During the Seven Years' War, the Russians. Seven Years' War

Due to the strengthening of the supreme power, the mobilization of resources, the creation of a well-organized, large army (in 100 years it has grown 25 times and reached 150 thousand people), a relatively small Prussia is turning into a strong aggressive power. The Prussian army becomes one of the best in Europe. It was distinguished by: iron discipline, high maneuverability on the battlefield, precise execution of orders. In addition, the Prussian army was led by an outstanding commander of that era - King Frederick II the Great, who made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of military affairs. By the middle of the XVIII century. Anglo-French contradictions connected with the struggle for the redistribution of the colonies are also sharply aggravated. All this led to changes in traditional ties. England makes an alliance with Prussia. This forces former adversaries - France and Austria - to rally in the face of the threat from the Anglo-Prussian alliance. The latter unleashes the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). It involved two coalitions. On the one hand, England (in union with Hanover), Prussia, Portugal and some German states. On the other hand, Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony and most of the German states. As for Russia, Petersburg was not satisfied with the further strengthening of Prussia, which was fraught with its claims to influence in Poland and to former possessions. Livonian Order. This directly affected Russian interests. Russia joined the Austro-French coalition and, at the request of its ally, the Polish king Augustus III, in 1757 entered the Seven Years' War. First of all, Russia was interested in the territory of East Prussia, which Petersburg intended to give to the Commonwealth, receiving from it in return the region of Courland bordering Russia. In the Seven Years' War, Russian troops acted both independently (in East Prussia, Pomerania, on the Oder), and in cooperation with their Austrian allies (on the Oder, in Silesia).

Campaign of 1757

In 1757, Russian troops operated mainly in East Prussia. In May, the army under the command of Field Marshal Stepan Apraksin (55 thousand people) crossed the border of East Prussia, which was defended by troops under the command of Field Marshal Lewald (30 thousand regular troops and 10 thousand armed inhabitants). In the campaign, according to the memoirs of contemporaries, they did not go with an easy heart. Since the time of Ivan the Terrible, the Russians had not actually fought the Germans, so the enemy was known only by hearsay. The Russian army knew about the famous victories of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great and therefore they were afraid of the Prussians. According to the memoirs of a participant in the campaign, the future writer Andrei Bolotov, after the first unsuccessful border skirmish for the Russians, the army was seized by "great timidity, cowardice and fear." Apraksin avoided clashes with Lewald in every possible way. This also happened at Velau, where the Prussians occupied strong fortified positions. "Peaceful Field Marshal" did not dare to attack them, but decided to bypass them. To do this, he started a crossing across the Pregel River in the area of the village of Gross-Egersdorf, in order to then move to Allenburg, bypassing the Prussian positions. Upon learning of this maneuver, Lewald, with an army of 24,000, hastened to meet the Russians.

Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf (1757). After the crossing, the Russian troops found themselves in an unfamiliar wooded and swampy area and lost their order of battle. Lewald took advantage of this, who on August 19, 1757 swiftly attacked the Russian units scattered near the river. Main hit on the 2nd division of General Vasily Lopukhin, which did not have time to finish building. She suffered heavy losses, but showed resilience and did not retreat. Lopukhin himself, wounded by bayonets, came to the Prussians, but was repulsed by his soldiers and died in their arms. The Russians could not hold back a repeated attack in the same direction and were pressed against the forest. They were threatened with complete defeat, but then the brigade of General Pyotr Rumyantsev intervened in the matter, which decided the outcome of the battle. Seeing the death of his comrades, Rumyantsev hastened to their aid. Having forced their way through the forest thickets, his brigade delivered an unexpected blow to the flank and rear of Lewald's infantry. The Prussians could not withstand the bayonet attack and began to back away. This made it possible for the Russian center to recover, form up and go on the counterattack. Meanwhile, the Don Cossacks distinguished themselves on the left flank. With a feigned retreat, they brought the Prussian cavalry under fire from infantry and artillery, and then also launched a counterattack. The Prussian army retreated everywhere. The damage of the Russians amounted to 5.4 thousand people, the Prussians - 5 thousand people.

This was the first Russian victory over the Prussian army. She greatly boosted their morale by dispelling past fears. According to the foreign volunteers who were in Apraksin's army (in particular, the Austrian Baron Andre), such a fierce battle has never happened in Europe. Gross-Jegersdorf's experience showed that the Prussian army did not like close bayonet fighting, in which the Russian soldier showed high fighting qualities. However, Apraksin did not develop success and soon withdrew the troops back to the border. According to a widespread version, the reason for his departure was not military, but internal political in nature. Apraksin was afraid that after the death of the ill Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter III, an opponent of the war with Prussia, would come to power. A more prosaic reason that stopped the Russian offensive was the smallpox epidemic, which caused great devastation in the ranks of the Russian army. So, in 1757, 8.5 times more soldiers died from diseases than on the battlefields. As a result, the campaign of 1757 ended tactically for the Russians to no avail.

