Types of political technologies. Types of political technologies

The concept of political technologies

Any tasks that people set for themselves in politics, as a rule, are solved by them in a wide variety of ways. The content of political processes, their internal and external dependencies, the set of interacting actors and their other features inevitably change depending on the methods of activity chosen by people, on how they achieve certain goals.

Moreover, depending on these methods of solving problems, not some individual parameters of phenomena may change, but also the very essence of specific political processes. For example, elections of deputies can take place on the basis of fair competition between candidates, rational challenging of their opponents’ programs, open appeal to voters with their vision of the goals of political development of society, etc. And in this sense, the electoral process will be entirely consistent with its functional purpose. But where in en masse bribery or intimidation of voters is used, administrative pressure from the authorities is applied, the law is violated and the rights of citizens to freely express their preferences are violated, the election campaign can turn from the election of its representatives by society into the arbitrary formation of government bodies by those political circles that control economic, administrative, information and other essential public resources. In other words, such “elections” do not generate political power in society, but reproduce authoritarian and dictatorial regimes of government.

In a word, the essence and content of any political processes will directly depend on what methods of activity will be chosen by subjects to solve a particular political problem, and how certain structures and institutions of power will interact. Therefore, considering the latter through the prism of methods of activity allows us to talk about a special - technological level of policy analysis. The focus of policy research at this level is on certain methods, techniques, procedures and methods of activity of political subjects, with the help of which public administration is carried out, political decisions are made, interests are coordinated and conflicts are resolved, communications are established and other political processes are carried out.

In general, we can say that political technologies are a set of knowledge and methods of activity used by subjects aimed at the optimal and effective implementation of their specific goals in the sphere of political power. In relation to the conditions of market-type political competition, where the dependence of methods and techniques of activity on the place and time of their application significantly increases, the totality of political technologies constitutes the main content of political marketing.

Functionally, political technologies are inextricably linked with the interests of subjects, who actually set them goals for the use of power resources, stabilization or destabilization of political relations in a particular state, organization of election campaigns, information support decision-making, coordination of positions in the development of government programs, etc. Generally speaking, the most common reason for the formation and application of political technologies is the human need for a more rational, economical and effective way to implement specific goals in the political space. In general, such motivation coming from the subject has a very positive consequences for society and the state. For the rational and therefore more predictable nature of the activities and political behavior of individual and group actors creates additional prerequisites for the streamlining and institutionalization of political processes, makes it possible to apply economical and resource-saving methods of managing the state and society, strengthening control and manageability of political processes, and promoting more effective political socialization of citizens, and therefore, ultimately - to optimize the relationship between government and society, to reduce political risks in the development of the state.

But keeping in mind this generally very positive orientation of political technologies, it should be borne in mind that they extend not only to conventional (legal), but also to non-conventional processes of the use of political power and the corresponding types of distribution of state resources. Because of this, technology also involves the use of techniques and procedures that may contradict political norms and traditions of society and may even be prohibited by law. Therefore, in the space of power there may be not only methods of influencing power that are constructive from the point of view of the political interests of society, but also techniques that violate the norms of political ethics (black PR, disinformation, manipulation, provocations, etc.) and even methods of illegal struggle for state power. power (terror, conspiracies, etc.).

Political technologies– a set of certain methods and techniques of political activity. The most common political technologies include political consulting, election technologies, lobbying, and public relations technologies.

Political consulting carried out by large analytical centers that study political processes and phenomena of social life.

Lobbying(from the English lobby - corridor, vestibule) - a system of means and factors for exerting the necessary influence on politicians and civil servants making decisions at the federal or regional level, in order to ensure the interests of relevant groups. Authoritative political or statesmen, representing the interests of pressure groups, can function as lobbyists. Lobbying is not only behind-the-scenes actions, but also a system of argumentation, mechanisms for preparation, consultation, assistance in the adoption of relevant laws, and participation in other socially constructive acts.

