The aesthetic function of language is realized in poetic language. Poetic language, in contrast to practical language as a means of ordinary communication, is also important “in itself”: it is characterized by sound organization, imagery (tropes, figures), and compositional constructiveness. His important distinctive feature is a large number of expressive means. Another important feature of this style is that it can use any means of the language, if necessary, to create an artistic image, to achieve the artistic goal that the author sets for himself.
The main thing for artistic speech is the concept of "expressiveness", that is, the ability of a work of art to have an emotional, aesthetic impact on the reader, to create vivid images of people, poetic pictures of nature, and the like.
The expressiveness of speech can be achieved in different ways and means: phonetic, morphological, derivational, lexical, syntactic. In order to make the image of a character, character, phenomenon, object more expressive, to show the author's attitude to the depicted, to evoke an emotional response from the reader, to form in him a certain assessment of what is depicted, the author uses special means that can be generally called stylistic devices.
A typical way of creating artistic speech is the use of a word in an unusual association, while the word, as it were, acquires a new meaning (enters into new associations). Artistic speech gives the impression of some novelty in handling words, is a kind of neoplasm. Poetic language uses linguistic means in their aesthetic end in itself, and by no means only with a communicative purpose.
The word gets its exact meaning in the phrase. It is possible to force any word to designate what it does not include in its meaning, in other words, to change the basic meaning of the word. Techniques for changing the basic meaning of a word are called tropes. From a linguistic point of view trails- the concept of poetics and stylistics, denoting such turns (images) that are based on the use of a word (or a combination of words) in a figurative sense and are used to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech ”(Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1990, p. 520).
Trope - stylistic device, which consists in the use of words, statements that name one object (object, phenomenon, property) to designate another object associated with the first one or another semantic relationship. These can be relations of similarity, and then we are dealing with a metaphor, comparison, personification or a relationship of contrast, as in oxymoron and antiphrase. These can be relations of contiguity, as in metonymy, or relations that are quantitative (rather than qualitative) in nature and expressed with the help of synecdoche, hyperbole and meiosis. In the paths, the basic meaning of the word is destroyed; as a rule, through this destruction of the direct meaning, its secondary signs enter into perception. Tropes have the ability to awaken an emotional attitude to the topic, to inspire certain feelings; have a sensory value. Such an interpretation of the trope for a long time belonged to the most common and was specified by indicating private tropes (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche - in the first place, as well as epithet, hyperbole, litote, oxymoron, paraphrase, etc.), which together constituted the class of tropes .
The concept of a trail has been known since ancient times. The concept of "tropes" arose in the depths of the Hellenistic Roman rhetorical system (Philodemus, Cicero, Hermogenes, etc.), where he was given one of the most successful definitions for his time. Quintilian considered “a trope to be an expression transferred for the beauty of speech from its primary, natural meaning to another, which results in an enrichment of meaning” (cited in: Potebnya, 1990, p. 158). In his writings, Cicero noted, "The Greeks believe that speech is embellished if changes in words are used, which they call tropes, and forms of sentences and speech, which they call figures." The limit of the ancient theory of tropes was the ability to describe the external forms of a phenomenon, which should have been perceived as something optional, introduced from the outside and artificial, related to the “decorations” of speech. The ideas and methods of the general theory of sign systems played a decisive role in the revival of interest in tropes, the introduction of the old problematics into a new scientific context.
Modern trends in the study of tropes in linguistics have received a generalized reflection in the formulation of P. Chauffer and D. Rice, who have defined trope as a semantic transposition from a present sign (sign in praesentia) to an absent sign (in absentia), which 1) is based on the perception of a connection between one or more semantic features of each of the signifieds, 2) is marked by semantic incompatibility of microcontext and macrocontext, 3) is motivated by a referential connection similarity, or causality, or inclusion, or opposition (a semantic feature is understood as a unit of meaning; microcontext is a segment in the signifier chain that occupies the trope; in the case of a one-word trope, the microcontext coincides with the present sign itself; the macrocontext includes those parts of the signifier chain that are necessary to determine the missing sign) (Scofer R., Rice D., 1977, v. 21).
The roots of "tropeism" should be sought in the two-dimensionality of the very structure of the language as a sign system and in the asymmetry of the content plane and the plane of expression. Within this framework, development is determined by the principle of economy and the principle of increasing the flexibility and variety of ways in which a given content can be expressed. In the early stages of language development, such non-uniqueness of forms of expression could be realized in the opposition of two language modes - a language that describes a “real” situation (and only it), and a language that can describe a “potential” situation that is not motivated by realities. The "potential" language mode can be understood as the source of the so-called poetic language. "Superreal" content this language conveys deviant means(our italics - N.M), specific turns, realizing the "second" meanings, that is, tropes. The typology of the early forms of poetic language testifies not only to its connection with tropes, but also to the assignment of “tropized” speech to a special class of “indirect” speech, where the paradoxes of identity and difference in language are most pronounced, where, compared with the norm, the text is deformed. This process is largely carried out with the help of tropes, thanks to which the possibilities of conveying new meanings, fixing new points of view, new connections between the subject of the text and the object sphere increase. Consciously, the poet does not actualize all the possibilities of the language, but the role of the text that is not realized by the poet, “random” in later life, is also significant. Therefore, the path is characterized by instability, "poetic" relativity in the course of development.
The number of trails varies significantly depending on the criteria by which they are distinguished. Quintilian has seven of them: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, emphasis, hyperbole, paraphrase. M.V. Lomonosov singles out eleven: catachresis, metalepsis, allegory and antonomasia are added. A.A. Potebnya singles out only three main tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche. For R. Jacobson, there are only two basic tropes: metaphor and metonymy, the presence of which, in his opinion, is due to the very nature of the language. Chauffer and Raye attached particular importance to synecdoche, which many researchers, in turn, do not consider an independent trope, but define it as a kind of metonymy.
The artist of the word, using various techniques, draws the reader's attention to the subject, giving him a special artistic vision and revealing the inner form of what is depicted as an aesthetic value. In addition to tropes, there are also figures of speech. In linguistics, there is no exhaustive, precise and generally accepted definition of the figure of speech. The term itself is used in various senses. However, there is a tendency to consolidate this term and to reveal its linguistic meaning. In antiquity, figures were considered as the main object of the section of rhetoric that dealt with "poetic" semantics, and were understood as means of changing meaning, evading the norm.
There is a broad and narrow understanding of the stylistic figure. In a broad sense, stylistic figures include any language means that serve to create and enhance the expressiveness of speech. With this view of the figures, tropes and other rhetorical devices are included in their composition. In a narrow sense, stylistic figures are syntagmatically formed means of expression. Figures of speech (in the narrow sense) can be divided into semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures of speech are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences, or larger sections of text. These include comparison, climax, anti-climax, zeugma, pun, antithesis, oxymoron. So an oxymoron is a semantic figure of speech, consisting in attributing a feature incompatible with this concept to a concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning, which seems absurd, but in fact reveals the contradictory nature of the object of description. Stylistic figures are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech, the main role is played by the syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the lexical (semantic) content.
Opportunity Recognition different forms linguistic expression of the same content led to the idea of choosing stylistically marked forms and using them to convince the listener. Consequently, language through its figures became a means of mental influence on the listener. The ancient tradition emphasized the opposition of practical and artistic speech and included among the elements that bring majesty to speech, along with the choice of words and their combination, also the figures that these combinations form as a result. Thus, there is an idea of a verbal figure not only as a "type of constructing speech", but also as a kind of change in the norm, a deviation from it, contributing to the "pleasure of the ear." The final word for antiquity was Quintilian's formulation: “A figure is defined in two ways: firstly, like any form in which a thought is expressed, and secondly, a figure in the exact sense of the word is defined as a conscious deviation in thought or in expression from an ordinary and simple form. .. We will consider the renewal of the form of speech with the help of some kind of art as a figure” (cited in: Potebnya, 1990, p. 159). In the classification of figures of speech offered by ancient science, a special place was occupied by their analysis according to two principles - semantic-stylistic (cf. figures of accuracy, liveliness, etc.) and structural (cf. figures of change, addition, reduction). A figure of speech is a deviation from the usual way of speaking in order to enhance the impression. A figure of speech is a form of expression changed according to the laws of art, a certain form of speech, detached from the usual and arising directly from its meaning. “Stylistic figures are any turns of speech that deviate from a certain norm of colloquial “naturalness”.
The identification and classification of figures began in ancient rhetoric. Figures of thought and figures of words differed: the former did not change from retelling in other words, the latter did. The figures of thought were divided into clarifying ones: 1) the position of the speaker - a warning, a concession; 2) the meaning of the subject - definition, clarification, antithesis of different types; 3) attitude to the subject - an exclamation from one's own face, personification from someone else's; 4) contact with listeners - an appeal or a question. Their verbal expression was intensified either by amplification or, conversely, by silence. The figures of the word were divided into: 1) figures of addition - a) repetition of various types, b) "reinforcement" with synonymous enumerations of various kinds, c) polyunion; 2) figures of decrease - sylleps, ellipse, non-union; 3) figures of displacement (arrangement) - inversion, parallelism, chiasmus; 4) figures of rethinking - tropes" (Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1987, p. 466).
In modern linguistics, the need to develop the concept of a figure of speech is associated primarily with the task of finding such an intermediate element, which, firstly, would act as an integral part of the text (that is, would be the result of its division and an element involved in the synthesis of the text), secondly, it would implement the transition from the level of language elements to the level of text composition elements.
In the linguistic theory of text, a figure of speech can be understood as any practical implementation in speech of a set of elementary syntactic types provided by the language that forms a paradigm, especially if this implementation takes on a form that is different from that recognized as standard.
Typical situations of “generating” a figure of speech include any use of a given linguistic element in a non-primary function (syntactic and semantic). Therefore, with this approach, figures of speech can be interpreted as a means of increasing the "flexibility" of the language, determined by the number of ways to convey this content, and as a means of choosing the most informative, most creative form of implementing this meaning.
In many figures, the leading role is played not by their syntactic structure, but by semantics, characterized by continuity. In these cases, the figures of speech themselves are constructed as a correlation of semantic elements that can be compared (“collided”) with each other, but cannot be “fitted” to each other with absolute accuracy. On the contrary, these meanings are often generally incompatible in the standard scheme, and the total, completely unanalyzed effect of correlating these elements is precisely determined by the uncertainty arising from the diversity of the correlated elements, from finding common semes in incompatible semantic spaces.
Words used in a figurative sense, and words changed, decorate speech. Imagery is "poured" throughout the text; some elements, vividly shaped, seem to infect others. The word included in a literary text becomes its constructive component and aesthetically significant element.
Almost every tropeic structure is based on the formula “X is, as it were, Y”: “an object X, singled out in the denotative space of the text, appears as a kind of image, a bundle of features that form a single whole at a certain level of observation, which is then focused in a set of essential features - a set of object properties that are relevant in a given text situation. Accordingly, the object Y is imagined in the aspect of those of its distinctive properties that turn out to be compatible with the set of inherent features of the object X, therefore, it acts as an object, a standard ”(Telia, 1988, p. 124). Modeling the world, the trope creates a poetic reality, which, being a model, does not necessarily completely coincide with a specific fragment of the real world, but necessarily satisfies “different concrete realizations in the extralinguistic world of the same situation of poetic utterance” (ibid.).
An analysis of numerous works that study the figurative means of artistic speech - tropes and figures, has shown that much remains unclear and has not yet been resolved. In the philological tradition, there are various interpretations of the nature and boundaries of these phenomena: in the former broad sense, it was believed that the figures include paths (we refer, for example, to A. Bain, who considered the paths in the composition of figures (Bahn, 1886)); Later, the tropes and figures were delineated more definitely, but some of them, due to their nature, turned out to be transitional (comparison, epithet, oxymoron, etc.) in terms of the criteria put forward.
Concerning the distinction between tropes and figures, A.G. Gornfeld wrote: “Trop is a form of poetic thinking; the figure is the form of speech. The paths result in the enrichment of thought with known new content; figures - certain turns of speech, designed for a certain action, but not introducing anything new into the content that expands knowledge. They serve as an expression of emotional movement in the speaker and a means of conveying the tone and degree of his mood to the listener” (Gornfeld, 1911, p. 335).
Such a criterion allows for the separation of tropes and figures, especially at the poles of their opposition (cf., for example, metaphor, metonymy - default, inversion), but, apparently, only to a certain extent. If we take, for example, comparison, then it reveals the properties of both a path (“unfolded” metaphor) and a figure (constructions with conjunctions like, like, like, like and etc.).
Various figurative expressions of contradiction in the language of fiction have a transitional character. Being basically stylistic figures with well-defined syntactic structures, they are at the same time, like classical tropes, forms of poetic thinking containing an artistic increment of meaning in the act of aesthetic assimilation of reality: the figure of contradiction (figura contradictionis) as a constructive component of poetic language (secondary modeling system) has, therefore, the status of a tropofigure, the nature and content of which will be disclosed below.
One significant remark should be made, emphasizing the necessity and importance of singling out and substantiating a special tropofigure of the contradiction. The nature of the poetic lies in contradiction, in the awareness of both the identity of the sign and the object, and in the inadequacy of this identity (A = A and A is not A): “the reason why this antinomy is essential is that without contradiction there is no mobility of ideas signs and the relationship between representation and sign becomes automatic” (Yakobson, 1996, p. 118). Unlike an ordinary sign, an aesthetic sign is contradictory in nature. In essence, each poetic image contains an internal contradiction, in contrast to the usual sign, which is associated with the text according to the law of semantic agreement, which consists in the fact that the combined words have the same semantic component in their meaning. A poetic verbal image, on the contrary, is characterized by a "discrepancy" in the combined words-components: "discrepancy is obligatory for an effective, living image" (Tynyanov, 1965, p. 228). The phrasal meaning, coming into conflict with the original semantics of the word, leads to the “doubling” of its content, to the appearance of a figurative, aesthetically significant meaning. In contrast to the ordinary sign, which together with its environment expresses an analytic judgment, the aesthetic sign as expression is a synthetic judgment.
The most important feature of poetic text units is the dialectical contradiction of their structure, semantics, which seem non-standard, “strange” from the point of view of ordinary communication. The aesthetic effect of text perception arises in the reader where and when he is kept in his mind and interacts with two planes of the image - ordinary and alienated, the creative process of "removing" the contradiction takes place, they are synthesized into a new quality - an image.
Contradiction as a property of an aesthetic sign is manifested with particular sharpness and expressiveness in the tropofigure of contradiction. The tropofigure of contradiction was first put forward by Professor L.A. Novikov (he also proposed the term itself) (Novikov, 1999). At its core, contradiction is a synthesizing poetic unit that incorporates long-known tropes such as antithesis, oxymoron. In ancient rhetoric, it was embodied primarily in antithesis (Antique theories of language and style, 1936, p. 272). In the Indian poetic tradition, the contradiction was expressed in a special figure - virodha, a kind of oxymoron sentence representing a holistic image (Grintser, 1987, p. 112). Such figures, as the most “logicized”, are the most direct expression of “figures of thought”: Quintilian did not accidentally attribute the opposition to semantic figures rather than verbal ones (Antique theories of language and style, 1936, p. 263).