Campaign of 1758

Elizaveta Petrovna, who soon recovered, removed Apraksin from command and placed General William Farmer at the head of the army, demanding that he vigorously continue the campaign. In January 1758, the 30,000-strong Russian army again crossed the border of East Prussia. The second East Prussian campaign ended quickly and almost bloodlessly. Not expecting the Russians to launch a winter campaign, Frederick II sent Lewald's corps to Stettin (now Szczecin) to defend against a Swedish attack. As a result, small garrisons remained in East Prussia, which offered almost no resistance to the Russians. On January 11, Koenigsberg surrendered, and the population of East Prussia was soon sworn in. Russian empress. Thus fell the last stronghold left from the previous conquests of the crusaders in the Baltic, and Elizaveta Petrovna, as it were, completed the work begun by Alexander Nevsky. In fact, in the winter of 1758, Russia fulfilled its immediate goals in the Seven Years' War. Having waited out the spring thaw, the Farmer moved the army to the Oder, in the Kyustrin (Kyustshin) region, where he planned to enter into interaction with the Swedish army, which was located on the Baltic coast. The appearance of the Russians at Kustrin (75 km from Berlin) seriously alarmed Frederick II. In an effort to avert the threat from his capital, the Prussian king left a barrier against the Austrians in Silesia, and he himself moved against Farmer. The 33,000-strong army of Friedrich approached the Oder, on the other side of which stood the 42,000-strong army of Farmer. On a night march, the Prussian king ascended the river to the north, crossed the Oder and went to the rear of the Farmer, cutting off his retreat. The Russian commander accidentally learned about this from the Cossacks, one of whose patrols had a skirmish with the Prussians. The farmer immediately lifted the siege of Kustrin and placed his army in a favorable position near the village of Zorndorf.

Battled at Zorndorf (1758). On August 14, 1758, at 9 am, the Prussians attacked the right wing of the Russian army. The first blow was taken by the so-called. "Observation Corps", consisting entirely of recruits. But he did not flinch and held back the onslaught. Soon the Russian cavalry pushed back the Prussians. In turn, she was overturned by the Prussian cavalry under the command of the famous General Seydlitz. Clouds of dust from under the hooves, smoke from the shots were carried by the wind to the Russian positions and made it difficult to see. The Russian cavalry, pursued by the Prussians, galloped to their infantry, but they, without understanding, opened fire on it. The soldiers of both armies mingled in the dust and smoke, and the massacre began. Having fired their cartridges, the Russian infantry stood firm, fighting back with bayonets and cleavers. True, while some fought heroically, others got to the barrels of wine. After getting drunk, they began to beat their officers and disobeyed orders. Meanwhile, the Prussians attacked the Russian left wing, but were repulsed and put to flight. The fierce fighting continued until late in the evening. On both sides, the soldiers ran out of gunpowder, and they fought hand-to-hand with cold weapons. Andrei Bolotov describes the courage of his compatriots in the last moments of the Battle of Zorndorf in this way: “In groups, in small groups, having shot their last cartridges, they remained as hard as a rock. Many, pierced through, continued to stay on their feet and fight, others, having lost a leg or arm already lying on the ground, they tried to kill the enemy with the surviving hand. Here is the evidence from the opposite side of the Prussian cavalry captain von Kate: "The Russians lay in rows, kissed their cannons - while they themselves were cut down with sabers - and did not leave them." Exhausted, both troops spent the night on the battlefield. The Prussians lost more than 11 thousand people in the Battle of Zorndorf. Russian damage exceeded 16 thousand people. ("Observation Corps" lost 80% of its composition). In relation to the number of dead and wounded to the total number of troops participating in the battle (32%), the Battle of Zorndorf is one of the bloodiest battles of the 18th-19th centuries. The next day the Farmer retreated first. This gave Frederick a reason to attribute the victory to himself. However, having suffered heavy losses, he did not dare to pursue the Russians and withdrew his battered army to Kustrin. With the battle of Zorndorf, the Farmer actually completed the campaign of 1758. In the fall, he retreated to winter quarters to Poland. After this battle, Friedrich uttered a phrase that went down in history: "Russians are easier to kill than to defeat."

Campaign of 1759

In 1759, the Russians agreed on joint operations with the Austrians on the Oder, General Pyotr Saltykov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Here is the impression of one of the eyewitnesses about him: "The old gray-haired, small, unpretentious ... without any decorations and pomp ... He seemed to us a real chicken, and no one dared to think that he could do something important." Meanwhile, the most brilliant campaign of the Russian troops in the Seven Years' War is connected with Saltykov.

Battle of Palzig (1759). The path of Saltykov's troops (40 thousand people), marching to the Oder to join the Austrian corps of General Laudon, was blocked by the Prussian corps under the command of General Wedel (28 thousand people). In an effort to prevent a meeting of the allies, on July 12, 1759, Wedel attacked the Russian positions near Palzig (a German village southeast of Frankfurt an der Oder). Against the Prussian linear tactics, Saltykov used a defense in depth. The Prussian infantry furiously attacked the Russian positions four times. Having lost more than 4,000 men in unsuccessful attacks alone, Vedel was forced to retreat. “Thus,” Saltykov wrote in his report, “the proud enemy was completely defeated, driven away and defeated in a five-hour fierce battle. the act of the soldiery of all foreign volunteers was astonished." Russian losses amounted to 894 killed and 3897 wounded. Saltykov almost did not pursue the Prussians, which allowed them to avoid complete defeat. After the battle of Palzig, the Russians occupied Frankfurt an der Oder and joined up with the Austrians. The victory near Palzig raised the morale of the Russian troops and strengthened their faith in the new commander-in-chief.