The “lobbying” influence of a pressure group depends on a number of factors: the degree of commitment of its members to its goals, the authority of the group, the ability to attract financial resources, geographical position etc. Various pressure groups take the necessary actions to appoint authoritative and influential persons sympathetic to their goals to positions related to the implementation of programs important to the groups. Such groups can be effectively involved, for example, in the elections of deputies, providing them with the material resources necessary for this purpose, and after the elections maintaining the necessary contacts with them.

Electoral technologies– a set of ways to influence the masses in order to influence their voting behavior and encourage them to cast their votes for a particular candidate. Election technologies are aimed at regulating the behavior of voters, appealing to the beliefs and positions of citizens, and their orientation towards certain values. Identify trends in the development of mass sentiment, find optimal combinations of implementation political program Specialists in public relations, communications, and image makers are called upon.

Public relations(English public relations - public relations, public relations) - activities aimed at forming among the public a stable positive image of a particular organization, a candidate, a favorable attitude towards them through professional processing of public opinion. IN political sphere this is the corresponding activity of the authorities state power, parties, movements, electoral blocs, etc., often including individual elements political manipulation of mass consciousness. The main goal of public relations- sway public opinion in favor of a particular organization.

Functions of public relations:

– identification and analysis of general trends in public opinion;

– development of a strategy for interaction with the public based on public opinion research data;

– formation of a favorable attitude of the population both to the organization itself and to its activities;

– informing the public about the specific activities of an organization or person.

The term “technology” (from the Greek “techne” - art, skill, skill; “logos” - concept, knowledge) came into politics from production. This term denotes the directed influence of a person on material objects in order to change their properties, giving them the qualities necessary for people. Technological knowledge oriented a person not to explain current events and phenomena, but to justify ways and methods of achieving set goals.

The term “political technologies” is one of the newest in political science. The relevance of these technologies has increased significantly with the appearance of the “political man” in the historical arena as a result of the development of democratic processes, his transformation into an active participant in political changes in society.

Political technologies– a set of techniques, methods, methods, procedures used by political subjects to achieve political goals, to solve political management problems.

The main object of influence in the political technological process there are always people. They are the ones who create parties, hold rallies and strikes, vote for candidates, reproduce or destroy political and economic systems. The achievement of political goals depends on people. Respectively, political technologies- these are ways and methods of influencing people in order to change their political behavior.

Political technologies based on theoretical analysis interaction between political subjects, contain methodological guidelines and methodological recommendations for effective solutions political problems and achieving certain political goals.

Processes of democratization in the twentieth century led to a decrease specific gravity violence, forceful solutions to problems in the sphere of political governance. The shift in emphasis in the ways of achieving political goals occurred due to the fact that the values and principles of the rule of law, ideological and political pluralism, and restrictions on the actions of the highest government officials were established in society. officials law, proclamation of the inviolability of individual rights and freedoms, etc. Thus, political technologies– these are methods of influencing people in order to change their political behavior, which exclude the use of direct coercion and physical violence.

The essence of political technologies can be revealed only through a system of identifying and using the potential of the social system - “human resource” in accordance with the goals and meaning of human existence. This is realized through a set of methods, procedures, operations, influence techniques, all modern capabilities creative activity both subjects of management and political institutions in general.

The goal of political technologies is to optimize the fulfillment by political subjects of their tasks and responsibilities through rational means, sequencing of actions, and developing an appropriate algorithm of behavior.

In general, political technologies act in two forms: 1) as a structural element of any system, a technologically designed software product; 2) as an activity related to the implementation of the intended goal.

The functioning of new political technologies is always associated with the need to optimize political management and quickly and efficiently replicate special techniques and procedures. Special meaning for these technologies there are conditions for their implementation: elements of the structure of the political process, structural features and patterns of their functioning; the ability to formalize real phenomena and present them in the form of indicators, operations and procedures.

The whole variety of political technological techniques can be reduced to three types:

1) techniques that ensure a targeted change in the rules of interaction between participants in the political process, including by changing the normative, institutional order. By adopting new laws and changing the rules of the game, it is possible to change the behavior of people in society. True, besides the state, other political subjects do not have the right to set rules, so we can say that this actively used technique in the public administration system has its own limiting framework in those political processes where the main active forces are non-governmental organizations and groups (institutions and civil society organizations) ;

2) techniques that ensure the introduction of new ideas, values, and the formation of new attitudes and beliefs into the mass consciousness.