Often the contradiction is combined with other paths, that is, they are superimposed on each other, synthesized, but at the same time, the contradiction still dominates. Synthetic tropofigures appear, such as contradiction-metaphor, contradiction-epithet, contradiction-personification, etc., that is, traditional tropeic figures, but built on contradiction. Let us consider the functioning of such synthetic figures using examples from the works of I. Severyanin.
Metaphor- “a trope or mechanism of speech, consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, etc., to characterize or name an object included in another class, or to name another class of objects similar to this one in any respect” ( Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, 199, pp. 296). Unlike comparison, where both members of the comparison are present, a metaphor is a hidden comparison in which the words as, as if, as if omitted but implied.
Among all the tropes, the metaphor is particularly expressive. Possessing unlimited possibilities in bringing together a wide variety of objects and phenomena, essentially comprehending an object in a new way, metaphor is able to reveal, expose its inner nature.
The objective similarity between objects, which allows creating a metaphor, most often consists in such qualities as color, shape, size, density, dynamism. The common property in the first object (the object of the image) can be both constant and variable, in the second (the means of assimilation) - only constant. The verbal structure of the metaphor is notable for its considerable complexity. The first semasiological component of the metaphor is the usual, direct meaning of the word, realized through its own sound, but in relation to the context, this part of the metaphor acts as a kind of foreign body. According to many scientists, to understand a metaphor means to figure out which of the properties of the designated object stand out in it and how they are supported by the associative complex imitated by the main and auxiliary objects of the metaphor. Among the metaphorical expressions, there are many that contain evaluative meanings. The evaluative meanings of metaphors are based on the value picture of the world. During metaphorization, descriptive evaluative meanings, determined by the picture of the world, turn into evaluative connotations inherent in the lexical unit, that is, they pass from the picture of the world of the speakers into the language.
But the relationship between metaphor and evaluation is very ambiguous. In a metaphor, words acquire evaluative meanings, both with and without evaluative connotations in their original meanings. This is due to the fact that often a metaphorical shift accompanies a shift in the nature of subjects and their attributes - from the world of things to the world of man, mental, social, which is included in the system of values.
dawn of life- everything in life is clear!
Sunset of life- everything is sunset (p. 76)We will create equator to the north(p. 84)
Oh, with the face of a mummy(p. 87)
Ice flaming(p. 104)
Son the world - he, and the world he - father(p. 150)
A young man of eighty years(p. 387)
between metaphor and comparison no fundamental difference with psychological point vision (the psychological basis of both is the search for internal similarities between dissimilar objects and phenomena); with the formal - these are completely different phenomena. The most positive criterion for distinguishing between metaphor and comparison is the nature of the meaning of component words. The established tradition considers tropes at the lexical-semantic level, and figures - at the morphological-syntactic level. Proceeding from this, a metaphor is a semantic category, the semantic diversity of which is created by the intersection of normative and figurative meanings; comparison does not create a new and integral information object, that is, it does not carry out a semantic synthesis leading to the formation of a new concept. Comparison creates a new artistic meaning, presumably as a result of the semantic organization of word components.
Laughter is fresh exactly the sea,
Laughter is hot exactly a crater(p. 33)
In this example, comparison by analogy, the content of which includes the image of two different (opposite) aspects of the same situation.
He sat down at the piano like a genius -
Finished the game like a slave(p. 41)
Comparison of the inconsistency of the quality of the object.
Trees are shedding leaves
In June, as in the days of September(p. 152)There, like songs, colors are sonorous,
There, like colors, juicy songs(p. 159)
The artist of the word, using various techniques, draws the reader's attention to the subject, giving him a special artistic vision and revealing the inner form of what is depicted as an aesthetic value. A special technique of a "stranged" figurative image, which requires a creative understanding of the subject and gives an aesthetically tangible experience, is metonymy. Metonymy is a trope consisting in the regular or occasional transfer of a name from one object to another object, associated with data by contiguity, contiguity, involvement in one situation (Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1990, p. 300). It is customary to distinguish between such concepts as general language, situational and proper poetic metonymy. In the language of fiction, all types of metonymization are essential. The first of them is based on the regular system relations of nomination, the second - on situational adjacency, acting as a figurative ellipsis. General language metonymy reflects the relationship of adjacency in the language system, situational - at the level of speech. The study of the styles of writers requires the convergence of these levels of metonymy in some mediating interpretation: this is an automated or not fully automated metonymic use, suggesting a poetic transformation of words through their transformations, figuratively a semantic shift in comparison with the use. E.A. Nekrasova put forward in this regard the concept of verbal-associative metonymy, in which there is a transfer based on the contextual (or sound) adjacency of any words:
Ah, I'm a violet
come enjoy my violet. (p. 23)I drank violet thunderstorms phial(p. 30)
when the fiole rises, ofrel a brook (p. 39)
Metonymy as a technique consists in creating individual contextual meanings of a word that are born in a given use and are associated with the main dictionary meaning by contiguity. Adjacent, "nodding" to the depicted, the characteristics recreate a holistic, guessable image. There is a reverse identification of poetic and real objects.
My footprints to you alone in the snow
on the banks of the trout river (p. 16)And while snaking flexible, slender waist campfire,
Dinner I'm getting along... (p. 17)
Pointing to a sign of a person instead of mentioning the person itself
Tea served on a tray
girl of eight springs (p. 20)
Pointing to content instead of pointing to containing
Eat delicate square: you will like the product (p. 30)
Yesterday I read Turgenev
Enchanted me again (p. 20)
Vesela village, vaguely understood (p. 24)
The transfer of the properties of an object to another object, with the help of which these properties are discovered.
The individual author's metonymic word usage is based on the text, supported by its marked components, which give rise to artistically unique images. Such metonymy differs in its originality not only from the generally accepted language, but also from the commonly used speech in its originality. Any verbal image, including metonymy, is a small fragment of a text in which concepts that are contradictory in the broad sense are identified, which are not identified in the standard general literary language, that is, the image is understood as a contradiction in the broad sense.
Igor Severyanin is the only poet who at different times was included by various critics, researchers and textbook authors in all literary movements and directions of the beginning of the century - from pre-symbolism to post-symbolism. Probably, all researchers are right to some extent, since the poet quite often, especially in his early work, used symbolic images characteristic of the literary traditions of all Russian poetry at the beginning of the 20th century. This kind of traditionalism was also reflected in the peculiarities of the use of various kinds of definitions and epithets. Adjectives for Russian symbolists have always been that convenient language material that made it possible to provide a fundamental, dominant image of a vacillating, unsteady, but at the same time, stable semantic complex.
Epithet- this is a poetic definition, which differs significantly from a logical definition, since it does not have the function of distinguishing a phenomenon from a group of similar ones and does not introduce a new feature that is not contained in the defined word. The poetic definition repeats the feature contained in the word itself, and aims to draw attention to this feature or expresses the emotional attitude of the speaker to the subject.
married bride(p. 16)
bewitching pain(p. 38)
tragic humorist(p. 47)
white arab(p. 46)
Blissful pain(p. 63)
Many epithets are at the same time personifications. According to the definition of A. Kvyatkovsky (Kvyatkovsky, 1966. p. 215): “ personification- a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that when describing animals or inanimate objects, they are endowed with human feelings, thoughts and speech. Personifications are often seen as an attribute of metaphor.
Let us designate the principle of distinguishing between personification and metaphor: these are differences in the connections of words with its denotate, the semantic characteristics of the verb and its attributes, that is, the specifics of the use of the subject in the context, as well as the presence / absence of a subject analogue of this detail or characteristic. In other words, personification is a trope not associated with a semantic shift. Individual characteristics, feelings and properties, as well as abstract concepts that in reality do not have an objective basis at all, can be personified:
Everything, that finds, loses heart mine (p. 38)
soul subtly stale(p. 51)
That hatred trying be in love(p. 109)
When in ugliness beauty wanders(p. 185)
Andrei Bely believed that "forms of representation are inseparable from each other: they pass one into another<...>, the same process of depiction, undergoing various phases, appears to us either as an epithet, or as a comparison, or as a synecdoche, etc.” (Bely, 1910). In a literary text, as a rule, several tropes and figures are simultaneously used in combination with other techniques, which creates its special richness.
The tropofigure of contradiction has its own logical, dialectical and linguistic foundations, they will be discussed in more detail in paragraph 1.3.
Figurative and expressive means of language and speech
Allegory
(allegory)
The image of an abstract concept through a specific image.
In fables, an allegorical embodiment: a fox - cunning, a hare - cowardice, a wolf - anger and greed, a donkey - stupidity.
Anaphora
(unity)
The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas.
For example, in M. Lermontov's poem "Gratitude" six lines begin with the preposition for. In G. Derzhavin's poem "Russian Girls" five lines begin with how.
Antithesis
(opposition)
Contrast, opposition of phenomena, concepts, images, states, etc.
Often expressed using antonyms.
Not the flesh, but the spirit has become corrupted in our days. (F. Tyutchev).
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other. (A. Pushkin).
"War and Peace" (L. Tolstoy), "Crime and Punishment" (F. Dostoevsky), "Deceit and Love" (F. Schiller).
Asyndeton
Intentional omission of unions to give the text dynamism.
Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts,
Drum beat, clicks, rattle.
(A. Pushkin).
Hyperbola
(exaggeration)
Excessive exaggeration of the properties of the subject; quantitative strengthening of the attributes of an object, phenomenon, action.
In a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned,
Summer rolled in July. (V. Mayakovsky).
A million, a million scarlet roses from the window, you see from the window (Song).
gradation
Arrangement of words and expressions in increasing or decreasing importance.
Fascism robbed, corroded, shook Europe. (I. Ehrenburg).
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Each cultural monument is destroyed, distorted, wounded forever (D. Likhachev).
Inversion
Deliberate violation of the usual (direct) word order.
Weaved out on the lake the scarlet light of dawn.
Capercaillie are crying in the forest with bells (S. Yesenin).
He is from foggy Germany
brought the fruits of learning. (A. Pushkin).
Irony
(hidden sneer)
The use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. The opposite meaning can be given to a large context or a whole work.
Where, smart, are you wandering, head? (I. Krylov).
An example of an ironic work is M. Lermontov's poem "Gratitude" (here irony comes to sarcasm - the highest degree of manifestation of irony).
Understatement of the subject (reverse hyperbole)
Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble (A. Griboyedov)
Metaphor
The word in a figurative sense; transfer is based on likening one object to another by similarity or contrast; hidden comparison. Variety is an extended metaphor.
A fire of red rowan is burning in the garden. (S. Yesenin).
Placer cranberries in swamps
They burn out in the ashes of hoarfrost (N.Kolychev).
An example of a detailed metaphor is M. Lermontov's poem "The Cup of Life".
polyunion
Repetition of unions for logical and intonational underlining of the connected members of the sentence.
And a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger
Years spare the winner. (A. Pushkin).
Go to battle for the honor of the fatherland,
For faith, for love. (N. Nekrasov).
Personification.
Transferring the properties of a person (person) to inanimate objects, natural phenomena or animals.
Variety is an extended personification.
The moon laughed like a clown (S. Yesenin).
A rhetorical question.
An interrogative sentence that does not require an answer; used to draw attention to the depicted phenomenon or for reflection
Does it make sense to deceive yourself?
Are good deeds done for praise or reward?
How to choose a time so that several family members can immediately gather at the table? Don't pick a time? (S. Lvov).
Rhetorical address
A syntactic construction of an emotionally expressive nature to attract attention, expressing the author's attitude to the object.
O my prophetic soul!
O heart full of anxiety,
Oh how you beat on the threshold
Like a double being (F. Tyutchev).
Wandering spirit! You are less and less
You stir the flame of your mouth.
Oh my lost freshness
A riot of eyes and a flood of feelings. (S. Yesenin).
Comparison
Comparison of two concepts, objects, phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other.
Like a tree sheds its leaves,
So I drop sad words. (S. Yesenin).
Dew drops - white as milk, but translucent with a fiery spark. (V. Soloukhin).
The ice is fragile on the icy river
as if it were melting sugar. (N. Nekrasov).
The moon spread like a golden frog on still water (S. Yesenin).
Her eyes are like two clouds
half smile, half cry (N. Zabolotsky).
Epithet.
A word or phrase that serves as a figurative characteristic of a person, phenomenon or object (most often a metaphorical adjective); "colorful" definition. It must not be confused with defining adjectives, which are simply subjective and logical definitions.
Droplets of crystal moisture; gray dewy meadow (V. Soloukhin).
A curly trace ran from the oars to the shore (A. Fet).
Royal Troy fell. (F. Tyutchev).
The golden grove dissuaded
Berezov, cheerful language (S. Yesenin).
Wed: White snow, soft snow - definitive adjectives; sugar snow, swan snow - epithets.
Figurative and expressive means of language.
Didactic material for
Compiled by Beloshapkina E. V.,
teacher of Russian language
MOU SOSH №3.
Bogotol
Foreword
The manual "Didactic Materials for Preparing for the Unified State Examination in the Russian Language" is intended for teachers of the Russian language and literature who prepare graduate students for passing certification in the form of the Unified State Examination.
Its purpose is to help the teacher develop the skills of recognizing the figurative and expressive means of the language in the text, to teach the children to see their purpose (role) in a work of art.
These "Didactic Materials" can be used by teachers and students at the stage of preparing students for task B8, as well as when developing the skills of writing an essay-reasoning (part C).
These tasks, as a rule, cause serious difficulties for students, since most graduates have a rather weak idea of the most significant figurative and expressive means of the language and their role in the text, and it is impossible to master the skills of using linguistic means in one's own speech without a well-developed conceptual apparatus. .
Today, the Unified State Examination in the Russian language requires the graduate to be able to formulate his point of view on a particular problem, and for this, the student must be able to refer to the proposed text, see this problem, and reveal the position of the author. Appeal to the analysis of linguistic means helps to reveal the author's intention, to formulate his own view of the problem.
"Didactic materials" contain a list of the most important language tools with a detailed explanation of concepts, introduce the ways of expressing individual language tools, their role in the text.
Articles of the manual are supported by examples.
Practical tasks specially selected for each type of tropes and stylistic figures can be used at the stage of consolidating the studied material.
Test tasks allow you to check the level of mastery of a given topic by students.
The material is presented in an accessible form and can be used during self-study to the exam.
Fine- expressive means of language.
In various language styles, especially in fiction, in journalism, in colloquial speech, linguistic means are widely used that enhance the effectiveness of the statement due to the fact that various expressive and emotional shades are added to its purely logical content.
Strengthening the expressiveness of speech is achieved various means, primarily using trails.
TROPE- a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense.
The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that appear
we are close in some way.
EPITHET- this is a word that defines an object or action and emphasizes in them any characteristic property, quality.
The stylistic function of the epithet lies in its artistic expressiveness. Adjectives and participles are especially expressive in the function of epithets, due to their inherent semantic richness and diversity.
For example, in a sentence:
And the waves of the sea sad roaring against the stone beat(M. G.) an adjective acts as an epithet sad, defining a noun roar due to its use in a figurative sense.
The adverb plays the same role proudly in a sentence: Between the clouds and the sea proudly flies Petrel...(M. G.)
or noun governor in a sentence Freezing- governor patrols the domain own (I.)
COMPARISON - it is a comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other.
“Comparison is one of the most natural and real means for description,” L. N. Tolstoy pointed out.
The stylistic function of comparison is manifested in the artistic expressiveness that it creates in the text.
For example, in a sentence The dreadnought fought like a living being even more majestic among the roaring sea and thunderous explosions (A.T.) not only the dreadnought and the living creature are compared, it is not just explained how the Dreadnought fought, but an artistic image is created.