Battle of Kunersdorf (1759). After connecting with the Laudon corps (18 thousand people), Saltykov occupied Frankfurt an der Oder. Friedrich was afraid of the Russian movement towards Berlin. At the end of July, his army crossed to the right bank of the Oder and entered the rear of the Russian-Austrian army. The Prussian king planned with his famous oblique attack to break through the left flank, where the Russian units stood, to press the allied army to the river and destroy it. On August 1, 1759, at 11 a.m. near the village of Kunersdorf, the Prussian army led by King Frederick the Great (48 thousand people) attacked the fortified position of the Russian-Austrian troops under the command of General Saltykov (41 thousand Russians and 18 thousand Austrians) . The hottest battles unfolded for the heights of Mulberg (left flank) and B. Spitz (the center of Saltykov's army). The Prussian infantry, having created a numerical superiority in this direction, managed to push the left flank of the Russians, where the units under the command of General Alexander Golitsyn were located. Having occupied Mühlberg, the Prussians installed artillery at this height, which opened longitudinal fire on the Russian positions. Frederick, who no longer doubted victory, sent a messenger to the capital with news of success. But for now good news rushed to Berlin, Russian guns hit Mulberg. With accurate fire, they upset the ranks of the Prussian infantry, which was about to launch an attack from this height on the center of the Russian positions. Finally, the Prussians delivered the main blow to the center, to the B. Spitz height area, where the regiments under the command of General Pyotr Rumyantsev were stationed. At the cost of heavy losses, the Prussian infantry managed to reach the height at which a fierce battle broke out. Russian soldiers showed great stamina and repeatedly launched counterattacks. The Prussian king brought up more and more new forces, but in the "game of reserves" he was outplayed by the Russian commander in chief. Saltykov, who tightly controlled the course of the battle, promptly sent reinforcements to the most threatened areas. To support his tormented infantry, Frederick sent General Seydlitz's shock cavalry into battle. But she suffered heavy losses from rifle and artillery fire and retreated after a short fight. After that, Rumyantsev led his soldiers into a bayonet counterattack. They overturned the Prussian infantry and threw it from a height into a ravine. The surviving remnants of the Prussian cavalry made their way to the aid of their own, but were driven back by a blow from the right flank by Russian-Austrian units. At this turning point in the battle, Saltykov gave the order to go on the general offensive. Despite exhaustion after many hours of battle, the Russian soldiers found the strength in themselves for a powerful attack, which turned the Prussian army into a wholesale flight. By seven in the evening it was all over. The Prussian army suffered a crushing defeat. Most of its soldiers fled, and after the battle, Frederick had only 3 thousand people under arms. The state of the king is evidenced by his letter to one of his friends the day after the battle: "Everything is running, and I no longer have power over the army ... A cruel misfortune, I will not survive it. The consequences of the battle will be worse than the battle itself: I have more there are no means and, to tell the truth, I consider everything lost. The damage of the Prussians amounted to over 7.6 thousand killed and 4.5 thousand prisoners and deserters. The Russians lost 2.6 thousand killed, 10.8 thousand wounded. Austrians - 0.89 thousand killed, 1.4 thousand wounded. Heavy losses, as well as contradictions with the Austrian command, did not allow Saltykov to use his triumph to take Berlin and defeat Prussia. At the request of the Austrian command, instead of attacking Berlin, Russian troops went to Silesia. This made it possible for Frederick to recover and recruit a new army.

Kunersdorf - biggest battle Seven Years' War and one of the most striking victories of Russian weapons in the 18th century. She nominated Saltykov to a number of outstanding Russian generals. In this battle, he used the traditional Russian military tactics - the transition from defense to offensive. So Alexander Nevsky won on Lake Peipus, Dmitry Donskoy - on the Kulikovo field, Peter the Great - near Poltava, Minikh - at Stavuchany. For the victory at Kunersdorf, Saltykov received the rank of field marshal. The participants in the battle were awarded a special medal with the inscription "To the Victor over the Prussians".

Campaign of 1760

As Prussia weakened and the end of the war approached, the contradictions in the camp of the allies escalated. Each of them achieved his own goals, which did not coincide with the intentions of his partners. Thus, France did not want the complete defeat of Prussia and wanted to keep it in opposition to Austria. She, in turn, sought to weaken the Prussian power as much as possible, but sought to do it with the hands of the Russians. On the other hand, both Austria and France were unanimous that Russia should not be allowed to grow stronger, and persistently protested against the annexation of East Prussia to it. The Russians, who on the whole had fulfilled their tasks in the war, were now sought to be used by Austria to conquer Silesia. When discussing the plan for 1760, Saltykov proposed to transfer hostilities to Pomerania (an area on the Baltic coast). According to the commander, this region remained not devastated by the war and it was easy to get food there. In Pomerania, the Russian army could interact with the Baltic Fleet and receive reinforcements by sea, which strengthened its position in this region. In addition, the occupation of the Baltic coast of Prussia by the Russians sharply reduced its trade relations and increased Frederick's economic difficulties. However, the Austrian leadership managed to convince Empress Elizabeth Petrovna to transfer the Russian army to Silesia for joint operations. As a result, Russian troops were fragmented. Insignificant forces were sent to Pomerania, to the siege of Kolberg (now the Polish city of Kolobrzeg), and the main ones - to Silesia. The campaign in Silesia was characterized by inconsistency in the actions of the allies and Saltykov's unwillingness to kill his soldiers in order to protect the interests of Austria. At the end of August, Saltykov fell seriously ill, and command soon passed to Field Marshal Alexander Buturlin. The only striking episode in this campaign was the capture by the corps of General Zakhar Chernyshev (23 thousand people) of Berlin.