3) techniques that allow you to manipulate people’s behavior.

To the greatest extent, new political technologies are associated with the manipulation of people's consciousness and behavior. Manipulation (from the French manipulation) literally translated is hidden hand movements that activate a device. In politics, manipulation is understood as a special type of influence when the manipulator induces a person to take actions that he did not intend to carry out at the moment. Manipulation differs from forceful influence in that there is no direct instruction or order of what to do, nor the subsequent open coercion or threat of sanctions. During manipulative influence, a person does not feel external coercion; it seems to him that he himself makes a decision and chooses the form of his behavior.

The American scientist R. Goodin formulated and described two fundamental models of manipulation – “rational” and “psychological”. The first of them is characterized by the use of lies, deception and secrecy. A common feature These methods are either complete or partial concealment of information that may affect decision-making, or its distortion. The second, “psychological” model is characterized by the use of unconscious reactions of the individual, which are “provoked” by specially modeled behavior. For example, at a certain attractive moment in his speech, the candidate reinforces his speech with a memorable gesture. Subsequently, the gesture is repeated, causing positive experiences and reactions in the audience.

IN modern world the theory and practice of political manipulation have received quite a deep scientific development and practical application. General technology global, nation-wide manipulation is usually based on systematic introduction into mass consciousness socio-political myths– illusory ideas that affirm certain values and norms that are perceived by the objects of manipulation mainly on faith, without critical reflection (for example, the political myth of “American exceptionalism”).

Myth is a generalized idea of reality, combining both moral and aesthetic principles, connecting reality with mysticism. That is, this idea is always largely illusory, but due to its ethical and artistic appeal, it has a great impact on mass consciousness.

According to domestic political scientist Sergei Kara-Murza: “Myths that carry an important irrational... component become part of tradition and play important role in the legitimation of the social system in ideocratic states.” However, the myth modern society has not lost its significance as an important form of social consciousness and representation of reality.

In situations of social instability and uncertainty, classical political technologies (specify which ones) do not bring the expected result. So, in modern Russia greatest number Voters are collected not by those political leaders who better understand social problems, but by those who better understand the electorate and take into account the multidimensional spectrum of interests, sentiments and expectations. Success comes not to those political leaders who strive to understand the current political situation, but to those who promise a lot, demonstrating their efficiency and thriftiness, while playing at paternalism and “social concern.”

An advantage also goes to those politicians whose rhetoric is intertextual and whose language is metaphorical, with elements of clarity and self-evidence. Using concepts - images in the political lexicon, mixing myths and reality, present, past and future in the political text, targeting political relations, politicians achieve great success in their claims to power.

To root socio-political myths, manipulation technology involves the use of a rich arsenal of specific methods of influencing people's consciousness. Among the manipulation methods are:

Reducing the amount of information available to the average citizen;

Use of propaganda (providing citizens with partially correct but biased information);

Use of secrecy (deliberate withholding of information that could undermine the official political course - to show - who, whose course);

Information overload (the deliberate presentation of excessive information in order to deprive the average citizen of the opportunity to adequately assimilate and correctly evaluate it);

Labeling (to reject and discredit persons or ideas, listeners are given an unseemly definition without evidence, for example “imperialist”, “fascist”, etc.).

Along with the methods described above, a number of other methods are also used. These may be so-called “linguistic traps” - the imposition of the necessary assessments of events through their comparison with certain values. The opposite of this is considered to be another method of “linguistic deprivation”, which consists of excluding certain concepts and terms from the political lexicon (according to the principle: no term - no problem). Widely used in political practice is such a method of manipulating consciousness as political nomination - a targeted choice of terms, concepts and expressions that can produce the desired impression. (“We are slaves of words,” said K. Marx, and then F. Nietzsche literally repeated this.).