Comparisons are expressed in various ways:
2) the form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: You are sweeter than everyone, everyone expensive, Russian, loamy, hard ground(Surk.);
3) turnovers with various unions: Below him is Kazbek, like the edge of a diamond shone with eternal snows (L.); However, these were more caricatures than portraits (T.);
4) lexically (using words similar, similarAnd etc.): Her love for her son was like madness(M. G.).
Along with simple comparisons, in which two phenomena approach each other according to some common feature, detailed comparisons are used, in which many similar features are compared: ... Chichikov was still standing still in one and the same place, like a man who has completely gone out into the street in order to take a walk, with eyes disposed to look at everything, and suddenly stops motionless, remembering that he has forgotten something, and even then nothing can be more stupid to be such a person: in an instant, a carefree expression flies from his face; he struggles to remember that he has forgotten whether it is not a handkerchief, but a handkerchief in his pocket, or money, but money is also in his pocket; everything seems to be with him, but meanwhile some unknown spirit whispers into his ears that he has forgotten something.
METAPHOR is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense on the basis of the similarity in some respect of two objects or events.
For example, in a sentence Resigned you, my spring grandiloquent dreams (P.) the word spring is metaphorically used in the meaning of the word "youth".
In contrast to the two-term comparison, which also states that
is compared, and that with which it is compared, the metaphor contains only that with which it is compared. Like a comparison, a metaphor can be simple and detailed, built on various similarity associations:
Here embraces the wind flocks waves embrace strong and throws them with a swing in wild anger at the cliffs, breaking into dust and splashes of emerald
bulks (M. G.)
METONYMY- this is a word or an expression that is used in a figurative sense on the basis of an external and internal connection between two objects or phenomena.
This connection could be:
1) between content and content: I three plates ate(Cr.)
3) between an action and the instrument of that action: He doomed their villages and fields for a violent raid swords and fires (P.)
4) between the object and the material from which the object is made: Not that on silver - on gold atel (Gr.)
5) between a place and the people in that place: All field gasped. (P.)
SYNECDOCH - This is a kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them.
Usually used in synecdoche:
3) part instead of whole: ((Do you need anything? - "In roof for my family” (Hertz);
4) generic name instead of species name: Well, sit down light(M.; instead of the sun);
5) specific name instead of generic name: Take care of the most a penny(G.; instead of money).
HYPERBOLA- this is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, value, etc. of any phenomenon:
In one hundred and forty suns, the sunset was blazing (M.).
LITOTA - is an expression containing an exorbitant underestimation of the size, strength, significance of any phenomenon I:
Below a thin blade you have to bow your head ... (N).
Another meaning of the litote- definition of a concept or object by negating the opposite
(cf. not bad said - Fine said): Not expensive I appreciate high-profile rights, from which more than one dizzy (P).
Our world is wonderfully arranged ... He has an excellent cook, but, unfortunately, such a small mouth that it can never miss more than two pieces; the other has mouth the size of the arch of the General Staff, but, alas, I must be content with some German potato dinner (D).
IRONY- This is the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, for the purpose of ridicule:
breakaway, smart, you're shaking your head!(Kr.) - an appeal to a donkey.
ALLEGORY- this is an allegorical image of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image.
Allegory is often used in fables and fairy tales, where animals, objects, natural phenomena act as carriers of human properties. For example, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf, deceit - in the form of a snake, etc.
PERSONALIZATION- is the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts:
I whistle, and to me obediently, timidly creep in bloodied villainy, and hand will to me lick, and in the eyes look, in them is a sign of my reading will (P.);
be comforted silent sadness, and frisky joy will think ... (P.)
PERIPHRASE (or PERIPHRASE) - this is a turnover consisting in replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features:
king of beasts(instead of a lion).
Wed at A. S. Pushkin: creator of Macbeth(Shakespeare),
Lithuanian singer(Mickiewicz),
singer Giaura and Juan(Byron)
stylistic figures.
To enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech, special syntactic constructions are used - the so-called stylistic (or rhetorical) figures.
The most important stylistic figures include:
Anaphora (or monogamy)
Epiphora (or ending)
Parallelism
Antithesis
Oxymoron
(Greek "witty-stupid")
gradation
Inversion
Ellipsis
Default
Rhetorical address
A rhetorical question
polyunion
Asyndeton
ANAPHORA (or UNITY)- this is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the statement.
For example, (lexical anaphora):
I swear I am the first day of creation,
I swear his last day
I swear shame of crime
And eternal truth triumph ... (L.)
Syntactic constructions of the same type (syntactic anaphora) can be repeated:
I am standing at high doors
I I follow at your work (St.)
I won't break, I won't falter, I won't get tired*
I will not forgive a grain of the enemies (Berg.).
EPIPHORA (or ENDING)is the repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent passages (sentences):
I would like to know why I titular adviser? Why exactly titular adviser?(G.)
PARALLELISM- this is the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech:
The young are dear to us everywhere, the old people are honored everywhere (L.-K.). An example of parallelism is the well-known poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “When the yellowing field is agitated ...”:
When the yellowing field worries
And a fresh trail rustles at the sound of the breeze ...
When, sprinkled with fragrant dew,
Ruddy evening or morning at a golden hour ..
When the cold key plays in the ravine
And, plunging the thought into some kind of vague dream...
ANTITHESIS - This is a turn of speech in which opposite concepts are sharply contrasted to enhance expressiveness:
Where the table was food, there is a coffin (Hold).
Often the antithesis is built on lexical antonyms: The rich feast on weekdays, but poor and in holiday mourns (last).
OXYMORON- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically exclude one another:
bitter joy; ringing silence; eloquent silence;
"Living Corpse" (L. T.);
"Optimistic Tragedy" (Vishn.)
GRADATION - this is a stylistic figure, consisting in such an arrangement of words, in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often - decreasing) meaning, due to which an increase (less often - weakening) of the impression they make is created.
Examples of ascending gradation: In autumn, the feather-grass steppes completely change and receive their special, unique, unique view(ax);
Arriving home, Laevsky and Nadezhda Fyodorovna went into their dark, stuffy, boring rooms (Ch.).
Descending gradation example:
I swear to Leningrad wounds,
The first ruined hearths;
I won't break, I won't falter, I won't get tired
I will not give a grain to the enemies (Berg.).
INVERSION- this is the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual, so-called direct order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. But not every reverse word order is an inversion; one can talk about it only when stylistic tasks are set when using it - increasing the expressiveness of speech:
WITH horror I wondered where this was leading to! AND with desperation recognized his power over my soul (P.);
The horses were brought out. Did not like they tell me (T.);
After all, he friend was me (L.T.);
Inversion amplifies semantic load members of the sentence and translates the statement from a neutral plan into an expressive - emotional . hand gave me goodbye (Ch.);
Amazing our people (Er.);
He made dinner excellent(T.);
Soul to high stretches (Pan.).
ELLIPSIS- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the omission of any implied member of the sentence:
We are villages- into ashes, hailstones into dust, into swords - sickles and plows (Zhuk.);
Instead of bread- stone instead of teaching- beater (S.-Sch.);
An officer with a pistol, Terkin - with a soft bayonet (Te.).
The use of an ellipsis gives the statement dynamism, intonation of lively speech, and artistic expressiveness.
DEFAULT- this is a turn of speech, which consists in the fact that the author deliberately does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader (or listener) to guess what was not said: No, I wanted ... maybe you ... I thought, What time is it for the baron to die (P.);
What did they both think they felt? Who will know? Who will say? There are such moments in life, such feelings. They can only be pointed- and pass by (T.)
rhetorical address- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in an underlined appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech:
Flowers, love, village, idleness, field!
I am devoted to you with my soul (P.);
ABOUT You, whose letters are many, many in my shore portfolio! (H);
"Quiet, speakers! your word, Comrade Mauser (M.)
Rhetorical appeals serve not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but to express the attitude towards this or that object, to characterize it, to enhance the expressiveness of the speech.
A RHETORICAL QUESTION- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the question is not posed in order to get an answer to it, but to draw the attention of the reader (or listener) to a particular phenomenon:
Do you know Ukrainian night? (G.);
Is it new to argue over Europe? Has the Russian lost the habit of victories? (P.)
POLYUNION- This is a stylistic figure consisting in the deliberate use of repeating unions for the logical and intonational underlining of the members of the sentence connected by the unions. Serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech:
Thin rain was sown on the forests, and on the fields, and on the wide Dnieper (G.);
The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went to infinity (Kor.).
The same when repeating the union between parts of a compound sentence:
Houses burned at night, and the wind blew, and black bodies on the gallows swayed from the wind, and crows screamed above them (Kupr.)
ASYNDETON - this is a stylistic figure consisting in the intentional omission of connecting unions between members of a sentence or between sentences :
the absence of unions gives the statement swiftness, saturation with impressions within the overall picture:
Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts, drumming, yushki, rattle, thunder of cannons, clatter, neigh, groan ... (P.)
The non-union enumeration of subject names can be used to create the impression of a quick change of pictures:
Booths, women, boys, shops, lanterns, palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, kitchen gardens, merchants, shacks, peasants, boulevards, towers, Cossacks, pharmacies, fashion stores, balconies, lions at the gates flicker past ... ( P.)
Functions of individual figurative and expressive means of the language
trail view | Functions in speech |
Emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon. It is used with the word it defines, enhancing its figurativeness. |
|
Comparison | These language tools help to see unity of the world, to notice similarities in dissimilar phenomena. Bringing together such distant objects, they discover their new properties, something that we did not know before. Give the expression an emotional coloring |
Metaphor |
|
personification |
|
Metonymy | Thanks to metonymy, we see this object, this action in its uniqueness. |
Synecdoche | Indicates similarities and differences, connections and relationships between objects. |
|
In folklore, they often serve as means of creating an image. |
|
Based on contrast. Reveals the true meaning of the relationship to the hero. |
|
Allegory | Serves to create a bright artistic image. |
Paraphrase (or paraphrase) |
Increases the expressiveness of speech. |
Types of stylistic figures | Functions in speech |
Anaphora (or monogamy) | Give poetry melodiousness, musicality. |
Epiphora (or ending) |
|
Parallelism |
|
Antithesis | The combination of concepts that are contrasting in meaning emphasizes their meaning more strongly and makes poetic speech more vivid and figurative. With this tool, writers can more accurately paint a picture, convey a feeling or thought, discover the contradictions that exist in life. |
Oxymoron (Greek "witty-stupid") | This language tool is used to characterize teristics of complex phenomena of life. |
gradation | |
Inversion | Increasing the expressiveness of speech. |
Ellipsis | In works of literature, it gives speech dynamism, ease, makes it look like an oral conversation: |
Default | Helps convey emotional condition hero (author) |
Rhetorical address Rhetorical exclamation | They serve to enhance the emotional and aesthetic perception of the depicted. |
A rhetorical question | Serves to draw the reader's attention to the depicted. |
polyunion | Serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech. |
Asyndeton | Gives the statement swiftness, saturation of impressions within the overall picture or to create the impression of a quick change of pictures: |
Tasks that allow in practice to work out the skills of finding and defining the function in speech of figurative and expressive means of the language.
Tasks for the section "Trails":
I. INDICATE EPITHETS AND DEFINE THEIR STYLISTIC FUNCTION .
1. Among the flowering fields and mountains, a friend of mankind sadly notices a murderous shame everywhere of ignorance. (P.)
2. To them, if some goose comes - the landowner, and brings down, the bear, right into the living room. (G.)
3. To the shore big steps he boldly and directly walks, he loudly calls his comrades-in-arms and menacingly calls the marshals. (L.)
4. As if he himself was drowsy, the old ocean seemed to have quieted down. (St.)
5. He was especially embarrassed by Olga's childish angry words. (M. G.)
6. Petrograd lived in these January nights tensely, agitatedly, angrily, furiously. (A.T.)
7. The shadow of Miloslavsky, terrible from childhood, rose again. (A.T.)
8. We attack with steel rows with a firm step. (Surk.)
9. Let the wind of iron revenge sweep the rapist into the abyss.
10. Come on, sing a song to us, cheerful wind. (OK.)
II . INDICATE COMPARISONS AND DEFINE THE WAYS THEY ARE EXPRESSED.
1. He ran faster than a horse ... (P.)
2. Below, like a steel mirror, lakes of jets turn blue. (Tyutch.)
3. And the old cat Vaska seemed to be more affectionate towards him than to anyone in the house.
4. (Pushkin's verse) gentle, sweet, soft, like the murmur of a wave, viscous and thick, like tar, bright, like lightning, transparent and pure, like a crystal, fragrant and fragrant, like spring, strong and powerful, like a blow of a sword in the hands of a rich man. (Bel.)
5. Whiter than snowy mountains, clouds go to the west. (L.)
6. The ice is not strong on the icy river, as if it lies like melting sugar. (N.)
7. From the chopped old birch, farewell tears poured in a hail. (H)
8. Now touching the waves with a wing, then soaring up to the clouds with an arrow, he screams, and the clouds hear joy in the bold cry of a bird, (M. G.)
9. Pyramidal poplars look like mourning cypresses. (ser.)
10. On Red Square, as if through the fog of centuries, the outlines of walls and towers are unclear. (A.T.)
11. Our guys melted like candles. (F.)
III. SPECIFY METAPHORS. DEFINE WHAT THE METAPHORICAL USE OF WORDS IS BASED ON.
1. The sun of Russian poetry has set (about Pushkin). (Bug.)
2. The east burns with a new dawn. (P.)
3. Remembrance silently in front of me develops its long scroll (P).
4. Here we are destined by nature to cut a window into Europe. (P.)
5. A kite swam high and slowly above the gardens. (Hound.)
b. Everything in him breathed the happy cheerfulness of health, breathed youth. (T.)
7. People were engaged in domestication of animals only at the dawn of human culture. (Shw.)
8. The wind is walking, the snow is fluttering. (Bl..)
9. Having unfolded my troops in a parade, I pass along the line front. (M.)
10. Quietly the river slumbers. (Her.)
IV. AtSAY WHAT METONYMY IS BASED ON.
1. Well, eat another plate, my dear! (Cr.)
2. No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head. (P.)
3. Here the savage nobility, without feeling, without law, has appropriated to itself by a violent vine both labor, and property, and the time of the farmer. (P).
4. I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero. (P.)
5. Here, on their new waves, all the flags will visit us. (P.)
6. But our open bivouac was quiet. (L.)
7. Cry, Russian land! But also be proud. (N.)
8. The pen of his revenge breathes. (ACT.)
9. And at the door are pea jackets, overcoats, sheepskin coats. (M.)
10. You can only hear an accordion wandering somewhere lonely on the street. (Is.)
V. MAKE SENTENCES USING SYNECDOCHES WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS.
VI. FIND EXAMPLES OF HYPERBOLE IN THE DESCRIPTION OF THE DNEPR
N. V. GOGOL (“Terrible Revenge”, ch. 10).
VII. ON THE EXAMPLE OF I. A. KRYLOV'S FABLES, SHOW THE USE OF ALLEGORIES.
VIII. COMPLETE A SMALL TEXT USING ONE OF THE FIGURES OF REPETITION (parallelism, anaphora or epiphora).
IX. MAKE SEVERAL PERIPHRASES, REPLACING THEM:
1) names of writers, scientists, public figures;
2) names of animals;
3) names of plants;
4) geographical names.