Capture of Berlin (1760). On September 22, a Russian cavalry detachment under the command of General Totleben approached Berlin. In the city there were, according to the testimony of the prisoners, only three battalions of infantry and several squadrons of cavalry. After a short artillery preparation, Totleben stormed the capital of Prussia on the night of September 23. At midnight, the Russians broke into the Gallic Gates, but were repulsed. The next morning, the Prussian corps headed by the Prince of Württemberg (14 thousand people) approached Berlin. But at the same time, Chernyshev's corps arrived in time for Totleben. By September 27, the 13,000th Austrian corps also approached the Russians. Then the Prince of Württemberg with his troops left the city in the evening. At 3 am on September 28, parliamentarians arrived from the city with a message of consent to surrender to the Russians. After spending four days in the capital of Prussia, Chernyshev destroyed the mint, the arsenal, took possession of the royal treasury and took an indemnity of 1.5 million thalers from the city authorities. But soon the Russians left the city at the news of the approach of the Prussian army led by King Frederick II. According to Saltykov, the abandonment of Berlin was due to the inaction of the Austrian commander-in-chief Daun, who gave the Prussian king the opportunity to "beat us as much as he pleases." The capture of Berlin was of more financial than military importance to the Russians. No less important was the symbolic side of this operation. This was the first ever capture of Berlin by Russian troops. Interestingly, in April 1945, before the decisive assault on the German capital, Soviet soldiers received a symbolic gift - copies of the keys to Berlin, handed over by the Germans to Chernyshev's soldiers in 1760.

Campaign of 1761

In 1761, the Allies again failed to reach concerted action. This allowed Frederick, successfully maneuvering, to once again avoid defeat. The main Russian forces continued to act ineffectively together with the Austrians in Silesia. But the main success fell to the lot of Russian units in Pomerania. This success was the capture of Kolberg.

Capture of Kolberg (1761). The first Russian attempts to take Kolberg (1758 and 1760) ended in failure. In September 1761 a third attempt was made. This time, the 22,000-strong corps of General Pyotr Rumyantsev, the hero of Gross-Jägersdorf and Kunersdorf, was moved to Kolberg. In August 1761, Rumyantsev, using the tactics of loose formation, new for those times, defeated on the outskirts of the fortress Russian army under the command of the Prince of Württemberg (12 thousand people). In this battle and in the future, the Russian ground forces were supported by the Baltic Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Polyansky. On September 3, the Rumyantsev Corps began the siege. It lasted four months and was accompanied by actions not only against the fortress, but also against the Prussian troops, who threatened the besiegers from the rear. The military council spoke three times in favor of lifting the siege, and only the unyielding will of Rumyantsev made it possible to bring the matter to a successful end. On December 5, 1761, the garrison of the fortress (4 thousand people), seeing that the Russians were not leaving and were going to continue the siege in the winter, capitulated. The capture of Kolberg allowed Russian troops to capture the Baltic coast of Prussia.

The battles for Kolberg made an important contribution to the development of Russian and world military art. Here the beginning of a new military tactic of loose formation was laid. It was under the walls of Kolberg that the famous Russian light infantry, the rangers, was born, the experience of which was then used by other European armies. Near Kolberg, Rumyantsev first used battalion columns in combination with loose formation. This experience was then effectively used by Suvorov. This method combat appeared in the West only during the wars of the French Revolution.

Peace with Prussia (1762). The capture of Kolberg was the last victory of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War. The news of the surrender of the fortress found Empress Elizabeth Petrovna on her deathbed. The new Russian emperor Peter III concluded a separate peace with Prussia, then an alliance and returned to her free of charge all her territories, which by that time had been captured by the Russian army. This saved Prussia from inevitable defeat. Moreover, in 1762, Frederick managed, with the help of Chernyshev's corps, which was now temporarily operating as part of the Prussian army, to oust the Austrians from Silesia. Although Peter III was overthrown in June 1762 by Catherine II and the union treaty was annulled, the war was not resumed. The number of those killed in the Russian army in the Seven Years' War amounted to 120 thousand people. Of these, approximately 80% were those who died from diseases, including from the smallpox epidemic. The excess of sanitary losses over combat losses was at that time also characteristic of other countries participating in the war. It should be noted that the end of the war with Prussia was not only the result of the mood Peter III. It had more serious reasons. Russia achieved its main goal - the weakening of the Prussian state. However, its complete collapse was hardly part of the plans of Russian diplomacy, since it strengthened, first of all, Austria - Russia's main competitor in the future division of the European part. Ottoman Empire. And the war itself has long threatened a financial catastrophe for the Russian economy. Another question is that the "chivalrous" gesture of Peter III towards Frederick II did not allow Russia to take full advantage of the fruits of its victories.

Results of the war. A fierce struggle was also going on in other theaters of military operations of the Seven Years' War: in the colonies and at sea. According to the Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 with Austria and Saxony, Prussia secured Silesia. Under the Paris Peace Treaty of 1763, Canada, East. Louisiana, most of the French possessions in India. The main result of the Seven Years' War was the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonial and commercial superiority.

For Russia, the consequences of the Seven Years' War turned out to be much more valuable than its results. She significantly increased the combat experience, military art and authority of the Russian army in Europe, which had previously been seriously shaken by Minich's wanderings in the steppe. In the battles of this campaign, a generation of outstanding commanders (Rumyantsev, Suvorov) and soldiers were born who achieved striking victories in the "age of Catherine". It can be said that most of Catherine's successes in foreign policy was prepared by the victories of Russian weapons in the Seven Years' War. In particular, Prussia suffered huge losses in this war and could not actively interfere with Russian policy in the West in the second half of the 18th century. In addition, under the influence of impressions brought from the fields of Europe, in Russian society after the Seven Years' War, ideas about agrarian innovations, the rationalization of agriculture, are born. Interest in foreign culture is also growing, in particular, in literature and art. All these sentiments were developed in the next reign.