Manipulation is widely used not only in totalitarian and authoritarian states, where it is often the dominant type of political technology, but also in modern Western democracies, especially in party propaganda and during election campaigns. Today, not a single presidential or parliamentary election campaign in Western countries, as well as Russia and other countries, is complete without the use of manipulation techniques that create among the population ideas about a certain politician that are very far from reality.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Transbaikal State University"

(FSBEI HPE "ZabGU")

Faculty of Additional Professional Education

Department of State, municipal government and politics

Test

in the discipline: "Fundamentals modern technologies departments of foreign countries"

Political technologies: problems and development prospects

Completed by Smyslova Yu.P.

I checked N.V. Zimin.

1. The concept of political technologies: essence, forms and types

2. Political rights and freedoms in foreign countries: content, guarantees

3. Formation of political technologies

List of sources and literature used

1 . Pconcept of political technologies: essence, forms and types

Political technologies are a set of techniques, methods, methods, procedures used by political subjects to achieve political goals, to solve political management problems.

The main object of influence in the political technological process is always people. They are the ones who create parties, hold rallies and strikes, vote for candidates, reproduce or destroy political and economic systems. The achievement of political goals depends on people. Accordingly, political technologies are ways and methods of influencing people in order to change their political behavior.

Political technologies, based on a theoretical analysis of the interaction of political subjects, contain methodological guidelines and methodological recommendations for effectively solving political problems and achieving certain political goals.

The processes of democratization in the twentieth century led to a decrease in the proportion of violence and forceful solutions to problems in the sphere of political governance. The shift in emphasis in the ways of achieving political goals occurred due to the fact that the values and principles of the rule of law, ideological and political pluralism, restrictions on the actions of senior government officials by law, the proclamation of the inviolability of individual rights and freedoms, etc., were established in society. political technologies are such ways of influencing people in order to change their political behavior, which exclude the use of direct coercion and physical violence.

The essence of political technologies can be revealed only through a system of identifying and using the potential of the social system - “human resource” in accordance with the goals and meaning of human existence. This is realized through a set of methods, procedures, operations, techniques of influence, all modern possibilities of creative activity of both management subjects and political institutions in general.

The goal of political technologies is to optimize the fulfillment by political subjects of their tasks and responsibilities through rational means, the sequence of actions, and the development of an appropriate algorithm of behavior.

Forms of political technologies

In general, political technologies come in two forms:

1) as a structural element of any system, a technologically designed software product;

2) as an activity related to the implementation of the intended goal.

The functioning of new political technologies is always associated with the need to optimize political management and quickly and efficiently replicate special techniques and procedures. Of particular importance for these technologies is the presence of conditions for their implementation: elements of the structure of the political process, structural features and patterns of their functioning; the ability to formalize real phenomena and present them in the form of indicators, operations and procedures.

Types of political technologies

The whole variety of political technological techniques can be reduced to three types:

1) techniques that ensure a targeted change in the rules of interaction between participants in the political process, including by changing the normative, institutional order. By adopting new laws and changing the rules of the game, it is possible to change the behavior of people in society. True, besides the state, other political subjects do not have the right to set rules, so we can say that this actively used technique in the system government controlled has its own limiting framework in those political processes where the main active forces are non-governmental organizations and groups (institutions and civil society organizations);

2) techniques that ensure the introduction of new ideas, values, and the formation of new attitudes and beliefs into the mass consciousness.

3) techniques that allow you to manipulate people’s behavior.

Manipulation (from the French manipulation), literally translated, is hidden hand movements that activate a device. In politics, manipulation is understood as a special type of influence when the manipulator induces a person to take actions that he did not intend to carry out at the moment. Manipulation differs from forceful influence in that there is no direct instruction or order of what to do, nor the subsequent open coercion or threat of sanctions. During manipulative influence, a person does not feel external coercion; it seems to him that he himself makes a decision and chooses the form of his behavior.

The American scientist R. Goodin formulated and described two fundamental models of manipulation - “rational” and “psychological”. The first of them is characterized by the use of lies, deception and secrecy. A common feature of these methods is either complete or partial concealment of information that may influence decision-making, or its distortion. The second, “psychological” model is characterized by the use of unconscious reactions of the individual, which are “provoked” by specially modeled behavior. For example, at a certain point in his speech, the candidate reinforces his speech with a memorable gesture. Subsequently, the gesture is repeated, causing positive experiences and reactions in the audience.