Tasks for the section "Stylistic figures":
I. CHOOSE 10 PROVERBS BUILT ON THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.
II. FIND EXAMPLES OF USE OF INVERSION IN THE STORIES OF MODERN AUTHORS.
III. FIND EXAMPLES OF RHETORICAL APPEAL IN THE POEMS OF A. S. PUSHKIN, N. A. NEKRASOV, V. V. MAYAKOVSKY.
IV. FIND CASES OF MULTIPLE UNION AND NON-UNION IN THE WORKS OF MODERN ART LITERATURE. EXPLAIN THE USE OF THESE AND OTHER SPEECH.
CHECK YOURSELF.
1.The whole room with amber luster
Illuminated...
2. I lived like grandfathers, the old fashioned way.
Z. Resting his feet on the globe of the earth,
I hold the ball of the sun in my hands ...
4. Timidly the month looks into the eyes,
I'm surprised the day hasn't passed...
5. Spruce covered the path with my sleeve.
6. He led swords to a plentiful feast.
7.3 I hit the projectile in the cannon tightly
And I thought: I will treat a friend!
Wait a minute, brother Musyu!
8. A boy with a finger.
9. The Poet died! - slave of honor.
10. No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head.
1. A golden cloud spent the night
On the chest of a giant cliff.
2. Eyes like the sky are blue.
3. Beware of the wind
Came out of the gate.
4. Trees in winter silver.
5... .Tears a mouth wider than the Gulf of Mexico.
6.... You will fall asleep, surrounded by care
dear and beloved family.
7. Scarlet dawn rises
She swept her golden curls, ...
8. Above all, take care of a penny ...
9. A cheat approaches a tree on tiptoe,
He wags his tail, does not take his eyes off the crow.
0. No, my Moscow did not go
To him with a guilty head.
1. Black evening, white snow.
Wind. Wind....
2. The unceasing rain is flowing,
The tedious rain...
3. Your mind is silent that the sea,
Your spirit is as high as mountains.
4. My friend! Let's dedicate to the Fatherland
Souls wonderful impulses!
5. And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again, and hit the shore ...
6. Not the wind, blowing from a height,
Sheets touched on a moonlit night ...
7. They came together: the wave and the stone,
Poetry and prose, ice and fire...
8. He groans through the fields, along the roads,
He groans in prisons, prisons ...
9. What is he looking for in a distant country?
What did he throw in his native country? ..
lo. I don't regret, I don't call, I don't cry...
1. Ah! Get over it, storm!
2. There the bride and groom are waiting -
no pop,
And I'm here too.
There they take care of the baby, -
no pop,
And I'm here too.
3. Everything flew far, past.
4. I came, I saw, I conquered ..
5. The coachman whistled,
The horses galloped.
b. Such is this book. Quite simple and complex. For children and for adults. The book of my childhood...
7. On the window, silver from frost.
During the night the chrysanthemums bloomed.
8. Flash past the booth, women,
Boys, benches, lanterns, ..
9. I swear by the first day of creation,
I swear on his last day...
10. Eloquent silence.
1. The azure of heaven laughs ...
2. In the room of people - you can’t count them in a day.
3. Poor luxury.
4. City on the Yenisei.
5. My life! Did you dream about me?
6. They entered their dark, stuffy, boring rooms.
7. The word crumbled in the hands.
8. Tramp-wind.
9. The rich feast on weekdays, and the poor mourn on holidays.
Y. All flags will visit us.
Answers to tests
Test number 1. Test number 3.
Epithet Antithesis
Comparison of Epiphora
Hyperbole Parallelism
Personification Rhetorical exclamation
Metaphor Polyunion
Metonymy Inversion
Irony Antithesis
Litota Anaphora
Paraphrase Rhetorical question
Metonymy. gradation.
Test number 2. Test number 4.
epithet rhetorical address
Comparison of Epiphora
Personification Ellipsis
Comparison Gradation
Hyperbole Parallelism
Irony
Metaphor Inversion
Synecdoche Bessoyuzie
Allegory Anaphora
Metonymy. Oxymoron
Metaphor
Hyperbola
Oxymoron
paraphrase
A rhetorical question
gradation
Comparison
Antithesis
Metonymy
Table-simulator*
Back to "Trails"
trail view | Definition |
A word that defines an object or action and emphasizes in them some characteristic property, quality. |
|
Comparison | Comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other. |
Metaphor | A word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena. |
Metonymy | A word or expression that is used in a figurative sense on the basis of an external and internal connection between two objects or phenomena. |
Synecdoche | A kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. |
Hyperbola | A figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, significance, etc. of a phenomenon. |
An expression containing an exorbitant underestimation of the size, strength, significance of a phenomenon. Definition of a concept or object by negating the opposite |
|
The use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, for the purpose of ridicule. |
|
Allegory | Allegorical image of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. |
personification | The transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. |
Paraphrase (or paraphrase) | A turnover consisting in replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features. |
To the section "Stylistic figures"
Types of stylistic figures | Definition |
Anaphora (or monogamy) | The repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the statement. |
Epiphora (or ending) | Repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent passages (sentences). |
Parallelism | The same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech. |
Antithesis | A figure of speech in which opposite concepts are sharply contrasted to enhance expressiveness: |
Oxymoron (Greek "witty-stupid") | A stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another. |
gradation | A stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of words, in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (decreasing) meaning, due to which an increase (weakening) of the impression they produce is created. |
Inversion | The arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual, so-called direct order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech |
Ellipsis | Stylistic figure, consisting in the omission of any implied member of the sentence |
Default | |
Rhetorical address | A stylistic figure consisting in an underlined appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech |
A rhetorical question | A stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the question is not posed in order to get an answer to it, but to draw the attention of the reader (or listener) to a particular phenomenon: |
polyunion | A stylistic figure, consisting in the deliberate use of repeating unions for logical and intonational underlining of the members of the sentence connected by unions, to enhance the expressiveness of speech: |
Asyndeton | A stylistic figure consisting in the deliberate omission of connecting unions between members of a sentence or between sentences: the absence of unions gives the statement swiftness, richness of impressions within the overall picture |
* These tables can be used in the lessons to reinforce the concepts of tropes and stylistic figures. (Possible form of work - "Find your mate")
Used Books:
D. E. Rosenthal. Practical style of the Russian language
In the first chapter, "The Concept of a Work of Art," the word was spoken of as the material of fiction. This section will consider the aesthetic possibilities of individual language units that serve as material for creating the imagery of a literary text. All linguistic elements of a literary text are figurative, that is, they serve to create artistic images.
As visual and expressive means can be language units related to various social, stylistic and functional varieties of the language, both in terms of synchrony and diachrony.
From the point of view of the historical development of the language, archisms and historicisms can be distinguished.
Archisms (from the Greek archashe - ancient) are obsolete words or grammatical and syntactic forms that arose as a result of a change in language styles. A. Bely effectively uses archaisms in the cycle of poems "Before and Now":
Brilliant persons walk, faience and porcelain are everywhere,
gently painted plafonds, music welcomes with a choir.
Archaisms of Old Slavonic origin, which have synonyms in the modern language, are called Slavicisms (“face” - “face”, “eye” - “eye”, “lanites” - “cheeks”):
And a blue flame from virgin eyes.
(P. Vyazemsky)
On the cheeks, fire pits were struck by love.
(G. Derzhavin)
Slavicisms, in addition to the purpose inherent in all archaisms to create the color of the past, are used as a means of creating a solemn style. In the poem "Prophet" A.C. Pushkin reflects on one of the most significant and important questions: what is the purpose of the poet? In this case, the use of high-style words, i.e. Slavicisms, is appropriate:
Arise, prophet, and see. and heed.
Fulfill my will
And, bypassing the seas and lands,
Burn people's hearts with the verb.
(“Arise” - “rise”, “see” - “see”, “listen” - “hear”, “verb” - “word.”)
Writers also use Slavicisms when depicting people who belong to the clergy or who have received a church education. So, in the speech of Makar Devushkin, one can find church-bookish phraseology: Let us give thanks to heaven.
Slavicisms can also be used for satirical purposes:
But brethren. from heaven during it, the Almighty would bow a welcoming gaze.
(A. Pushkin)
So - everything that is full is indignant,
The satiety of important wombs yearns:
After all, the trough is overturned,
Their rotten barn is alarmed!
Historisms are words that have left the language along with the objects and phenomena that they denoted (“scepter”, “oprichnik”, “collectivization”). Words become archaisms slowly, and they can become historicisms quickly, as a result of changes in the state structure, in the economy (NEP, clerk). The development of a language is such a living process that the words governor, department, gymnasium, lyceum, which were recently considered historicisms, again entered the active dictionary.
Archaisms and historicisms are used in works of art on historical themes. They contribute to a reliable depiction of the era, as, for example, in the novel by A. Tolstoy "Peter the Great", S. Borodin "Stars over Samarkand", V. Shishkov "Emelyan Pugachev". They were used by D. Kedrin in the poem "Architects":
And how the temple was consecrated,
That with a staff
In a nun's hat
The king bypassed him -
From the basement and services to the cross.
And, glancing over His patterned towers,
"Lepota!" - said the king.
And they all answered: "Blepota!"
In this passage there are historicisms, and archaisms, and Slavicisms.
Neologisms are newly formed words that arise as a result of the interaction of two processes: firstly, in connection with new phenomena in life (“Bolshevik”, “collective farm”) and, secondly, as a product of a writer’s or poet’s special linguistic instinct, giving famous new words and expressions unusual shapes and hence a new meaning. Specific gravity writer's neologisms in the language is small. With the emergence of something new in life, there is a need for its definition, naming. So, I.S. Turgenev in the novel "Fathers and Sons" introduced the word "nihilist" into active circulation. He also introduced the expression “an extra person” into literature (:> that type of hero appeared in his Diary of an Extra Man). In the 90s of the XX century. the words “glasnost” and “perestroika”, “new Russians” became neologisms, as they were filled with a completely new social meaning. Some author's neologisms then come into wide use and cease to be neologisms. So,
F.M. Dostoevsky was the first to use the word "obscure" ("disappeared imperceptibly", "confused", "shy"), which later entered the active dictionary. General language neologisms differ lexically e - these are newly formed words (drama writer in Chekhov, pompadour in Saltykov-Shchedrin, pre-song in Akhmatova, flower in Yesenin), isemantic - these are new meanings of previously known words (the term denouement meant an element of the plot, but later began to be used and meaning road junction).
There are also individual stylistic or occasional neologisms (lat. ossaBYupaIB - random) - those that are created by the authors as expressive means and are not designed to be fixed in general language use (below are examples of neologisms by K. Balmont, A. Bely, V. Mayakovsky , V. Khlebnikov).
A great contribution to the creation of neologisms was made by the poets of the Silver Age. They created new words and new forms of words:
Cry, storm element,
In pillars of thunderous fire!
(A. Bely)
On eyes weary of sight,
Lower the shading of the eyelashes.
(K. Balmont)
Now over the lake there is bad weather, darkness,
There is a frog green croak in the grass.
(V. Khodasevich)
Neologisms can emphasize the emotionality of the statement, as in M. Tsvetaeva: thunderous, sleepless, sad-eyed.
Was inventive in creating neologisms
V.V. Mayakovsky. Often he did not invent new words, but modified existing ones. Here is an excerpt from the poem "Naval love":
On the seas, playing, rushes With a destroyer, a destroyer.
Clings like a sedge to honey,
To the destroyer destroyer.
And the end would not be possible for him, Compassionate mine-bearer!
The “destroyer” invented by the poet becomes the most unusual and witty-sounding word in the poem. Constantly changing form and combining bright rhymes, the author often makes the word even more expressive, as in the poem "Beauties":
Stuck in a tuxedo. shave what you need.
I walk around the opera grand.
in the intermission - beauty on beauty.
Word creation was one of the main tasks of the futurists. A special language was created by Velimir Khlebnikov, who called himself not a futurist, but a “budetlyan”. He considered his own language (“starry”, “transrational”) to be a part of the “transrational world language”, stating: “The transrational language is the future world language in its infancy. Only he can connect people. Smart languages are already separating.” Khlebnikov's new formations most often did not violate the laws of the language. The poet sought to reveal the poetic potential hidden in the word (sun, sadness, wings in gold writing):
Where the waxwings lived.
Where they swayed quietly ate,
Where they quietly ate,
Where poyuny sang a cry,
Flew, flew A flock of light timers.
Khlebnikov's poetry stemmed from his conviction that "words were the likeness of the world." V. Markov wrote about him: “Khlebnikov wanted to reveal the word to the world, to calculate all its magic in order to master it in order to transform the environment into Ladomir”136. At the expense of words derived from the word “laughter”, Khlebnikov expanded the dictionary by 70 words: smekhachi, laughter, smeyalyu, issshtsya, osmey, smeshyki, smeyunchiki, etc. V. Mayakovsky believed that his teacher created “ periodic system words"137.
Khlebnikov's "word-creation" went back to the entire structure of the Russian language; "linguistic models of Afanasiev-Dal" were very important for him. In his statements there are calls for expanding the boundaries of poetic speech, for the right to create words, for the denial of foreign words. The word for him becomes "meaningful matter."
B. Livshits, a contemporary and participant in the Futurist movement, wrote that Khlebnikov’s “the whole Dal’ with his countless sayings emerged like a tiny island in the midst of the raging elements”138.
V. Khlebnikov wrote a number of articles in which he left his reflections on the language: “Teacher and student. About words, cities and peoples. Conversation”, “On the expansion of the limits of Russian literature”, “On the benefits of studying fairy tales”, “Our foundation”, “On modern poetry”, “On poetry”. Here are some provisions from his articles: “Word-creation is an explosion of linguistic silence, deaf-mute layers of language.
Replacing one sound in an old word with another, we immediately create a path from one length of the language to another and, like railway workers, lay the paths of communication in a line of words through the ridges of linguistic silence ”(“ Our Foundation ”). The abstruse language comes from two premises. 1.
The first consonant of a simple word controls the whole word - orders the rest. 2.
Words that begin with the same consonant are united by the same concept and, as it were, fly from different directions to the same point of the mind. “So, the word is a sound doll, the dictionary is a collection
toys. But the language naturally developed from a few basic units of the alphabet; consonants and vowels were the strings of this game of sound puppets. And if you take combinations of these sounds in a free order, for example, bobeobi or holes bul gts (s) l, or Mann! Munch! (or) chi breo zo! - then such words do not belong to any language, but at the same time they say something, something elusive, but still existing ”(“ Abstruse Language ”)139. In artistic speech, d and a - lectisms (G.L. Abramovich also calls them “provincialisms”) can be used - these are words and expressions used in any particular locality. M. Sholokhov in his works uses words such as “baz” - a courtyard, “maidan” - a square, “zhalmerka” - a soldier's wife to create local color. Dialectisms are uncommon phonetic, ethnographic, local inclusions in literary speech.
Writers, depicting the life of a certain area, use the language units of the folk dialect, which is common in the area (territorial dialects). In the Orel province, the last forests and squares will disappear in five years ... - I. Turgenev writes in the story "Khor and Kalinich", and then he makes a note: "Large continuous masses of forests are called squares in the Oryol province." Once Turgenev was the first to use the verb rustle in the story "Bezhin Meadow" (Reeds, as if moving apart, rustled, as we say) - this word was local, Oryol, but very soon it lost its local, dialectal character.