"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 arose from a number of conflicts between the main European powers. The fact is that at the time under review, the two countries fought for the right to act as a leader in the international arena. France and England entered into a protracted period of conflict, which made an armed clash between them inevitable. At this time, both countries embarked on the path of colonial conquest, and friction constantly arose between them due to the division of territories and spheres of influence. North American and Indian territories became the main arena of confrontation. In these lands, both warring parties constantly clashed in defining borders and redistributing areas. It was these contradictions that led to the military conflict.

Background of the collision

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 was also the result of the strengthening of the Prussian state. Frederick II created an army that was very efficient by those standards, thanks to which he made a number of seizures, due to which he rounded the borders of his country. This expansion came at the expense of Austria, from which he took the Silesian lands. Silesia was one of the richest regions of this state, and this loss was a significant loss for the state. It is not surprising, therefore, that Empress Maria Theresa was interested in the return of lost lands. Under these conditions, the Prussian ruler sought support from England, which, in turn, sought to secure its European possessions (Hanover), and was also interested in support in retaining these lands for itself.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 became a consequence of the contradictions between England and France over the division of colonial lands, as already mentioned above. Our country also had grounds for participating in the armed confrontation. The fact is that the claims of the Prussian state threatened spheres of influence on the Polish, Baltic borders. In addition, Russia since the 1740s. connected with Austria by a system of treaties. On this basis, the rapprochement of our country with France took place, thus the anti-Prussian coalition took shape.

The beginning of the confrontation

Causes of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 defined its scope. The leading European powers were drawn into the course of hostilities. In addition, several fronts of warfare were formed: continental, North American, Indian and others. This military confrontation between the blocs changed the balance of power in Western Europe and changed its geopolitical map.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 began with the attack of the Prussian king on Saxony. The calculation of this ruler was as follows: he planned to create a bridgehead here to attack the enemy. In addition, he wanted to use Austria as a prosperous region to replenish his army, and also intended to use its economic and material resources. He repulsed the Saxon attack and occupied these lands. After this victory, the Prussian king inflicted a series of blows on the Austrians, he even captured the city of Prague for a while, but later the Austrian army defeated him near the city of Kolin. However, the Prussian army was victorious at Leuthen, thus restoring the original balance of power.

Continuation of hostilities

The entry of France into the war greatly complicated the position of the Prussian king, but nevertheless he managed to inflict a serious blow on his new enemy at Rosbach. Then fighting our country started. The Russian army was considered one of the strongest in Europe, but it was unable to realize its advantages largely due to the fact that the commanders of the seven-year war of 1756-1763. failed to take full advantage of its potential. In the very first major battle, the commander of the troops Apraksin, despite the victory over the enemy, unexpectedly gave the order to retreat. The next battle was led by the Englishman Fermor. Under his leadership, Russian troops took part in one of the bloodiest battles during the military campaign of the second year of the war. This battle did not bring any decisive success to either side. one of his contemporaries called the strangest battle.

Victories of Russian weapons

The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which is usually briefly reported in schools in connection with Russia's participation in it, entered its decisive phase of warfare in the third year of its development. This was largely due to the victory won by the Russian army under the leadership of the new commander Saltykov. He was very smart, besides, he was popular among the soldiers. It was under his leadership that the Russian army won its glorious victory at Kunersdorf. Then it was utterly defeated, and the king faced a real threat of capturing the capital of his state. However, instead, the allied army withdrew, as the countries of the anti-Prussian coalition began to accuse each other of violating obligations.

Further course of action

However, the position of Frederick II was extremely difficult. He turned to England for help, asking her to act as an intermediary in holding a peace congress. Seven Years' War 1756-1763 briefly reported in connection with the above battle, nevertheless continued due to the position of Russia and Austria, who intended to deliver a decisive and final blow to their enemy. The Prussian king inflicted damage on the Austrians, but still the forces were unequal. His army lost its combat effectiveness, which affected the conduct of hostilities. In 1760, Russian and Austrian troops occupied the capital of his state. However, they were soon forced to leave it, having learned about the approach of the king. In the same year, the last major battle of the war took place, in which the Prussian king nevertheless emerged victorious. But he was already exhausted: in one battle he lost almost half of his army. In addition, on secondary fronts, his opponents achieved some success.

Final stage

Causes of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 affected the nature of the conduct of hostilities. In fact, the main battles in Europe unfolded between Prussia and Austria with the active participation of our country. However, in connection with the death of the Russian Empress, there was a sharp change in the foreign policy course under her successor. The new emperor returned to the Prussian king all the lands occupied by Russian troops, signed a peace and alliance treaty with him, and even sent his military corps to help him. This unexpected change literally saved Prussia from final defeat.

However, Catherine II, who ascended the throne, canceled this agreement, but nevertheless, not yet feeling confident enough in the capital, she did not resume hostilities. So, by this time, the seven-year war of 1756-1763 had almost ended. Russia took an active part in it, but did not make any territorial acquisitions. The Prussian king, taking advantage of this respite, inflicted several more serious blows on the Austrians, but it became quite obvious that the resources of his country would not be able to continue the bloody battles.