In the modern world, the theory and practice of political manipulation have received quite deep scientific development and practical applications. The general technology of global, nation-wide manipulation is usually based on the systematic introduction into the mass consciousness of socio-political myths - illusory ideas that affirm certain values and norms that are perceived by the objects of manipulation, mainly on faith, without critical reflection (for example, the political myth of “American exceptionalism”) .

According to domestic political scientist Sergei Kara-Murza: “Myths that carry an important irrational... component become part of tradition and play an important role in legitimizing the social system in ideocratic states.” However, myth has not lost its significance in modern society as an important form of social consciousness and representation of reality.

In situations of instability and uncertainty in society, classical political technologies do not bring the expected results. Thus, in modern Russia, the largest number of votes are collected not by those political leaders who better understand social problems, but by those who better understand the electorate and take into account the multidimensional spectrum of interests, moods and expectations. Success comes not to those political leaders who strive to understand the current political situation, but to those who promise a lot, demonstrating their efficiency and thriftiness, while playing at paternalism and “social concern.” law political manipulation

To root socio-political myths, manipulation technology involves the use of a rich arsenal of specific methods of influencing people’s consciousness. Among the manipulation methods are:

· reducing the amount of information available to the average citizen;

· use of propaganda (providing citizens with partially correct, but biased information);

· use of secrecy (deliberate withholding of information that could undermine the official political course);

· information overload (the deliberate presentation of excessive information in order to deprive the average citizen of the opportunity to adequately assimilate and correctly evaluate it);

· labeling (to reject and compromise persons or ideas, listeners without evidence give an unseemly definition, for example, “imperialist”, “fascist”, etc.).

Along with the methods described above, a number of other methods are also used. Thus, “linguistic traps” are the imposition of the necessary assessments of events through their comparison with certain values. The opposite is considered to be another method of “linguistic deprivation”, which consists of excluding certain concepts and terms from the political lexicon (according to the principle: no term - no problem). Widely used in political practice is such a method of manipulating consciousness as political nomination - a targeted choice of terms, concepts and expressions that can produce the desired impression. “We are slaves of words,” said K. Marx, and then F. Nietzsche literally repeated this.

The point of manipulation is to make it difficult for individuals to actually access reliable information, which forces them to rely on the official interpretation of it.

2 . PPolitical rights and freedoms in foreign countries: content, guarantees

The right to participate in the management of society and the state

That's right general represents the essence of this group of rights and freedoms, but in this general view it is rarely formulated in constitutions. Yes, Art. Article 23 of the Spanish Constitution proclaims the right of citizens to participate in public affairs directly or through elected representatives, as well as the right to equal access to public functions and positions in accordance with the requirements specified in the laws. Similar rules are contained in the first part of Art. 33 of the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania: “Citizens have the right to participate in the government of their country, both directly and through democratically elected representatives, and also have the right to enter the civil service of the Republic of Lithuania on equal terms.”

In a number of countries that experienced a period of totalitarianism, the institution of lustration was introduced (from the Latin lustratio - purification through atonement). This means cleansing the bodies and apparatus of public power, as well as educational and sometimes other public institutions from persons who, under a totalitarian regime, occupied leadership positions in the political apparatus of power or served in repressive institutions.

Voting rights

This is a series of rights that provide citizens with the opportunity to participate in the formation of elected bodies of the state and local government, as well as participation in the procedures of direct democracy (people's initiative, referendum, recall of elected officials, etc.).

This includes, first of all, active suffrage, or the right to vote, which is sometimes also called general suffrage. The right to vote is used when voting in elections of state and self-government bodies and officials, at referendums and public meetings. Further, this includes passive suffrage, or the right to be elected* to elected bodies of the state or self-government, which implies the right to nominate one’s candidacy or give consent to its nomination. Finally, some other rights may also be included here: the right to participate in the formation of electoral bodies, nominate candidates, take the initiative to recall elected representatives and officials, file challenges, objections, challenge election results, etc.