Dialectisms can be used in the author's speech and in the speech of characters. In the works of such writers as V. Belov, V. Rasputin, F. Abramov, dialectisms are introduced into the text in order to emphasize the close connection between the writers and their characters. From V. Rasputin: Of the whole class, only I wore teals (in Siberia, chirki are light leather shoes without tops, with edging and ties).
Very often, artistic language brings full-blooded words, including dialectisms, back to life. In V. Rasputin's story “Live and Remember,” Nastena takes slops, sits in a shitik and floats to the island to her husband. When retelling the text, dialect words of a specific meaning are usually replaced by literary variants of a general meaning: shitik for a boat, lopashni for oars. Meanwhile, using dialectisms, the writer reflected not so much the peculiarities of local speech as the typical features of village life, not words, but things: a boat sewn from boards and an oar with extensions at both ends. When words are replaced, both the melodious speech of the heroine of the story and the features of the life of the gray-haired man, in which the events of Rasputin's story took place, disappear.
Dialecticisms help to present the picture created by the writer. We read from V. Astafyev: A wet and sleepy owl staggered on a thaw tree, fluttered, but could not fly far away, flopped across the river into the moss. Visibly, in exactly one sentence, the slow motion of a heavy night bird, which "staggered on the talin", "fluttered" and "flopped".
In addition to territorial dialects, there are socio-professional dialects, which are adjoined by jargons or slang (fr. argot). Professional jargons are sometimes called professionalisms - this is the jargon of sailors, doctors, drivers. Social jargons include: army, thieves, student. Jargon is used by the writer to speech characteristics characters belonging to a certain social group (M. Bulgakov uses medical professionalism in Notes of a Young Doctor).
Jargon (fr. jargon) - the vocabulary of people united by a common interest, pastime. These groups do not seek to isolate themselves from other people, and the jargon of athletes, students, hunters, etc. is not a means of isolating from the “uninitiated”. One of the jargons, clearly defined in Russian society, was bureaucratic jargon. His expert was N.V. Gogol, who used it in the comedy "The Inspector General", and in the story "The Overcoat", and in the poem "Dead Souls". Here is an example from Gogol's poem: A governor-general was appointed to the province, an event, as you know, that puts all officials in an alarming state: there will be squabbles and scolding. churning and all sorts of official stews that the boss treats to his subordinates!
The modern jargon of an athlete is used by V. Vysotsky in a song about a skater who was forced to run a long distance, but he was not ready for the competition:
Will by will, if there is too much strength, and I got carried away,
I rushed ten thousand, like five hundred, and baked.
let me down, because I warned you, breath ...
Argo, unlike jargon, is the property of social groups striving for isolation. It is characterized by artificiality, conventionality, which ensures the secrecy of communication. Argo is typical of the underworld. Like any social dialect, slang differs from the common language only in a dictionary (common words are often used in a different meaning: chalit - immerse, hose - fool, lazy, knacker - surgical department in a hospital).
Literature at the end of the 20th century Prison vocabulary gushed in a powerful stream, because a large number of works appeared in which the action took place in prisons and camps (“Kolyma Tales” by V. Shalamov, “The Gulag Archipelago” by A. Solzhenitsyn, “Odlyan, or the Air of Freedom” by L. Gabyshev, etc. .). There were criminals among the characters, and “fenya” (the disguised language of thieves) became very common, although, despite the outward exoticism, the vocabulary of slang is not rich. Argo is used in fiction to depict the environment, to characterize characters, therefore, the linguistic fabric of A. Solzhenitsyn's story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" includes elements of thieves and camp slang: in the camp ... guards and contractors keep count of heads, Who remains in the zone , still so gear ... Hey, wicks! - and launched a palenkom at them ... (Here: guard - overseer, six-Sh - the one who serves another, the wick - a goner, a person who has become very weak).
The word "jargon" is a termite, # science, but sometimes it has another, non-terminological meaning: rough, vulgar speech.
There is another category of words that is used in literary works - obscene (non-valuable: 1u rnaya) vocabulary. It is found in the works of I. Myatl ("va, in the poem "The Shadow of Barkov" by Pushkin, in the XX century - in the romance" by V. Aksenov "Island of Crimea", in the poem by V. Erofeev "Moscow - Petushki", in the works of Yu. Aleshkovsky and others.
There are borrowed ones in the Russian language (‘lova. Their appearance is the result of a variety of
ties that arise between peoples, their culture, their literature: from Greek the words notebook, philosopher, sail, angel, etc. came into the Russian language, from Scandinavian - whip, herring, sneak, from Turkic - bazaar, beetroot, guard, chest, from Polish - clerk, harness, drawing. In the time of Peter the Great, there is an active assimilation of Europeanisms, for example, accountant, contract, camp (from German), luggage, barrier, team (from French), skipper, boat, shipyard (from Dutch), etc.
Barbarisms (from lat. barbarus - foreign) are foreign words that are not characteristic of the language in which the work of art is written, borrowed from another language. They find application in the speech of characters, being a means of their speech characteristics.
In the XVIII century. barbarism became widespread among the Russian nobility. A very peculiar speech developed, in which Russian words and barbarisms were mixed. The result was the so-called pasta speech (a combination of colloquial jargon with solemn vocabulary). Chatsky in "Woe from Wit" ironically over the "mixing of languages: French with Nizhny Novgorod." This language was wittily ridiculed by I.A. Krylov in the comedy "Podchipa", I. Novikov in his satirical works, as well as I. Myatlev in the poem "Sensations and remarks of Mrs. Kurdyukova abroad, given to l" etrange ":
I, however, Veniz *
I looked around, kua k "he dis **,
Along and across. By lunchtime I'll be in Mester now And I'll set off on a voyage *** Again To continue overland.
(* Veniz - Venice; "quoi qu" on dise - as they say; *** voyage - travel.)
In the text of the novel "Eugene Onegin" barbarisms are used by A. Pushkin (dandy, tete-a-tete, and in transliteration - spleen, bolivar, dandy), L. Tolstoy in "War and Peace" writes entire pages in French and German. In the lyrical digressions of his novel in 134 verses, A Pushkin talks about borrowed vocabulary: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest,
All these words are not in Russian;
And I see, I blame you,
Why, even so, my poor syllable could be much less colorful With foreign words ...
(ch. I, stanza XXVI)
In the XX century. poets also often used foreign vocabulary, including in an unchanged form - often in the titles of poems (M. Voloshin, B. Pasternak, O. Mandelstam, I. Brodsky). For example, V. Bryusov named one of his books of poems in Latin (Tertia Vigilia - “Third line”), A. Akhmatova called his collection “Anno Domini MSM XXI” (lat: In the summer of the Lord, 1921)1.
Macaronic poem (otit. poesia maccheronica, macceheroni - pasta) is a poetic work of a comic nature, full of barbarisms. Used in the creation of comic works. It is achieved by mixing words and forms from different languages.
Barbarism can serve as a means of satirical characterization of people who fawn before the West, or foreigners who claim to have a good knowledge of the language, but in fact do not speak it. For example, D. Bedny in the "Manifesto of Baron von Wrangel" ridiculed the claims of the German baron with the help of barbarism:
You know my surname to everyone:
Ich bin von Wrangel, Herr Baron.
I am the best, the sixth There is a candidate for the royal throne.
I. Brodsky in the poem "Two Hours in the Tank" oversaturates speech with barbarisms to create a comic effect:
I am an anti-fascist and an anti-faust.
Ihlib life and love chaos.
Their bin want, genosse officer. dem zeit zum Faust short spaciren.
’ KlingO.A. Dictionary of poetry // Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: Basic concepts and terms. M., 2000. S. 340-342.
Depending on the source of borrowing, Germanisms, Gallicisms, Polonisms, Turkisms, etc., are distinguished among barbarisms.
When describing negative characters, writers often include vulgarisms in their speech (from Lat. vulgaris - rude, simple) - rude words and expressions that are not accepted in literary speech. Vulgarism, for example, is replete with the speech of Arina Petrovna Golovleva in the novel by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlev". She calls her son "stupid" and "scoundrel", and her husband - "windmill". The rudeness of Sobakevich manifested itself in the way he characterizes people: "a swindler", "a fool", "the first grabber" ("Dead Souls" by N. Gogol). In the epic A.K. Tolstoy's "Treacle-hero" vulgarisms emphasize the true "culture" of the princess:
The princess appeared at the window.
Patoka attacked angrily:
“Charmer, blockhead, unlearned serf!
So that you are bent into a turium horn! Piglet, calf, pig, Ethiopian,
Damn son, unwashed snout!
If it wasn't for this girlish shame of mine,
What other word does not tell me to say,
I'll cheat you, impudent,
And I wouldn’t have scolded you like that!”
It is impossible not to recall Bulgakov's Sharikov - a creature who, with his aggressiveness, arrogance, bad manners, makes the life of Professor Preobrazhensky unbearable. The first phrase of this "new man": "Get off, nit!"
But poetry is
the craziest thing: there is -
and not in the tooth with a foot.
In literary works, vernacular can also be used.
Vernaculars are more widespread than dialectisms. Scholars define colloquialism as a casual and somewhat rough "lowered" variety of colloquial use of language. In literature, vernacular is used for the linguistic characterization of characters, and in the author's language - as a means of special expressiveness. For example, the illiteracy of the nanny Tatyana Larina Filipyevna is emphasized in her speech: Yes, a bad series has come! It hurt...
In N. Nekrasov’s poem “Katerina”, one can observe how stable song expressions (beauty fades, dashing husband, dear friend) are intertwined with idioms of colloquial speech (there is no life in the house; whatever; where it was, it’s not there). The dialogue vividly depicts images of a rude husband and a bold wife:
"Where have you been?" - asked the hubby.
“Where was, there is no! So, dear friend!
I went to see if the rye is high!
"Oh, you stupid woman! you're still lying..."
Vernaculars, or prosaisms, did not deprive the poem of a songlike character.
Vernacular can be found in the language of Shukshin's "freaks" (suffice it to recall Bronka Navel from the story "Mil pardon, madam!" Or Gleb Kapustin - the hero of the story "Cut off").
Let us give an example from the story of A. Solzhenitsyn “ Matrenin yard". When Matryona died, a person close to her did not say a single kind word, condemning her both during her lifetime and after death for the fact that she ... did not chase after the equipment; and not careful; and didn't even keep a pig...
M. Zoshchenko created a whole gallery of "little people" of the Soviet era, who claimed to be the masters of life, and their speech was consistent with their behavior. Just as Sholokhov's grandfather Shchukar demanded from the Soviet authorities a "portfolio", that is, a position, so the fitter Ivan Kuzmich Myakishev believed that he was the most important person in the theater: In a general group, when the whole theater<...>filmed on a card, this fitter was shoved somewhere on the side.<...>And in the center, on a chair with a back, they put a tenor.<...>Monter says: “Oh, so he says. Well, I refuse to play<...>play without me. Look then, which of us is more important and who to shoot from the side, and who to put in the center ”- and turned off the light in the pseudo-theatre ...“ The Fixer ”.
Vernacular can also be used for comic effect. For example, in burlesque, they present some sublime theme (deliberate discrepancy between the theme and its linguistic embodiment). So, the characters of the ancient comic epic "Batrachomyomachia" are mice and frogs, which bear the names of the heroes of Homer's "Iliad".
The use of dialectisms, jargon, vulgarism, and vernacular requires great tact and a sense of proportion from artists.
Language contains the possibility of artistic, aesthetically meaningful and directed use.
According to V.V. Vinogradov, through "... a thorough analysis of the very verbal fabric of a literary work" its aesthetic dignity is revealed, its true content, its idea is more fully revealed.
The theory and practice of oratory played a role in the development of ways to combine words, but since the main area of their application was the language of fiction, they began to be called means of artistic representation, which are based on special methods of using the word. They are diverse and are divided into verbal, sound and verbal-sound.
There is no complete clarity in the classification of verbal means of artistic representation. They are mainly divided into figures of speech (or stylistic figures) and tropes. For example, epithet, comparison, synecdoche, paraphrase in some literary works are referred to as paths, in others they are not. Everyone recognizes metaphor, metonymy, irony as tropes. There is no unanimity regarding personification, symbol, allegory. V.M. Zhirmunsky raised the metaphor to the symbol. He, like a number of other theorists, considered the epithet as a kind of metaphor, since the line between them can only be drawn conditionally140. A.N. Veselovsky divided epithets into tautological (white light) and explanatory (cold wind), distinguishing in the latter epithet-metaphor (black melancholy) and syncretic epithet (clear falcon)1.
Disputes about tropes have been going on for a long time, since the doctrine of them has developed in ancient poetics and rhetoric. Even Aristotle divided words into common and rare, including "portable".
The grouping of means of artistic depiction and expressiveness proposed below is, to a certain extent, conditional.
The verbal means of artistic representation will include epithet, comparison, allegory, paraphrase (a).
To the paths - metaphor, metonymy, irony, hyperbole, personification, synecdoche, litote.
Kfiguram - a rhetorical figure, a stylistic figure, a figure of speech.
VERBAL ARTISTIC MEANS
Epitet (from the Greek ep1She1: op - application, addition) - an artistic, figurative definition, a metaphorical description of a person, object, phenomenon; a word that defines an object or phenomenon, emphasizing any of its properties, qualities, signs. The epithet enriches the subject in a semantic and emotional sense.
Unlike the usual logical definition, which distinguishes this object FROM MANY, "the epithet does not contain a separating meaning. In the expression" blue sky "the word" blue "is a logical definition, since it denotes a color. And, in Yesenin's lines, May is my blue , june blue The word "blue" is an epithet, as it emphasizes the color of nature awakening in spring.
Among the masters of the word, a well-chosen epithet creates a whole picture. So, the line of S. Yesenin Repulsed the golden grove with a cheerful birch tongue conjures up a picture of a golden autumn grove, which is beautiful in its red dress, and there is a feeling of sadness associated with the withering of nature, inevitable with the onset of winter.
The epithet is always subjective. E. Baratynsky foresaw the onset of the age of destruction in the poem "The Last Poet": The Age walks along its iron path. In A. Pushkin, a heavy-voiced gallop is heard by Eugene distraught with fear in The Bronze Horseman. V. Mayakovsky strove to update the "workshop of the word" and created vivid epithets: I go through the revolver bark ("Left March"), textbook gloss ("Jubilee").
In folklore, epithets were a means of typification (black clouds, a pillared path, etc.). It is characterized by constant epithets (beautiful girl, good fellow, violent little head).
Epithets have an emotional impact:
The music in the garden rang with such unspeakable grief.
(A. Akhmatova)
V. Bryusov in the poem “To the portrait of M.Yu. Lermontov" emphasized the tragic bifurcation of the poet with the help of metaphorical epithets:
And we, the poet, did not guess you,
Did not understand infantile sadness In your seemingly forged verses.
The epithet can be simple, expressed in one word (dead night), and complex, which includes a whole phrase:
Friend of my hard days.
My dove is decrepit.
Alone in the wilderness of pine forests For a long, long time you've been waiting for me.
In this stanza from a poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Nanny" the first two verses are a complex epithet for the pronoun "you".
A crimson day has fallen. Above the dim water of the Zarnitsa, the blue ones tremble with a quick shiver. The dry steppe rustles with dry past and rye, All is covered with herbs, all breathes stuffy haze...