North American Front in Confrontation

The fighting was not limited to the European mainland. A fierce struggle unfolded in the north of America, where the British clashed with the French for spheres of influence. For five years, there was a struggle between both sides for the capture of ports, cities and fortresses. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which is usually briefly discussed only in relation to the clash of powers on the European continent, thus covered the overseas lands. The fiercest confrontation unfolded over Quebec. As a result, France was defeated and lost Canada.

Action in India

The struggle of these powers also unfolded in India, where the British successively ousted the French from their positions. Characteristically, the struggle was both over land and over the sea. Finally, the English troops drove the French out of their positions in 1760. This victory turned England into a major colonial power and finally brought India under her control.

Effects

The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the results of which literally changed the map of Europe and the balance of power between the leading powers, became perhaps the largest military-political clash on the continent in the middle of the 18th century. The results of this serious confrontation led to the redistribution of colonial territories and spheres of influence between states. The main consequence of the struggle was the transformation of England into the largest on the mainland. This country pressed the position of its main opponent France and took a leading position in the expansion of spheres of influence.

Terms of agreements

The results of the seven-year war of 1756-1763. affected, first of all, the redistribution of territories. In the year of the end of hostilities, a treaty was signed according to which France lost Canada, ceding this area to her rival, who also made a number of other major territorial acquisitions. The position of France after this treaty was greatly shaken. However, internal reasons also contributed a lot to this: a serious crisis was brewing in the state itself, which led to a revolution a few decades later.

In the same year, Prussia signed an agreement with Austria, according to which Silesia and some other lands remained behind it. Because of these disputed territories, both powers were in hostile relations for quite some time. But Frederick II, almost immediately after the end of the war, took a course towards rapprochement with our country. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the causes, the results of which determined the development of the European powers for a whole century ahead, distributed allied relations and obligations in a new way. For Russia, the main result was that it acquired great experience conducting hostilities in confrontation with the leading powers of the continent. It was from the participants in the war that the commanders of Catherine's time came out, who ensured a number of brilliant victories for our country. However, the empire did not make any territorial acquisitions. The new ruler did not declare war on the Prussian king, although she terminated the alliance treaty signed by her husband with him.

Position of the parties

Austria lost the largest number of soldiers in this war. The losses of her main enemy were half as much. There is a point of view that more than two million people died as a result of hostilities. In order to participate in the war, Great Britain intensified the exploitation of its North American colonies. In particular, taxes were raised, all kinds of obstacles were created to the development of industry on the continent, which, in turn, caused a violent outburst of discontent among the colonists, who eventually took up arms, starting a war for independence. Many historians are looking for an answer to the question of what allowed Prussia to finally win, despite the fact that several times its ruler found himself in an extremely difficult situation, which more than once threatened him with final defeat. A number of experts identify the following reasons: disagreement between the allies, the death of the Russian empress and an unexpected turn in foreign policy. However, the most important should be recognized, of course, the first reason. At critical and decisive moments, the Allies could not find common language, which led to disagreement between them, which only played into the hands of the Prussian ruler.

For Prussia itself, the victory was extremely important for both domestic and foreign policy development. After the end of the war, it became one of the leading powers in Europe. This accelerated the process of uniting the fragmented German lands into a single state entity, moreover, under the leadership of this country. Thus, this state became the basis of a new European state - Germany. Thus, we can say that the war was of international importance, since its results and results affected not only the situation European countries, but also on the position of colonies on other continents.

Frederick IIFriedrich II, King of Prussia since 1740. Bright representative enlightened
absolutism, the founder of the Prussian-German statehood.

In 1756, Friedrich attacked Austrian allied Saxony and entered Dresden. He justified his
actions by a "preemptive strike", claiming that a Russian-Austrian
a coalition that was ready for aggression. Then followed the bloody Lobozitskaya battle, in
which Frederick won. In May 1757 Frederick took Prague, but then on June 18, 1757
year he was defeated in the Battle of Kolinsky.
The battle of Zorndorf on August 25, 1758 ended with the victory of the Russians (according to the unwritten laws of that
time, the winner was the one who left the battlefield behind; the battlefield of Zorndorf
remained for the Russians), the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759 dealt a moral blow to Friedrich.
The Austrians occupied Dresden, and the Russians Berlin. Victory provided some respite
in the Battle of Liegnitz, but Frederick was finally exhausted. Only contradictions between
Austrian and Russian generals kept it from final collapse.
The sudden death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth in 1761 brought an unexpected deliverance.
The new Russian Tsar Peter III turned out to be a great admirer of Frederick's talent, with whom he
signed a truce. Received power as a result of the palace
coup, Empress Catherine II did not dare to again involve Russia in the war and withdrew all
Russian troops from the occupied territories. Over the next decades, she
maintained friendly relations with Friedrich in line with the policy of the so-called. northern chord.