Some countries require citizens to take part in elections (mandatory vote). For example, Mexican citizens are required to vote in popular elections in their respective constituency(Article 36, paragraph III, Constitution).

Right of association, freedom of unions and associations

As a general rule, in democratic countries associations are formed freely, although there are some exceptions. Thus, associations should not pursue the goal of making a profit, since the status of such associations is regulated not by constitutional law, but by civil, commercial, industrial, and agricultural law.

Some categories of associations are prohibited by constitutions for political reasons. For example, Art. 78 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Denmark of 1953, stating the right of citizens to create public associations for any lawful purpose without prior notice, establishes at the same time that public associations that use violence or seek to achieve their goals with violence, call for violence or impose their views on others through threats violence are dissolved by court decision, but in no case by the Government. Cases regarding the dissolution of public associations may be brought before the Supreme Court of the Kingdom without any special permission. The Italian Constitution prohibits secret societies and such associations that, at least indirectly, pursue political goals through organizations of a military nature (part two of Article 18).

Freedom of assembly and manifestation

Freedom of assembly is the unhindered opportunity to gather in closed spaces, access to which, in principle, can be limited only to the organizers of the meeting, although this is not a mandatory feature of the meeting. Legislation may provide for a notification procedure for holding meetings, in which the competent authorities are notified in advance by the organizers of the upcoming meeting, its time, location and topic, but may not require any notification (appearance procedure). Participants in the meeting usually belong to a specific environment (for example, a work collective), with which the organizers are also associated.

The term “manifestation” (literally: open manifestation, statement) is used either as a synonym for the terms “demonstration”, “procession”, or as a general concept for any performances under open air(less often it also covers meetings), namely rallies, demonstrations, processions, pickets. A rally is a meeting of anyone interested, which is usually held in the open air and at which, usually after public speeches by the organizers and other participants, a resolution is adopted with some kind of demand to the authorities or an appeal to citizens. A demonstration is usually the movement of masses of people along the streets and roads with posters and banners expressing the position of these people on some public issue or demand from the authorities. Anyone can usually join the demonstration. The demonstration may begin or end with a rally. Sometimes a demonstration can be “sedentary” - the participants do not move, but sit en masse in a crowded place.

A procession, as follows from the meaning of the word, is always movement along the streets and roads. A variety of processions are the so-called marches - processions through many settlements, even across the whole country or sometimes through several countries. Processions and marches usually involve people who have been organized in advance. Pickets are usually small groups of people (sometimes one person) with placards and banners, standing, sitting or moving in a circle near an object, often near a government building. A special type of picket is a tent city, which exists for more or less a long time.

An example of constitutional and legal regulation of this freedom is Art. 8 of the German Basic Law, according to which:

"1. All Germans have the right to assemble peacefully and unarmed without notice or permission.

2. For open-air meetings, this right may be limited by law or on the basis of law."

Freedom of information and right to information

This symbol a whole group of freedoms and rights: freedom of speech, or freedom of expression, freedom of the press and other means mass media, the right to receive information of public importance, freedom of dissemination of information. Authoritarian, and especially totalitarian, regimes limit these rights and freedoms in every possible way, monopolizing the media or subordinating them to political control through censorship, misinforming citizens or hiding from them information unfavorable to the ruling circles.

Art. 20 of the Spanish Constitution:

"1. The rights are recognized and protected:

a) freely express and disseminate thoughts, ideas and opinions through speech, writing and any other means of reproduction

b) for literary, artistic, scientific and technical production and creativity

c) freedom to teach

d) freely transmit and receive information using any means of distribution. The law regulates this right and the reservation of conscience and professional secrecy in the exercise of these freedoms.

2. The exercise of these rights may not be limited by censorship of any kind.

3. The law regulates the organization of state and any other public means of public communication and parliamentary control over them, guarantees access to these means for significant social and political groups, respecting the pluralism of society and the various languages of Spain.

4. These freedoms are limited by respect for the rights recognized in this Part (Part I of the Constitution, which proclaims fundamental rights and duties - Author), and the provisions of the laws that develop these rights, and especially the right to honor, to private life, on given name and for the protection of youth and childhood.

