 21st Century: Dream and Reality. - St. Petersburg: 1999.
- Ivashina N.N. Methodology for preparing an on-site excursion.//Belgorod Regional History Bulletin. – Belgorod, 2001.
1. Market Square.
How was the center of a medieval city different from a modern city?
The center of the medieval city, like the modern one, was the square. Only in the case of a medieval city, the whole life of the city took place on the square: auctions were held there, people exchanged news, criminals were punished, theatrical performances and performances took place on the square.
Unlike the modern city, the medieval city did not have running water or sewerage.
2. Town Hall.
1. What objects and documents were kept in the town hall? What significance did they have for the city?
The city banner, keys to the city gates, and the city seal were kept in the town hall. There, in strong chests behind many locks, the treasury and archives were kept. Archival documents were guarded especially carefully, as they contained letters in which the rights, liberties and privileges of the city were written down.
2. Which of the three listed methods of forming a city government seems more democratic to you? Which groups of the urban population were in any case not allowed to participate in city government?
The most democratic way to form a city council was to elect its members at a narrow meeting of “respected” citizens.
In any case, the poor and even many wealthy artisans were not allowed to participate in city government.
3. City Cathedral.
Why did the townspeople spend so much money, effort and time on the construction of cathedrals?
The townspeople spent so much money, effort and time on the construction of cathedrals in order to show the greatness, beauty and wealth of their city, in order to be proud of it. In addition, cathedrals were built in honor of saints, who were supposed to help and protect the city.
4. Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals.
1. Why do you think Romanesque churches resembled fortresses? Why are they called Romanesque? How do they resemble the architectural monuments of Ancient Rome?
Because the period when the cathedrals were built - the 9th - 12th centuries - was a period of internecine wars and constant attacks by neighboring tribes (Normans, Hungarians, etc.), so they had thick walls so that in case of attack the city residents could take cover behind them.
These cathedrals are called Romanesque because the architects who built them used the techniques of ancient Roman builders. These cathedrals were reminiscent of the architecture of Ancient Rome using columns, arches and vaults.
2. What mood did the architecture of the Gothic cathedral create among believers?
The architecture of the Gothic cathedral created the impression of lightness and weightlessness, as if the cathedral was stretching upward.
Questions at the end of the paragraph.
1. Imagine that you are a traveler arriving in a medieval city. Describe what you saw in the city. What seemed unusual to you?
The appearance of medieval cities was different from modern ones. The city was surrounded high walls with towers and deep ditches filled with water to protect against attacks, the city gates were locked at night. The walls surrounding the city limited its territory; As the population influxed from the villages and the number of inhabitants increased, it could not accommodate everyone living, and it had to be expanded by constructing new walls. This is how suburbs arose, in which mainly artisans settled.
Due to the limited urban area, the streets were very narrow. The houses were built on several floors, with each upper floor overhanging the lower one, so that the street was always in twilight. The architecture of the houses was simple and monotonous, the main building materials Wood, stone and straw served. The exceptions were the houses of feudal lords and wealthy merchants. Two buildings stood out sharply in the city square - the cathedral and the town hall. It was the center of the city and at the same time a market square. The streets were inhabited by artisans of the same specialty. The windows of each workshop usually faced the street: during the day the shutters were opened, the upper one turned into a canopy, and the lower one became a counter. In addition, through open window you could see how the products were made. Street lighting didn't exist for a long time. There were no sidewalks either, the streets were unpaved, so in the hot summer it was very dusty, and in the spring and autumn it was dirty. Garbage was thrown directly onto the streets. It was difficult to walk and drive along the streets of the medieval city; the puddles were so deep that it was impossible even to ride a horse through them. Crowded population, unsanitary conditions, and lack of hospitals turned the city into a hotbed of all diseases and epidemics, from which sometimes 1/2 to 1/3 of the city population died, especially during the plague, which was called the Black Death. Cities with their wooden buildings and thatched roofs were often subject to devastating fires, so it was a rule to turn off the lights in houses at nightfall.
2. Using additional materials, prepare a report about one of the famous medieval cathedrals.
Chartres Cathedral is a Catholic cathedral located in the city of Chartres, prefecture of the department of Eure et Loire. It is located 90 km southwest of Paris and is one of the masterpieces of Gothic architecture. In 1979, the cathedral was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Churches have long stood on the site of the modern Chartres Cathedral. Since 876, the Holy Shroud of the Virgin Mary has been kept in Chartres. Instead of the first cathedral, burned down in 1020, a Romanesque cathedral with a huge crypt was erected. It survived the fire of 1134, which destroyed almost the entire city, but was badly damaged during the fire of June 10, 1194. From this fire, started by a lightning strike, only the towers with the western facade and the crypt survived. Miraculous Rescue from the fire of the sacred shroud was considered a sign from above and served as the reason for the construction of a new, even more grandiose building.