(M. Voloshin)
and lyrical, which expresses the attitude of the writer (poet) to the depicted.
N. Aseev has a lyrical hero -
Festive, cheerful demoniac,
With Martian thirst to create...
S. Yesenin writes with love about his mother: Dear, kind, old, tender ...
Sometimes both lyrical and figurative elements are combined in the same epithets.
Epithets can be different parts of speech. Adjectives:
The nights are prison and deaf. Dreams are cobweb and thin (I. Annensky); Gray air trembles in the glass haze, The moisture of the ocean is mirror-like (M. Voloshin). Nouns
And so public opinion -
Spring of honor, our idol.
And that's where the world revolves.
(A. Pushkin)
The green wave recoiled and timidly Rushed off into the distance, all purple grief ...
Over the sea spread wide and lazily Singing dawn.
(M. Voloshin)
Participles:
I love the storm in early May,
When the first spring thunder
As if frolicking and playing.
Rumbles in the blue sky.
(F. Tyutchev)
Participles:
What if I'm spellbound.
Consciousness tore off the thread,
I will return home humiliated,
Can you forgive me?
The participle in the first line acts as an epithet, but in the second line the participle "tore off" logically explains the previous one, and in the third it is the predicate of the conditional clause. Ditvratzra theory
Comparison (lat. Comparison) is a pictorial technique in which one phenomenon or concept is clarified by comparing it with another phenomenon. When meaning is transferred from one phenomenon to another, the phenomena themselves do not form a new concept, but are preserved as independent ones; a technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept (an object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (a means of comparison) in order to highlight some feature of the object of comparison that is especially important in an artistic sense.
Comparison is resorted to in the literature when the selection of essential features in the depicted can be carried out by comparing it with something familiar and similar:
And he walked, swaying like a shuttle in the sea,
Camel after camel.
(M. Lermontov)
Camels are marching along the dunes, now descending, now rising, and to the poet this resembles the movement of a boat on the waves of the sea.
Syntactically, comparison is expressed using comparative conjunctions as, as if, as if, exactly, similar, exactly, as if, that:
Like a bronze brazier,
Sleepy garden sprinkles with beetles.
(B. Pasternak)
Someone's hands have strained,
Just bows.
(M. Voloshin)
Like wet crushed plums Horses have slanted eyes...
(N. Aseev)
The street was like a storm. Crowds passed, As if they were pursued by the inevitable Doom.
(V. Bryusov)
She, like a Demon, is insidious and evil.
(M. Lermontov)
To sing about Russia - what to forget longing,
What is love to love, what is immortal to be!
(I. Severyanin)
Union-free comparisons are possible: Do I have a good fellow curls - pure linen (N. Nekrasov); Both the song and the verse are a bomb and a banner (V. Mayakovsky). Here the conjunctions are omitted.
Comparison can also be expressed in the form of instrumental case: The word has subsided like a crumb in the hands (A. Bezymensky); I would gnaw out bureaucracy like a wolf (V. Mayakovsky); Youth has flown by like a nightingale (A. Koltsov); The sunset lay like a crimson fire (A. Akhmatova).
The convergence of different objects helps to reveal in the object of comparison, in addition to the main feature, also a number of additional ones, which enriches the artistic impression.
Comparisons can act as a means of conveying the psychological state of the hero:
You didn't love me.
You did not know that in the host of people I was like a horse driven in soap. Spurred by a brave rider.
(S. Yesenin)
The idea of an insanely tired horse, which the rider continues to spur on, conveys the state of the poet, who, being a “pure lyricist”, was forced to live “in the years of tragedies and odes” (M. Slonim).
In their form, comparisons are direct and negative. Direct comparisons were given above, because the comparisons of objects (phenomena) are given in a direct, affirmative form.
In negative comparisons, externally, the phenomena are separate, but internally close:
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains:
Frost-voivode on patrol Bypasses his possessions.
(N. Nekrasov)
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is at the same time a way of comparing and a way of transferring meanings.
“Negative parallelism denies the identity of two phenomena of life - nature and man, in the presence of their similarity,” notes G.N. Pospelov141. In a detailed comparison, their similarity is established in the absence of identity. A.N. Veselovsky spoke about such a sequence of development of the types of verbal-objective depiction: “... a person: a tree; not a tree, but a person; man is like a tree... Comparison is already a prosaic act of consciousness that has dismembered nature”142.
The comparison can run through the entire work. So, in Lermontov's poem "The Poet", the story of the poet is compared with the story of a dagger, which turned from a formidable weapon into an ornament hanging on a carpet, and the poet "lost his purpose", and his voice ceased to sound, "like a bell on a veche tower."
Allegory (Greek allegoria - allegory) - the image of an abstract concept through a specific image, when one phenomenon is depicted and characterized through another; a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought; type of figurativeness, the basis of which is allegory.
There are two plans in the allegory: figurative-objective and semantic, which is primary, since the image fixes an already given thought.
The allegorical image, in contrast to the "self-sufficient" artistic image, in which both planes are inseparable, requires a special commentary. The subject plan of the allegory must be explained.
Traditionally, allegory is used in fable, satire, grotesque, utopia and approaches the parable genre. In some cases, the allegory serves as a means of creating an image or the entire system of images of a work.
In "The Captain's Daughter" A.S. Pushkin in the chapter "Buran" young Grinev listens to the conversation of the owner of the inn with the counselor, the meaning of which he understood much later: Yes, these are ours! - answered the owner, continuing the allegorical conversation. - They began to call for evening, but the priest does not order: the priest is visiting, the devil is in the churchyard. - Be quiet, uncle, my tramp objected, - it will rain, there will be fungi, there will be a body. And now (here he blinked again) plug the ax behind your back: the forester walks.
An allegory, in contrast to a symbol, in which the phenomenon of life is perceived in its direct meaning, is a deliberate means of allegory, in which the image (of an object, phenomenon) reveals a figurative (official) meaning. So, in the plots of fables, the fox was immediately perceived as an allegorical image of a cunning person, for example, in the fable of I.A. Krylov "The Crow and the Fox".
M. Gorky in "The Song of the Petrel" used the symbolic image of a bird that portends a storm, and next to it allegorical images of those who are afraid of the storm appear: "stupid penguin", moaning gulls and loons.
An allegory may cover the entire work as a whole; the creatures, phenomena, objects depicted in an allegorical work always mean other persons, facts, things, as, for example, in Pushkin's poem "Arion", in Calderon's drama "Life is a dream", in the fairy tales of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, in the philosophical tale of Vs. Garshin "AI: a1ea rpp-serB" and in the story "Red Flower", in the "Song of the Falcon" by M. Gorky, in the novels by A. France ("Penguin Island") and K. Chapek ("War with Salamanders").
He actively used the allegory of A. Platonov: “normalized” life and work of “normalized” workers evoke in him associations with animal life. The collectivist content of the new life further strengthens the Platonic sense of the “herd-like nature” of human existence. His allegorical generalizations take on a conceptual character, passing judgment on the system as a whole: ... the horses passed the street in a solid mass and descended into a ravine that contained water ...
Then they climbed out onto dry land and set off back, without losing formation and cohesion among themselves ... In the yard, the horses opened their mouths, the food fell out of them into one middle pile, and then the socialized cattle stood around and slowly began to awn, resigned in an organized way without human care143 . Dietratdra theory
With m o l in art (from the Greek 8usho1op - a sign, an identifying sign) - “a universal aesthetic category that reveals itself through comparison with adjacent categories - an artistic image, on the one hand, a sign and allegory, on the other. Every symbol is an image (and every image is, at least to some extent, a symbol); but the category of the symbol points to the image going beyond its own limits, to the presence of a certain meaning, inseparably merged with the image, but not identical to it.<...>Passing into a symbol, the image becomes "transparent"; "meaning 'shines through' through it..."1. If the images add up. then they become symbols, they rise to a symbol. rise. The meaning of the symbol is not given, but given.
A symbol, like a metaphor and an allegory, forms figurative meanings based on the connection between the object or phenomenon that is denoted by some word in the language and another object or phenomenon to which the same verbal designation is transferred.
The symbol differs sharply from metaphor and allegory, because it is endowed with a huge variety of meanings. So, "spring" can reflect the beginning of life, the season, the onset of "new life", the awakening of love.
The symbol differs from the allegory in that the meaning of the symbol cannot be simply deciphered, it is inseparable from the structure of the image, and in that it is deeply emotional:
I am your love caress Ozaren and I see dreams.
But, believe me, I consider it a fairy tale Unprecedented sign of spring.
A symbol is different from a metaphor. A metaphor is usually referred to a specific subject, and this keeps it within the range of meanings directly or indirectly related to reality. The symbol, on the contrary, easily overcomes "earth gravity". He seeks to designate the eternal and elusive. The metaphor deepens the understanding of reality, the symbol leads beyond it.
In an essay about Gogol, V. Nabokov writes about the way the image is transformed into a symbol: “A hatbox that
The mayor puts it on his head when, dressed in a luxurious uniform, absent-mindedly hurries towards a formidable ghost, it is a purely Gogol symbol of a deceitful world.
From the foregoing, we can conclude that the image is psychological, the metaphor is semantic, the symbolism is imperative, the sign is communicative144.
Since personification is a special kind of metaphor, it can act as a symbol directly related to the central artistic idea, growing out of a system of particular personifications. “So, the poetic prose of A.P. Chekhov's "Steppe" is permeated with personifications-metaphors: the handsome poplar is burdened by its loneliness, the half-dead grass sings a mournful song, etc. From their totality, the supreme personification arises: the "face" of the steppe, conscious of the vain death of its wealth, heroism and inspiration, is a multi-valued symbol associated with the artist's thoughts about the homeland, the meaning of life, the passage of time. A personification of this kind is often close to a mythological personification in its general significance, "objectivity", relative incoherence with the psychological state of the narrator, but nevertheless does not cross the line of conventionality that always separates art from mythology.
Symbols have a long history, going back to rituals and myths. They come to the text from the language of centuries-old cultures, and at different times artists include them in their works, where the symbols acquire new meanings.
Dante used different meanings of the word "sun" in The Divine Comedy. He created his symbolism. He has the sun - a symbol of cosmic balance (love that moves the "Sun and other luminaries").
German romantics in their views relied on I.-V. Goethe, who understood all forms of natural and human creativity as meaningful and speaking. Goethe connected “the elusiveness and inseparability of the symbol not with mystical otherworldliness, but with the invariable organicity of the beginnings expressed through the symbol.”
The symbol returned to the aesthetic sphere at the end of the 19th century. thanks to the theory of symbolism. Knowledge of the artist's belonging to symbolism "forces" the reader to perceive "the sun", "stars", "blizzard" not as attributes of the landscape, but as words-symbols.
K. Balmont wrote "Sonnets of the Sun". And he called one of his collections “We will be like the sun”, in which there are such lines:
I came into this world to see the Sun And the blue outlook.
I came to this world to see the Sun And the heights of the mountains.
Each element of an artistic system can be a symbol - a metaphor, a comparison, a landscape, an artistic detail, a title, and even a literary hero. Biblical characters such as Cain and Judas have become a symbol of betrayal, literary heroes Don Juan and Don Quixote, Mozart and Salieri also carry a symbolic designation of human vices or virtues.
The names of the play by A.N. Ostrovsky's "Thunderstorm" (a thunderstorm has become a symbol of despair and purification) and L. Andreev's story "Red Laughter", which embodied the madness of war. The image of the "black sky" and the "dazzlingly shining black disk of the sun" in Sholokhov's epic "Quiet Don" symbolize the despair of a man who has lost hope for happiness.
There is a lot of romantic symbolism in detail in N. Gotthorne's novel "The Scarlet Letter": on the first page of the novel, a city prison in Boston is described, at the threshold of which a rose bush grows (the prison is a symbol of violence, "the black color of civilization"; a rose bush that "grew here from time immemorial, "- a poetic symbol, a reminder of beauty and vitality that cannot be sharpened in the camera). And on the last page of the novel there is an expressive detail-symbol: the book ends with an inscription on Esther's tombstone - "A scarlet letter "A" shines on a black field".
W. Faulkner is distinguished by the ability to create details, both realistic and symbolic. The second part of the novel "The Sound and the Fury", built on Quentin's internal monologue, is dedicated to the last day of his life before his planned suicide. And a decisive role in understanding the state of mind of the hero, who has entered into discord with time, is played by the image of the clock as a symbol of time, which he is trying to stop. Quentin tries to break the clock, but it keeps running without the hands, bringing him closer to death.
Paraphrase (a) (from the Greek. raprgas18 - roundabout, descriptive expression, allegory) - a stylistic device consisting in replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive expression indicating any essential in this case, artistically important properties, qualities, signs person, object, phenomenon.
In periphrase, the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its features, as a rule, the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. For example: saying "the feathered singer of spring days", G. Derzhavin means the nightingale. “Think about it, earthly tribe,” M. Lermontov calls people.
G.P. Abramovich calls a paraphrase “replacing one’s own name or title with a descriptive expression”, citing as examples Pushkin’s (Peter I - “the hero of Poltava”, Byron - “the singer of Giaur and Juan”) and Lermontov’s (Pushkin - “slave of honor”) paraphrases1. A. Akhmatova calls the Demon "Tamara's immortal lover", recalling Lermontov's poem.
A special case of periphrase is a euphemism (from the Greek. eurieppztos, from her - good, pet1 - I say) - a word OR an expression used instead of obscene or intimate. Daria Platonovna in Leskov’s book will never blurt out about a pregnant woman, like others, that she is, they say, pregnant, but will say: “she is in her marital interest.”
In A. Tvardovsky's poem "Vasily Terkin" the hero expressed his contempt for the flying projectiles of the enemy in such a way that the poet could tell about this only resorting to euphemism: -
He himself stands next to the funnel And in front of the lads,
Turning to that projectile,
Fulfilled a small need.
In everyday speech, when talking about the phenomena of physiology, euphemisms are also used. But if there is a fear of using a rude or harsh word, then speech can become mannered. A.C. Pushkin ridiculed this in an epigram on M. Kachenovsky "Crudely offended by magazines":
Other abuse, of course, indecency.
It is impossible to write: such and such an old man.
A goat with glasses, a shabby slanderer.
And angry and vile: all this will be a person,
But you can print, for example,
That Mr. Parnassian Old Believer.
In his articles, he is a senseless speaker.
Superbly sluggish, superbly boring.
Heavy and even dull;
There is no face here, but only a writer.
The second part uses euphemisms, although, in fact, it speaks about the journalist as harshly as the first.
In book literature, euphemisms are used for ethical, aesthetic and individual psychological reasons.
Allegories, paraphrases, euphemisms are widely used in the Aesopian language.
Of great importance in artistic, especially poetic speech, is semantic verbal figurativeness and expressiveness, which consists in the fact that the writer uses words in a figurative sense. It is no coincidence that A.A. Potebnya believed that "... poetry is always an allegory." He distinguished allegoricalness "in the broad sense of the word", where he included the problem of the poetic image, and in the "close sense" - as transference (metaphorical)"146.
Trope (from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - “the use of a word in its figurative (not direct) meaning to characterize a phenomenon with the help of secondary semantic shades inherent in this word and not directly related to its main meaning.<...>
A trope is, in principle, a two-part phrase in which one part appears in the direct, and the other in a figurative sense.<...>When transferred, the word loses its primary meaning, one of the secondary ones comes to the fore.