5. It will be possible to order the seizure of publications, records and other media only by virtue of a court decision.”

Right of petition

This is the right to contact the authorities with a written demand, proposal, complaint, which the authorities are in principle obliged to do in in the prescribed manner to react. Petitions can be individual or collective (in a totalitarian regime, the latter are sometimes not allowed, because the authorities are afraid of people uniting based on discontent). When it comes to a complaint, this right can be considered as a guarantee right, as already mentioned above.

Thus, the Italian Constitution in Art. 50 establishes: “All citizens can send petitions to the chambers (of Parliament - Author) demanding legislative measures or outlining public needs.” This right is formulated somewhat differently by Art. 29 of the Spanish Constitution:

"1. All Spaniards will have the right of individual or collective written petition in the form and with the consequences determined by law.

2. Persons who are members of the Armed Forces or institutions or in formations subject to military discipline will exercise this right only individually and in accordance with the rules established in the relevant special legislation."

The right and duty to defend the country

Defense of the country is most often seen as one of the duties of a citizen, but some constitutions also consider it a right. The duty to defend the country may involve compulsory military service or substitute (alternative) civilian service, as well as the performance of duties specified by law in the event of war or military danger. Constitutional norms are specified and developed in laws on defense, on conscription and other similar acts of current legislation.

The regulation contained in Art. can be considered typical for most modern constitutions. 47 of the Croatian Constitution:

“Military duty and defense of the Republic is the duty of all citizens capable of it.

Duty of allegiance to the state and compliance with its constitution and laws

Relatively few constitutions require citizens to maintain loyalty to the state, but almost all oblige them to follow the dictates of the constitution and laws. Both requirements are formulated, for example, in the first part of Art. 54 of the Italian Constitution, which states: “All citizens are obliged to be loyal to the Republic and to comply with its Constitution and laws.” The second part of this article formulates an obligation that is also found in a number of other constitutions: “Citizens entrusted with public functions are obliged to perform them with discipline and dignity, taking an oath in cases established by law.”

The right to resist oppression

This right of an individual and collective nature is extremely rare in constitutional acts, although it dates back to the US Declaration of Independence of 1776.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident,” the Declaration said. “All men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”

French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in Art. 2 among the natural and inalienable human rights that constitute the goal of any political union, that is, in our opinion, the unification of people into a state, along with freedom, property, and security, named resistance to oppression.

3 . Fformation of political technologies

Subjective way of forming technologies

The development and application of political technologies are processes of gradual rationalization and optimization (and in this sense, conscious design) of the purposeful activities of subjects within the framework of their implementation certain tasks. Ultimately, they enhance the capabilities of these actors to control and manage a particular area of political change. The process of formation and functioning of technologies can be considered from structural, spatiotemporal and procedural points of view. The first approach involves identifying knowledge about the problem, searching for optimal techniques for solving it, and technical support. The second expresses the need to coordinate the means used with the specific conditions of the place and time in which the problem is being solved. The third reveals the meaning and conditions for the formation of individual parameters for achieving goals. In the latter case, the logic of actions for the formation of technologies is built around the chain “analysis - diagnosis and assessment of the situation - forecasting and design operations - development of goals - determination of the sequence of actions - formulation of recommendations.”

In general, technologies can be developed both in relation to a limited number of situations (class of objects), and above all unique situations, and to more common ones. When forming their parameters, as a rule, not only the tasks are taken into account, but also the type and characteristics of the acting subjects, temporary and other the most important parameters operating conditions. At the same time, technologies can be set “from above”, by ruling structures, or they can be formed as a result of the generalization and rationalization of the living experience of subjects constantly operating in similar conditions. But most often, technologies arise in a combined way, when normative and target tasks are combined with the observations and experience of those involved in the practical solution of the problem. Some technologies may become obsolete and lose (partially or completely) their effectiveness; the range of their application may be narrowed. Other technologies can constantly improve and increase their “managerial” capabilities.