The construction of the new cathedral began in the same 1194 with donations flocking to Chartres from all over France. City residents voluntarily delivered stone from surrounding quarries. The design of the previous building was taken as a basis, into which the surviving parts of the old building were inscribed. The main work, which included the construction of the main nave, was completed in 1220, the consecration of the cathedral took place on October 24, 1260 in the presence of King Louis IX and members of the royal family.
Chartres Cathedral has survived from the end of the 13th century to the present day practically untouched. It escaped destruction and robbery, and was not restored or rebuilt.
The three-nave building has a Latin cross plan with a short three-nave transept. The eastern part of the temple has several semicircular radial chapels. At the time of construction, the vaults of Chartres Cathedral were the highest in France, which was achieved through the use of flying buttresses resting on buttresses. Additional flying buttresses supporting the apse appeared in the 14th century. Chartres Cathedral was the first in the design of which this architectural element was used, which gave it completely unprecedented external contours and made it possible to increase the size of the window openings and the height of the nave (36 meters).
Feature appearance The cathedral are its two very different towers. The 105-meter spire of the south tower, built in 1140, is made in the shape of a simple Romanesque pyramid. The north tower, 113 meters high, has a base left over from a Romanesque cathedral, and the tower's spire dates back to the early 16th century and is made in the Flamboyant Gothic style.
Chartres Cathedral has nine portals, three of which remain from the old Romanesque cathedral. The north portal dates from 1230 and contains sculptures of Old Testament characters. The southern portal, created between 1224 and 1250, uses scenes from the New Testament with a central composition dedicated to the Last Judgment. The West Portal of Christ and the Virgin Mary, better known as the Royal Portal, dates from 1150 and is famous for its depiction of Christ in Glory, created in the 12th century.
The entrances to the north and south transepts are decorated with sculptures from the 13th century. In total, the cathedral's decoration includes about 10,000 sculptures made of stone and glass.
On the south side of the cathedral there is an astronomical clock from the 16th century. Before the clock mechanism broke down in 1793, they showed not only the time, but also the day of the week, the month, the time of sunrise and sunset, the phases of the moon and the current sign of the Zodiac.
The interior of the cathedral is no less remarkable. The spacious nave, unparalleled in all of France, opens to a magnificent apse located at the eastern end of the cathedral. Between the arcades and the upper rows of windows of the central nave there is a triforium; the massive columns of the cathedral are surrounded by four powerful pilasters. The cathedral is famous for its stained glass windows, the total area of which is about 2000 m2. The Chartres collection of medieval stained glass is absolutely unique: more than 150 windows, the oldest of which were created in the 12th century. Apart from the large stained glass roses on the west façade and the south and north transepts, the most famous are the 1150 stained glass window "Our Lady of Beautiful Glass" and the composition "The Tree of Jesus".
A distinctive feature of the stained glass windows of Chartres Cathedral is the extreme saturation and purity of colors, the secret of which has been lost. The images are characterized by an extraordinary breadth of themes: scenes from the Old and New Testaments, scenes from the lives of prophets, kings, knights, artisans and even peasants.
The floor of the cathedral is decorated with an ancient labyrinth from 1205. It symbolizes the believer's path to God and is still used by pilgrims for meditation. There is only one way through this cathedral labyrinth. The size of the labyrinth practically coincides with the size of the window rose of the western facade (but does not repeat it exactly, as many mistakenly believe), and the distance from the western entrance to the labyrinth is exactly equal to the height of the window. The labyrinth has eleven concentric circles, the total length of the path through the labyrinth is approximately 260 meters. At its center is a flower with six petals, the outline of which resembles the roses of a cathedral.
According to the mockumentary Far Blue, drawings on the floor of Chartres Cathedral helped mathematicians discover "gravity tunnels."
Chartres Cathedral has well-preserved medieval stained glass windows, including the rose window. The total glazing area in the cathedral is 2044 sq.m. Stained glass from this period is dominated by deep blues and reds, and light shades are rare.
Questions for additional materials.
What was the significance of money changers in medieval society?
Thanks to the activity of money changers, trade developed, as this made it possible to buy/sell goods from another state, which contributed to the development of the circulation of goods.
1. What do you think? architectural style was the tower erected?
I think that in gothic style, he is characterized by an upward desire.
2. How can we explain that the craftsmen made such serious mistakes during construction and, moreover, did not pay attention to the warnings?
It is possible that the masters lost the knowledge of architecture and architecture that was known during the Roman Empire.