Pyotr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
By the beginning of the Seven Years' War, Rumyantsev already had the rank of major general. As part of the Russian troops under
under the command of S. F. Apraksin, in 1757 he arrived in Courland. 19 (30) August distinguished himself
at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf. He was entrusted with the leadership of a reserve of four infantry
regiments - Grenadier, Trinity, Voronezh and Novgorod - which was located on the other
side of the forest that bordered the Jagersdorf field. The battle continued from mixed success, and
when the Russian right flank began to retreat under the blows of the Prussians, Rumyantsev, without an order to
on his own initiative he threw his fresh reserve against the left flank of the Prussian infantry.
In January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) went on a new campaign and
occupied Koenigsberg, and then the whole of East Prussia. In summer Rumyantsev's cavalry
(4000 sabers) covered the maneuvers of Russian troops in Prussia, and her actions were
recognized as exemplary. In the battle of Zorndorf Rumyantsev, direct participation
did not accept, however, after the battle, covering Fermor's retreat to Pomerania, 20
dismounted dragoon and equestrian grenadier squadrons of the Rumyantsev detachment were detained
for the whole day, the 20,000th Prussian corps at Pass Krug.
In August 1759, Rumyantsev and his division took part in the Battle of Kunersdorf.
The division was located in the center of the Russian positions, at the height of the Great Spitz. It is she
became one of the main objects of attack by the Prussian troops after they crushed the left flank
Russians. Rumyantsev's division, however, despite heavy artillery fire and
the onslaught of Seydlitz's heavy cavalry (the best forces of the Prussians), repulsed
numerous attacks and went into a bayonet counterattack, which he personally led
Rumyantsev. This blow threw back the army of King Frederick II, and she began to retreat,
pursued by the cavalry.

Willim Villimovich Fermor

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
Fermor's military career peaked during the Seven Years' War. In the rank of General-in-Chief, he
brilliantly takes Memel, contributes to the victory of the Russian troops at Gross-Jegersdorf (1757).
In 1758 he became the commander of the Russian troops instead of S. F. Apraksin,
takes Königsberg and all of East Prussia. Empress Maria Theresa was erected
to the dignity of a count. Unsuccessfully besieged Danzig and Kustrin; commanded the Russians
troops in the battle of Zorndorf, for which he received the Order of Andrei
First-Called and Saint Anne.
Post-war life:
Participated in the battle of Kunersdorf (1759). In 1760 he acted along the banks of the Oder for
distraction of Friedrich's forces, for a short time replaced the ill Saltykov at the post
commander in chief, and at that time one of his detachments (under
command of Totleben) Berlin was occupied. At this time, on duty
officer, and then general on duty at Fermor, the future great Russian
commander A. V. Suvorov.
At the end of the war in 1762 he was dismissed from military service. Appointed next year
governor-general of Smolensk, and after 1764 he headed a commission in the Senate on
salt and wine collections. Empress Catherine II entrusted him with the restoration
the city of Tver, almost completely destroyed by fire. In 1768 or 1770 he came out in
resignation, on September 8 (19), 1771 he died.

Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin

Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin
Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
When Russia concluded an anti-Prussian alliance with Austria, Empress Elizabeth
Petrovna granted Apraksin a field marshal and appointed
commander-in-chief of the active army.
In May 1757, Apraksin's army, numbering up to 100 thousand people, of which -
20 thousand irregular troops set out from Livonia in the direction of the river
Neman. 20 thousandth detachment under the command of General-in-Chief Fermor at
support of the Russian fleet besieged Memel, the capture of which on June 25 (according to the old
style) in 1757 was the signal for the start of the campaign.
Apraksin with the main forces moved in the direction of Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen.
The enemy of the Russian army in East Prussia was left for her
guard corps under the command of Field Marshal Lewald, numbering
30.5 thousand soldiers and 10 thousand militias. Having learned about the bypass movement of the Russian
army, Lewald came out to meet her with the intention of attacking the Russian
troops. General battle between the Prussian and Russian armies
happened on August 19 (30), 1757 near the village of Gross-Egersdorf and ended
the victory of the Russian troops. For five hours of battle, the losses of the Prussian side exceeded
4.5 thousand people, Russian troops - 5.7 thousand, of which 1487 were killed. news about
victory was received with enthusiasm in St. Petersburg, and Apraksin received in his coat of arms
two cannons placed crosswise.

Pyotr Semyonovich Saltykov

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War
In the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) Russian empire spoke
ally of France and Austria. Russia's main adversary in
this war was Prussia, whose army he personally led
King Friedrich II. However, the period of this war from 1757 to 1758
the year was not very successful for the Russian army,
especially after the bloody pyrrhic victory of the Russian troops over
Friedrich's army at Zorndorf. Inefficiency of actions
and the fall of the authority of the commander-in-chief of the Russian
Fermor's troops led to the fact that
Empress Elizabeth dismissed him. Replaced it
in this post Saltykov - the appointment took place in 1759.

Significantly expanded the borders of his state. Prussia, already at the beginning of the war of 1740-1748, which had the third army in Europe in terms of numbers and the first in terms of training, could now create powerful competition for the Austrians in the rivalry for supremacy over Germany. The Austrian Empress Maria Theresa did not want to accept the loss of Silesia. Her dislike for Frederick II was intensified by the religious difference between Catholic Austria and Protestant Prussia.

Frederick II the Great of Prussia - main character Seven Years' War

The Prussian-Austrian enmity was the main cause of the Seven Years' War, but colonial conflicts between England and France were added to it. In the middle of the 18th century, the question was being decided which of these two powers would dominate North America and India. The confusion of European relations led to the "diplomatic revolution" of the 1750s. The two-century feud between the Austrian Habsburgs and the French Bourbons was overcome in the name of common goals. Instead of the Anglo-Austrian and Franco-Prussian alliances that fought each other during the War of the Austrian Succession, new coalitions formed: Franco-Austrian and Anglo-Prussian.

Russia's position on the eve of the Seven Years' War was also complicated. At the St. Petersburg court, supporters of both Austria and Prussia had influence. In the end, the former prevailed, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna moved her troops to support the Habsburgs and France. However, the authority of the "Prussophiles" continued to be strong. Russian participation in the Seven Years' War from beginning to end was marked by indecision and hesitation between the two European factions.