There are two ways of forming technologies - subjective and analytical. The first is based on a predominantly (and often exclusively) subjective (voluntaristic) approach, which lays the basis for constructing an optimal sequence of actions based on the standards of common sense, the practical experience of the subject and his intuition, sympathies, cultural stereotypes, habits and other individual characteristics of his worldview. In fact, without such components, goals are almost never assessed, and ways to form resources to achieve them are not determined. However, in in this case These components do not so much dominate as they block and limit the use of other, in particular, more rigorous analytical approaches. And although in general they are often justified and even give positive results (for example, when used in crisis situations), however, other things being equal, this method of algorithmizing target activities can be regarded as limited and does not provide solutions to the problems facing technology.

Analytical method of technology formation

The second, analytical, method of technology formation is associated with the use (and dominance) of special analytical methods and procedures that determine the main parameters and conditions for achieving goals. These techniques do not so much put a limit to the subjective arbitrariness of actors when assessing the goals and parameters of activity, but rather determine the appropriate place for it, allowing the most effective use of the capabilities and reserves of intuitive-experienced, precedent diagnostics in determining goals and means of achieving them. In this case, the subject gets the opportunity to rationalize the vision of the situation, to consciously relate to the categories of “goals” and “conditions” of activity due to the understanding of the inevitable restrictions imposed on his activity by a number of short-term and long-term factors (nature, balance of political forces, etc.), and more accurately understand the consequences of the actions he takes within the existing social (political) order.

From a substantive point of view, the analytical type of technology formation involves the assessment and characterization of: specific actors, the nature of their functional-role and interpersonal relationships; current norms and regulations of activity; the alignment of political forces (the “division” of actors into ideological positions or blocs, depending on their understanding and solution of various political issues); specific actions and interactions in the context of the influence of internal (primarily motivational) and external factors; parameters of the spatial (depth, width, length of the location of the political event) and temporary nature of the activity; environmental specifics; resources and potential of actors. When solving these problems, the entire wealth of methods is used that can describe as accurately as possible real relationship actors and formulate appropriate recommendations.

List of used sources and literaturery

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2. Political sociology: Textbook for universities/Edited by corresponding member. RAS Zh.T. Toshchenko. M, 2002, 495 p.

3. Rancière Jacques On the edge of the political. Translation from French M.: Praxis, 2006, 280 p.

4. Soloviev A.I. Political science: political theory, political technologies. M., Aspect-Press, 2003, 559 pp., trans.

5. Strategic psychology of globalization: Psychology of human capital: Textbook. allowance / Under scientific. ed. A.I. Yuryeva. SPb., 2006-512p.

6. Schwarzenberg R.-J. Political sociology. Part III. - M., 1992. - P.71-72.

7. Antonio Negri, Silver Lotringe The revolutionary process lasts forever, Interview of Silver Lotringe with Antonio Negri // Translation by Anna Neklyudova. Published in Artforum magazine, May 2008 No. 9 (46).// Skepticism - http://scepsis.ru/library/id_2111.html

8. Delyagin M.G. Value crisis: why formal democracy does not work // Polis. 2008 - No. 1. - p.109-123

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10. Round table Democracy: universal values and diversity of historical experience // Polis. 2008 - No. 5. - P.55-74.

11. Nisnevich Yu. Audit political system post-communist Russia. M.: Continent, 2007. - 288 p.

12. Pantin V.I. Globalization and problems of development of democratic institutions in Russia // Political institutions at the turn of the millennium. Dubna: Phoenix+ LLC, 2001. - 478 p.

13. Patrushev S.V. Problems of legitimation of institutional changes and options for universalizing the institutional order // Institutional political science: Modern institutionalism and political transformation of Russia / Ed. S.V. Patrusheva. M.: ISP RAS, 2006. - 590 p.

14. Rzheshevsky G.A. Democracy: myth, reality or promoted brand? // Polis. 2008 - No. 5.p.90-99

15. Thomas Carothers. Countering the spread of democracy // Russia in global politics, 2006, No. 2 (MARCH/APRIL). P.150-154. //Cm. also // http://www.globalaffairs.ru/numbers/19/5546.html

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