Here are two lines of Tyutchev's poem "There is in the autumn of the original ...":
Only cobwebs of thin hair Shines on an idle furrow ...
In the first line, the cobweb is compared with a thin hair, in the second, the epithet “an idle furrow” allows you to create a whole picture of the completion of a village harvest. L.N. Tolstoy remarked about these lines: “Here the word “idle” seems to be meaningless, and it is impossible to say so in poetry, but meanwhile this word immediately says that the work is over, everything has been removed, and a complete impression is obtained. The ability to find such images is the art of writing poetry...”148.
The correlation of the direct and figurative meanings of words is based on the similarity of comparative phenomena, or on their contrast, on their contiguity - hence various types of tropes arise (metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, etc.).
A. Bely wrote "Sentimental Romance", in which he recalls a departed friend. Using personification, the poet creates a poetic picture of a singing piano and a night that shares sadness for a friend with a lyrical hero:
piano open,
Sings and cries of keys;
The night heralded Copper bells.
And - extinguishes the stars with pale gilding;
And - breathes in the hall Velvet darkness.
The trope is a general phenomenon of the language, which expands the boundaries of the use of the word, because it uses many secondary shades inherent in it. Speaking of trees or plants, we say, using a logical definition denoting color, that they have "green leaves", and in the line "Among the green silence of the surging summer ..." the word "green" is given in a figurative sense, due to which in a picture arises in the imagination: a person is in a forest (in a garden, in a park), where there is a lot of greenery, where it is very quiet and it seems that the silence is also colored green.
The writer (poet) resorts to paths not for "decoration". Paths help to create an image; with their help, you can highlight the essential side in the depicted. The use of the trail must be strictly justified. Tropes enhance the emotional coloring of speech, deepen ideas about objects and phenomena. Tropes act as one of the expressive aspects of the author's speech and as a means of individualizing the speech of characters in a literary work. Romantics are especially fond of them. Let us recall how V.A. Zhukovsky:
When dark clouds gather
To take away the clear sky from you -
You fight, you howl, you raise waves, You tear and torment the hostile darkness...
And the darkness disappears, and the clouds go away,
But, full of past anxiety,
You raise frightened waves for a long time ...
Using epithets and personifications, the poet writes about the sea as a living, suffering creature.
And in the “Song of the Falcon” by M. Gorky, when describing the sea, soft and silvery, the wind gently stroked the satin chest of the sea, greenish waves.
The analysis of the trope is fruitful only if it is considered not only in a formal, but also in a meaningful way. A.A. Potebnya remarked: “For poetic thinking in the narrow sense of the word trope there is always a leap from image to meaning”149. And in its allegorical meaning, the meaning of words retains nominativeness, although it becomes more complex. Tropes are characteristic not only for poetry, but also for prose. N. Gogol wrote: “A novel, despite the fact that it is in prose, can be a poetic creation”150 and called “Dead Souls” a poem. His follower was A. Bely, whose stylistic dominant in his works was allegory.
The doctrine of tropes developed in poetics and rhetoric. Aristotle called words with a figurative meaning "metaphors". Much later, in the science of literature, each type of trope received its own name.
Let's take a look at the different types of trails.
Metaphor (Greek she1arboga - transfer) - transfer by similarity - a type of trope in which individual words or expressions come together in terms of the similarity of their meanings in the language. Metaphor is not only a means of lexical expressiveness, but also a way of constructing an image. Aristotle's Poetics says: “The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be adopted from another; this is a sign of talent, because to make good metaphors means to notice the similarities.
One must be able to see the second plane of the metaphor, the hidden comparison that it contains. Metaphor makes thought and imagination work:
With a clear smile, nature greets the morning of the year through a dream.
In Pushkin, everything is clear and transparent: the morning of the year is spring.
The elements of figurativeness preceding the metaphor are comparisons, epithet, parallelism. For example, if there are such expressions as “iron verse”, “gray-haired morning”, then they are called metaphorical epithets.
Unusual and witty are the metaphors of V. Mayakovsky:
Here is the evening Into the horror of the night Gone from the windows,
December.
Candelabra laugh and neigh in the decrepit back.
The use of neologism (December) creates a unique effect.
Showcases and windows puts out the city, city
tired and drooping
And only the clouds gut the carcasses of the bloody sunset-butcher.
In all these metaphors there is an element of personification: the evening is gone, the windows are extinguished by the city, the bloody sunset-butcher is gutting the carcasses - nature, the city are becoming human. On the basis of metaphorical word usage, personification images are created in which human properties and abilities are transferred to natural phenomena, inanimate objects and animals.
For Mayakovsky, a metaphor is a kind of micromodel, and it is an expression of an individual vision of the world, therefore R. Jacobson, in line with the general polemic between the futurists and the acmeists, called Mayakovsky a poet of metaphors: “In Mayakovsky’s poems, the metaphor, sharpening the symbolist tradition, becomes the main feature”152.
In contrast to the common “everyday” metaphor (“the day has passed”, “the snow is lying”, “the water is running”), the individual metaphor contains a high degree of artistic information.
Metaphor, like comparison, transfers the properties of one object or phenomenon to another, but unlike comparison, where both components are present, only one is present in metaphor. The second is, as it were, hidden, it is only implied: in Blok's metaphor of "life is a disastrous stream," the sign is immediately given in the new parallel unity of the artistic image.
Metaphor is the most capacious trope. It is able to highlight an object or phenomenon from a completely new, unusual side, to make the text uniquely poetic. Metaphor is one of the main properties of artistic, verbal figurative thinking. In metaphors, the ability of the artistic word to discover new correlations of semantic, real concepts is manifested. Metaphor is not a simple comparison, but a comparison brought to such a degree of closeness of the compared objects that they seem to completely merge with each other in the author's imagination. For example, A.S. Pushkin in the "Prophet":
We are spiritually thirsty.
In the gloomy desert I dragged myself
And the six-winged seraph appeared to me at the crossroads.
We are tormented by spiritual thirst - a metaphor that conceals the idea of a desire to know the truth, as strong as the desire to quench thirst. It is impossible to expand it into an ordinary comparison, since it will lose its ambiguity.
Let's look at another example:
A bee from a wax cell Flies for tribute in the field.
(A. Pushkin)
In the first line, the hidden comparison of honeycombs with cells - small rooms in which monks live in monasteries - creates a unique image. In the second - a bee, collecting nectar, as if receiving tribute from each flower, as at the same time they took tribute from the defeated conquerors.
Metaphors are simple and expanded. Expanded are those metaphors in which the metaphorical image covers several phrases or periods (for example, the image of the “three bird” in Gogol’s “Dead Souls”), or even extends to the entire work, most often lyrical. Here is an example of an extended metaphor on which A.C.'s poem is built. Pushkin:
cart of life
Though it is sometimes heavy in her burden,
The cart on the go is easy;
Dashing coachman, gray time,
Lucky, will not get off the irradiation.
In the morning we sit in the cart;
We are glad to break the head And, despising laziness and bliss,
We shout: go! ..
But at noon there is no such courage;
shook us; we are more afraid of slopes and ravines;
We shout: take it easy, fools!
The cart is still rolling;
In the evening we got used to it
And time drives horses.
This poem is a broad metaphorical image. Pushkin's metaphor is so similar to the image familiar to that time - the "cart", that the line between them is lost. Its title is a metaphor; the poet depicts three periods of a person's life (youth, maturity, old age), creating a subtle psychological sketch.
Historically, metaphor arose in the era of the collapse of mythological consciousness, and its emergence was the beginning of the process of abstracting specific ideas, the birth of an artistic image.
In the literature of the XX century. there is a kind of metaphorization of the world. O. Mandelstam noted that metaphor to some extent began to outgrow the functions of the trope: “... only through metaphor is matter revealed, for there is no being outside of comparison, for being itself is a comparison”1.
The metaphor is also used in prose. Metaphorically expressive and plastic was the word of Yu. Olesha, whose world was filled with colors, colors, images. In the novel "Envy" in the poetic Nikolai Kavalerov - the author's alter ego - at the sight of young Valya, a magnificent metaphor was born: You rustled past me like a branch full of flowers and leaves.
The language of A. Platonov is metaphorical. For words that have lost their direct, objective meaning in stable speech formulas, he returns the original meaning. An example of the transformation of a figurative meaning into a direct one is Nastya's phrases. A sick girl asks Chiklin: Try, what a terrible fever I have under my skin. Take off my shirt, otherwise it will burn ... The “heat” caused by the high temperature turns into a real fire - the phrase is completed taking into account the new meaning of the word, and fear is born that the girl really “burns out” in the terrifying nonsense and cruelty of life , which surrounds it ("Pit").
As Ortega y Gasset remarked, "metaphor lengthens the arm of the mind."
Metonymy (French p^epupie - renaming) is a type of trail: the designation of an object or phenomenon according to one of its features, when the direct meaning is combined with a figurative one.
"All mine" - said the gold;
"All mine" - said damask steel,
“I will buy everything,” said the gold;
“I’ll take everything,” said the damask steel.
(A. Pushkin)
Here: gold is the metonymy of wealth, damask steel is military strength.
Metonymy deals only with those connections and combinations that exist in life itself. In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is cognized with the help of other words and concepts. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings. In Pushkin's "Poltava" the whole field gasped, that is, all the soldiers, participants in the battle, gasped. This technique enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech.
Metonymy is often found in everyday speech. Sometimes the name of the content is replaced by the name of the containing: I ate three plates - fights off Fock's neighbor Demyan in Krylov's fable, who treated him with fish soup.
Other actions may be designated by the names of the means (tools, organs) by which they are carried out:
You led swords to a bountiful feast,
Everything fell with a noise before you ...
(A. Pushkin)
Here: swords are warriors.
There are metonymic turns in which a goth or another object or phenomenon is designated by the name of its creator: Nekrasov dreamed of a time when the people "will carry Belinsky and Gogol from the market." There are metonymies in which objects are designated by the name of the substance from which they are made: Not on silver - on gold edal (A. Griboyedov).
A. Platonov, who wrote “not in the language of thought”, but in the “language of feelings”, reflecting contemporary reality, introducing elements of hyperbolization and metaphor into it, actively uses metonymic transfer, especially when describing collectivist consciousness in scenes when everyone dies in the same way and at the same time : What a horse spoils, bureaucrat! - thought the collective farm; Going outside, the collective farm sat down by the wattle fence and began to sit, looking around the whole village; And where to? asked the collective farm.
He also used metonymic personification, thereby giving the Soviet administrative and political instances the character of a consciously acting official force. Even abstract concepts can act as actors in him: ...however, this hammer fighter was not listed as a member of the collective farm, but was considered a person, and the trade union line, receiving reports about this official farmhand, alone in the entire region, was deeply worried.
The reception of metonymy allows A. Platonov to show the ugly face of power: ... This regional trade union bureau wanted to show your first exemplary artel ...; The administration says that he stood and thought in the middle of production, - they said in the factory committee.
By means of metonymy, the official attitude of the representatives of power towards the working people is conveyed: Chiklin looked after the bygone barefoot collectivization, not knowing what to assume further; ...a beer hall for otkhodniks and low-paid categories...1
We have identified the types of qualitative metonymy, but there is a quantitative metonymy called synecdoche.
Synecdoche (from the Greek. ztex1os11e) - one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them.
Phenomena brought into connection by means of metonymy and forming a “subject pair” correlate with each other as a whole and a part:
Part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole: Willows, blue uniforms ... (M. Lermontov), that is, gendarmes; All flags will visit us (A. Pushkin), i.e. ships from different countries. In Lomonosov: Wisdom there builds a temple / Ignorance pales before it.
Singular in the meaning of the general: Wherever the Russian peasant moaned (N. Nekrasov) - the Russian people are meant.
Replacing a number with a multitude: Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness (A. Blok).
Replacing a specific concept with a generic one (and vice versa):
Sit down, light!
(V. Mayakovsky)
A kind of synecdoche is the use of proper names in a common sense: We all look at Napoleons (A. Pushkin). M.V. Lomonosov was sure That the Russian land could give birth to its own Platons / and quick-witted Newtons /.
The artistic features of metonymy are inextricably linked with the nature of the literary style and creative style of the author.
Possession of metonymic turns makes speech more concise, economical and highlights the most important thing in the depicted object (phenomenon).
Personification, or prosopopeia (Greek rgo- "orop - face and peo - I do) - a special kind of metaphor: the transfer of human "features (more broadly - the features of a living being) to inanimate objects and phenomena. Personification as an allegory is one of the most common artistic tropes.
In folk poetry and individual lyrics (for example, by S. Yesenin), the life of the surrounding world, mainly nature, involved in the spiritual life of a character, or a lyrical hero, is endowed with signs of human likeness: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel: the Terek howls, wild and vicious
Between the rocky masses...
(M. Lermontov)
The clouds swirl, melting in scarlet brilliance.
They want to soak up the fields in the dew ...
A golden cloud spent the night On the chest of a giant cliff,
She left early in the morning,
Playing merrily across the azure...
(M. Lermontov)
Lermontov's words spent the night - breasts - sped away - a wrinkle - lonely - thought - crying emphasize that we are not just describing nature, but a metaphor-personification, which contains reflection on youth and old age, on the loneliness of a person.
The personification of nature was inherent in the still undeveloped human consciousness and was reflected in the monuments of ancient creativity, then it became one of the poetic means; the scope of its application expanded, it began to include not only natural phenomena, but objects and concepts.
Item personification:
The hut-old woman chews the odorous crumb of silence with the jaw of the threshold.
(S. Yesenin)
Action impersonation:
I whistle - and to me obediently, timidly Creep bloody villainy.
(A. Pushkin)
And again, on the leaves without breathing, clusters fell in a vague succession.
nameless memory,
Do not fall asleep, open up to me, stay.
(V. Nabokov)
The personification of the results of human activity:
Two frenzied propellers, two tremors of the earth,
Two menacing roars, two rages, two storms, Merging the blades with the glare of azure,
They pulled me forward. Thundered and pulled.
(N. Zabolotsky)
Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) is an artistic technique based on the exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon. “Unlike metaphor, metonymy and irony, which are renaming on a qualitative basis, hyperbole consists in the transfer of meaning on a quantitative basis. More precisely, hyperbole consists in a quantitative strengthening of the attributes of an object, phenomenon, action, which / for the sake of simplicity is sometimes called “artistic exaggeration” ”153.
Using hyperbole, the author can enhance the impression of the merits or demerits of his characters. Gargantuau Rabelais is emphatically hyperbolic; critics noted a certain hyperbolic character of Bazarov's image, in which the shortcomings were extremely exaggerated: a complete rejection of art, etc. Hyperbole is an important way of describing the characters' characters.
In lyric poetry, hyperbole is a powerful way of connecting thought and emotion. V. Mayakovsky called this alloy "feeling thought". He often resorted to hyperbole (the poems “I”, “Napoleon”, “An extraordinary adventure that happened with Vladimir Mayakovsky in the summer at the dacha” on the day when the sunset burned at one hundred and forty suns, the poem “150 OOO OOO”).
Sometimes plot hyperbole can turn into a grotesque - a bold deviation from life's plausibility. We often find examples of this in M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, in particular, in “The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals”, and then he himself wove a rope with which he was tied to a tree so that he would not run away.
In V. Mayakovsky, we meet with plot hyperbole in the poem “The Sitting Ones”, in which hyperbole helps the poet to peer closely into modern life and show its phantasmgorical nature:
furious,
to the meeting
burst into an avalanche
spewing wild curses dear,
And I see: Half of the people are sitting.
Oh devilry!
Where is the other half?
“Slaughtered!
I'm rushing, yell.
From the terrible picture, the mind went crazy:
“She is in two meetings at once.
we need to be in time for twenty meetings.
Inevitably, you have to split up.
Up to the waist here, and the rest there.
Spontaneous exaggeration of the phenomena of life was encountered even in oral art. An essential side of the primitive worldview and creativity was hyperbolization. In the Renaissance, hyperbole turned into a means of expressing artistic content, and among romantics, hyperbolism becomes a device for depiction.
Litota (from the Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope, the reverse of hyperbole (a more accurate name is meiosis) - an artistic understatement, for example: a boy with a finger, a hut on chicken legs, Thumbelina, a little man with a marigold. This trope is close to emphasis and irony.
The figurative meaning in litotes, as well as in hyperbole, consists, “unlike other tropes, not in the fact that what is said should be understood as some other phenomena, but in the fact that a huge exaggeration and underestimation of the size of the depicted does not correspond to reality. is literal."
Hyperbole and litote often act together, which enhances the ideological and emotional assessment and satirical pathos of the work, which is why there are so many of them in romantic and satirical works. These trails were skillfully used by N.V. Gogol: Wonderfully arranged light. One has an excellent cook, but, unfortunately, such a small mouth that he cannot miss more than two pieces, the other has a mouth the size of the arch of the headquarters, but, alas, he must be content with some German dinner and potatoes. But N.V. Gogol draws the insincerity, hypocrisy of the office ruler: Please look at him when he jokes among his subordinates - you just can’t utter a word out of fear! pride and nobility, and what does not his face express? just take a brush and draw: Prometheus, decisively Prometheus! He looks out like an eagle, performs smoothly, measuredly. The same eagle, as soon as he left the room and approaches his boss's office, hurries like a partridge with papers under his arm that there is no urine. In society and at a party, if everyone is of a low rank, Prometheus will remain Prometheus, and a little higher than him, such a transformation will take place with Prometheus, which even Ovid will not invent: a fly, less than a fly, was destroyed into a grain of sand!
The method of defining a phenomenon or concept through the denial of the opposite is also called litote, which also leads to an underestimation of the objective qualities of the defined (if we say: This is not without interest, then such an expression will not contain such a definite assessment as: This is interesting). For example:
That hour was already knocking on the window
Not without solemn undertakings.
(A. Tvardovsky)
Irony (from the Greek. ё1гбпё1а, lit. - pretense) - ridicule, containing an assessment of what is ridiculed; one form of denial.
A hallmark of irony is a double meaning, where the true one is not directly stated, but implied. Irony involves the use of words in a contrasting context. For example, in Krylov, the Fox, mocking the stupidity of the Donkey, says: “Where, smart, are you wandering your head?”. Ironic turns of speech are most often used in humorous and satirical literature. N.V. Gogol in "Post about how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled" ironically admires the city of Mirgorod, buried in mud: The wonderful city of Mirgorod! What only in it there are no buildings! And under the straw, and under the outline (reed) roof; to the right is a street, to the left is a street, everywhere there is a beautiful wattle fence; hops curl over it, pots hang on it, because of it the sunflower shows its sun-shaped head, the poppy turns red, thick pumpkins flash ... Luxury!<...>If you approach the square, then, surely, stop for a while to admire the view: there is a puddle on it, an amazing puddle! The only one you've ever seen! It occupies almost the entire area. Great puddle! The feigned mocking tone of Gogol's description expresses his mocking, ironic attitude towards a provincial town. Sometimes Gogol's irony became harsh and turned into sarcasm.
A. Platonov actively used irony as an artistic and stylistic means of satirical reflection of reality, and his irony often bordered on sarcasm. The writer laughed at the Soviet slogans, which became a way of thinking for some: Eh! .. - the blacksmith said plaintively. - I look at the children, and I myself want to shout: “Long live the First of May!”
Irony flourished in the philosophy of Socrates, although he himself did not use this term: the latter became the definition of his critical manner from the time of Plato. Not surprising, if we recall the ironic attitude of Socrates towards himself: "I only know that I know nothing."
In German literature and philosophy of the XVIII century. a special type of romantic irony took shape, which was expressed in the form of a subjective denial of the life of bourgeois society with its passion for hoarding. Irony in the 20th century received a new shade in the work of existentialist writers, who began to deny any truth except existential. Irony occupied an important place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in the works of B. Brecht, A. Frans, K. Chapek.
The article “Irony” in the “Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary” notes different types of irony in Russian literature: “avenger” and “comforter” by A.I. Herzen; "mocking criticism" of the revolutionary democrats V.G. Belinsky, H.A. Nekrasova, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.G. Chernyshevsky (the image of a "perceptive reader" in the novel "What is to be done?"); merging with the element of humor in N.V. Gogol; a parody by Kozma Prutkov; romantic at A. Blok. Different kinds and shades of irony are perceived and developed by V.V. Mayakovsky, M.M. Zoshchenko, M.A. Bulgakov, B.K. Olesha, V.P. Kataev155. I would like to add to this list the names of F. Iskander, V.M. Shukshin.
The “secrecy” of mockery, the mask of seriousness distinguish irony from humor, and “the ironic attitude is realized in a very diverse way: with the help of the grotesque (J. Swift, E.T.A. Hoffman, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), paradox (A. France , B. Shaw), parody (L. Stern), wit, hyperbole, contrast, combination of various speech styles, etc.156
Sarcasm (ancient Greek sarkasm?s - torment) - satirical in orientation, especially caustic irony, with extreme sharpness exposing phenomena that are especially dangerous in their social consequences, one of the important stylistic means satire. The connection between sarcasm and irony was noticed by the ancient theorists, who singled out four types of it: wit, playful mockery, mockery, mockery. The essence of sarcasm is not limited to a higher degree of ridicule or denunciation, but lies in a special relationship between two planes - implied and expressed. In irony, only the background is given and the allegory is sustained; in sarcasm, the allegory is weakened or removed157. Sarcasm is a vanishing, more precisely, deconstructed, irony.
Often, sarcasm openly exposes a negative assessment in the text, following a visible praise. So, Nekrasov in the poem “Reflections at the front door” negatively characterizes the owner of luxurious chambers, whose life content is intoxication with shameless flattery, red tape, gluttony, game, and who is deaf to good. The poet predicts a sad end for him:
You will fall asleep, surrounded by care
Dear and beloved family
(Looking forward to your death)...
The poet writes sarcastically about this man as a hero:
And you will go to the grave ... hero,
Secretly, cursed by the fatherland, Exalted by loud praise!
1. Lead.
2. Expressive means of language
3. Conclusion
4. References
Introduction
The word is the subtlest touch to the heart; it can become a tender, fragrant flower, and living water, restoring faith in goodness, and a sharp knife, picking at the delicate fabric of the soul, and red-hot iron, and clods of dirt ... A wise and kind word brings joy, stupid and evil, thoughtless and tactless - brings trouble, a word can kill - and revive, hurt - and heal, sow confusion and hopelessness - and spiritualize, dispel doubts - and plunge into despondency, create a smile - and cause tears, give rise to faith in a person - and instill mistrust, inspire to work - and lead to a stupor of the strength of the soul.
V.A. Sukhomlinsky
Expressive means of language
The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant renewal in speech of principles, methods, signs of association within the whole text of words taken from various groups hide in themselves the possibilities of updating speech expressiveness and its types.
The expressive possibilities of the word are supported and enhanced by the associativity of the reader's figurative thinking, which largely depends on his previous life experience and psychological characteristics work of thought and consciousness in general.
The expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades. But we can quite definitely talk about the conditions under which speech will be expressive:
The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.
The second is his interest in what he is talking about or writing about. The third is a good knowledge of the expressive possibilities of the language. Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.
The main source of enhancing expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, synecdoches, hyperbole, litotes, personifications, paraphrases, allegory, irony. Syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, has great opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.
Lexical means a language that enhances its expressiveness is called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by the authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.
These figurative and expressive the means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, help him to acquire the individuality of style. However, there are also general language tropes that arose as author's, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals”, “battle for the harvest”, “military thunderstorm”, “conscience spoke”, “curl up”, “like two drops water ".
In them, the direct meaning of words is erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not give rise to an artistic image in our imagination. A trope can become a cliché if used too often. Compare expressions that determine the value of resources using the figurative meaning of the word "gold" - "white gold" (cotton), "black gold" (oil), "soft gold" (furs), etc.
Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed by a full and short adjective, noun and adverb: “Do I wander along noisy streets, enter a crowded temple ...” (A.S. Pushkin)
“She is anxious, like sheets, she, like a harp, is multi-stringed ...” (A.K. Tolstoy) “Frost-governor patrols his possessions ...” (N. Nekrasov) “Uncontrollably, uniquely, everything flew far and past ... "(S. Yesenin). Epithets are classified as follows:
1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “good
well done”, “beautiful girl”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest”
"mother cheese earth";
2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as the author sees them) -
“a crowd of motley-haired fast cat” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);
3) emotional (transmit feelings, mood of the author) -
“Evening drew black eyebrows ...” - “A blue fire swept up ...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid moonlight ...” (S. Yesenin), “... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly” (A. Pushkin ).
Comparison is a comparison (parallelism) or
opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects on one or more common grounds: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as mountains"
(V. Bryusov) - “It’s not the wind that rages over the forest, it’s not the streams that run from the mountains - the governor’s frost patrols his possessions” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity, descriptiveness. This trope, unlike others, is always binomial - both juxtaposed or opposed objects are named in it. 2 In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.
1 Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2002. p. 171
2 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: 2000 p. 67.
For example, in M. Lermontov’s line “Whiter than snowy mountains, clouds go to the west ...” the object of comparison is clouds, the image of comparison is snowy mountains, a sign of similarity is the whiteness of clouds - The comparison can be expressed:
1) comparative turnover with unions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “as
as if", "exactly", "than ... by that": "Crazy years of extinct fun
It's hard for me, like a vague hangover, "But, like wine - the sadness of bygone days In my soul, the older, the stronger" (A. Pushkin);
2) the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;
3) a noun in the instrumental case: “A white snowdrift rushes along the ground like a snake ...” (S. Marshak);
“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive in the gold of my hair ...” (S. Yesenin);
“I looked at her with might and main, as children look ...” (V. Vysotsky);
“I can’t forget this fight, the air is saturated with death.
And stars fell from the firmament like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).
“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds ...” (V. Vysotsky).
“Like an eternal flame, the peak sparkles during the day emerald ice..." (IN.
Vysotsky).
Metaphor (from Greek metaphora) means transferring the name of an object
(actions, qualities) on the basis of similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If the epithet ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a word in speech, then the statement is all the more true: metaphor ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can drive a nail into the wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head ~ a metaphor arises, rude, but expressive.
There are three elements in a metaphor: information about what is being compared; information about what it is compared to; information about the basis of comparison, i.e., about a feature that is common in the compared objects (phenomena).
Speech actualization of the semantics of metaphor is explained by the need for such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires in order for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself. Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, a metaphor contains only the second component. This gives character and
trail compactness. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.
The metaphor may be simple, expanded and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to some common feature - “the dawn is burning”, “the sound of the waves”, “the sunset of life”.
An expanded metaphor is built on various associations by similarity: “Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong hug and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the rocks, breaking emerald bulks into dust and spray” (M. Gorky).
Lexical metaphor - a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - "steel pen", "clock hand", "door handle", "sheet of paper". Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is close to the metaphor - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. Communication can be
1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “Amber smoked in his mouth” (A. Pushkin);
3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “The pen is his revenge
breathes"
5) between the place and the people in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).
A variety of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implying) - the transfer of meaning from one to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them:
1) a part instead of a whole: “All flags will visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) a generic name instead of a specific one: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);
3) a specific name instead of a generic one: “Most of all, take care of a penny” (N. Gogol);
4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard before
dawn, as the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);
5) plural instead of singular: “Even a bird does not fly to him, and
the beast does not come” (A. Pushkin).
The essence of personification consists in attributing to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - “I will whistle, and bloody villainy will obediently, timidly creep in to me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, they are a sign of my, reading will” (A. Pushkin); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top ...” (V. Vysotsky).
Hyperbole (from Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic
a figure consisting in a figurative exaggeration - “they swept a haystack above the clouds”, “wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “At one hundred and forty suns the sunset burned” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world in the palm of your hand ...” (V Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperbolas can be authorial and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general language hyperbole - I saw (heard) a hundred times, “be scared to death”, “strangle in my arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite of hyperbole is a stylistic device - litote (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) - a stylistic figure, consisting in an underlined understatement, humiliation, reticence: “a boy with a finger”, “... You need to bow your head to a thin blade of grass ...” (N. Nekrasov).
Litota is a kind of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).
MEIOSIS is a trope of understatement
intensity of properties (features) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent *, “tolerant” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating option for the ethically unacceptable direct naming: cf. "old woman" - "a woman of Balzac's age", "not the first youth"; "ugly man" - "hard to call handsome." Hyperbole and litotes characterize the deviation in one direction or another of the quantitative assessment of the subject and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunyushka spun a kudelyushka for three hours, spun three threads”, and these threads are “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log”. In addition to the author's, there are also general language litotes - "the cat cried", "at hand", "not to see beyond one's own nose".
A periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I say) is called
a descriptive expression used instead of a particular word (“who writes these lines” instead of “I”), or a trope, consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features (“the king of animals is a lion” , "foggy Albion" - England, "Northern Venice" - St. Petersburg, "the sun of Russian poetry" - A. Pushkin).
Allegory (from the Greek. allegoria - allegory) consists in the allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific, life image. In literature, allegories appear in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is animal tales, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is malice and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature, allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.
Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) - a trope, which consists in the use of a name or a whole statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a shift in contrast, in polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment that the speaker (writer) rejects. “From where, smart, are you wandering, head?” - asks the hero of one of the fables of I.A. Krylov at the Donkey. Praise in the form of reprimand can also be ironic (see A.P. Chekhov's story "Chameleon", characterization of the dog).
Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) - monotony, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or poetic lines.
Storm-blown bridges
A coffin from a blurry cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... A black-eyed girl, a black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes)
The winds did not blow in vain,
The storm was not in vain. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)
I swear by odd and even
I swear by the sword and the right fight. (A.S. Pushkin)
Conclusion
In conclusion of this work, I would like to note that the expressive means, stylistic figures that make our speech expressive, are diverse, and it is very useful to know them. The word, speech is an indicator of the general culture of a person, his intellect, his speech culture. That is why mastering the culture of speech, its improvement, especially at the present time, is so necessary for the current generation. Each of us is obliged to cultivate in ourselves a respectful, reverent and careful attitude to our native language, and each of us should consider it our duty to contribute to the preservation of the Russian nation, language, and culture.
List of used literature
1. Golovin I.B. Fundamentals of speech culture. St. Petersburg: Slovo, 1983.
2. Rosenthal D.E. practical style. Moscow: Knowledge, 1987.
3. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Secrets of Stylistics: Rules for Good Speech, Moscow: Knowledge, 1991.
4. Farmina L.G. We learn to speak correctly. M.: Mir, 1992.
5. Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2002.
6. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: Gardariki, 2000.
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