The course of the Seven Years' War - briefly

The alliance of Austria, France and Russia against Prussia was a great secret, but Frederick II managed to find out about it. He decided himself to be the first to attack the not fully prepared allies in order to prevent them from connecting. The Seven Years' War began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony on August 29, 1756, whose elector sided with Frederick's enemies. The Saxon army (7 thousand soldiers) was blocked in Pirna (on the Bohemian border) and forced to surrender. The Austrian commander Broun tried to save the Saxons, but after the battle on October 1, 1756 near Lobositz, the Prussians forced him to retreat. Frederick captured Saxony.

The Seven Years' War continued in 1757. By the beginning of that year, the Austrians had gathered a large force. Three French armies moved against Frederick from the west - d "Estre, Richelieu and Subise, from the east - Russians, from the north - Swedes. The German Sejm declared Prussia a violator of peace. But the English army arrived in Westphalia to help Frederick. The British thought to tie the French with Prussian hands in Europe, in order to decisively push them back in the American and Indian colonies.England had enormous naval and financial power, but her ground army was weak, and was commanded by the incapable son of King George II, the Duke of Cumberland.

Frederick moved to Bohemia (Czech Republic) in the spring of 1757 and on May 6, 1757 inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians near Prague, capturing up to 12 thousand soldiers. He locked another 40 thousand soldiers in Prague, and they almost repeated the fate of the Saxons in Pirna. But the Austrian commander-in-chief Daun rescued his people by moving towards Prague. Frederick the Great, who thought to stop him, was repulsed with heavy damage on June 18 in the battle of Collin and driven back from the Czech Republic.

Seven Years' War. The Life Guards Battalion at the Battle of Collin, 1757. Artist R. Knötel

In the Western theater of the Seven Years' War, the three commanders of the French armies were intriguing against each other: each of them wanted to lead the war alone. Accustomed to luxury, the French officers looked at the campaign as if it were a picnic. They kept going to Paris, carrying crowds of servants with them, and their soldiers needed everything and died in droves from diseases. July 26, 1757 d "Estre defeated the Duke of Cumberland near Hameln. The Hanoverian aristocrats, who thought only of their own benefits, signed a capitulation that gave all of Hanover to the French. The Duke of Cumberland also wanted to approve it, but the British government Pitt Senior prevented this. It succeeded in removing the duke from command and replacing him (on the advice of Frederick the Great) with the German prince Ferdinand of Brunswick.

Another French army (Subise), united with the Austrians, entered Saxony. Frederick the Great had only 25 thousand troops here - half that of the enemy. But when he attacked the enemies at the village of Rosbach on November 5, 1757, they fled in panic even before the entire Prussian army entered the battle. From Rosbach Friedrich went to Silesia. On December 5, 1757, he inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrians near Leuthen, driving them back to the Czech Republic. On December 20, the 20,000-strong Austrian garrison of Breslau surrendered, and all of Europe froze in surprise at the exploits of the Prussian king. His actions in the Seven Years' War were ardently admired even in France.

Attack of the Prussian infantry at the Battle of Leuthen, 1757. Artist Karl Röchling

Even before that, a large Russian army of Apraksin entered East Prussia. On August 30, 1757, it inflicted a defeat on the old Prussian Field Marshal Lewald at Gross-Jägersdorf and in this way opened a way for itself beyond the Oder. However, instead of moving forward, Apraksin unexpectedly retreated back to the Russian border. This act of his was connected with the dangerous illness of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Apraksin either did not want to quarrel with Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, a passionate Prussophile who was supposed to inherit the Russian throne after Elizabeth, or he intended, together with Chancellor Bestuzhev, with the help of his army to force the unbalanced Peter to abdicate in favor of his son. But Elizaveta Petrovna, who was already dying, recovered, and the Russian campaign against Prussia soon resumed.

Stepan Apraksin, one of the four Russian commanders-in-chief in the Seven Years' War

The British government of Pitt continued the Seven Years' War with energy, increasing monetary support for the Prussians. Frederick the Great brutally exploited Saxony and Mecklenburg, which he occupied. In the western theater of the Seven Years' War, Ferdinand of Brunswick in 1758 pushed the French back to the Rhine and defeated them at Krefeld, already on the left bank of the river. But the new, more capable French commander-in-chief, Marshal Contad, again invaded the Rhine and in the fall of 1758 passed through Westphalia to the Lippe River.

In the eastern theater of the Seven Years' War, the Russians, led after the removal of Apraksin by Saltykov, crossed from East Prussia to Brandenburg and Pomerania. Frederick the Great himself unsuccessfully besieged the Moravian Olmutz in 1758, and then moved to Brandenburg and on August 25, 1758 gave the Russian army the battle of Zorndorf. Its outcome was indecisive, but the Russians after this battle chose to retreat from Brandenburg, so it was recognized that they were defeated. Frederick rushed to Saxony, against the Austrians. On October 14, 1758, the rising star of the Austrian army, General Laudon, defeated the king at the Gochkirch thanks to a surprise attack. However, by the end of the year, Frederick's generals had driven the Austrians out of Saxony.

Frederick the Great at the Battle of Zorndorf. Artist Karl Röchling

At the beginning of the 1759 campaign, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick suffered heavy losses in the western theater of the Seven Years' War from the French general Broglie in the battle near Bergen (April 13), not far from Frankfurt am Main. In the summer of 1759, the French commander-in-chief Contad went deep into Germany to the Weser, but then Prince Ferdinand defeated him in the battle of the Prussian Minden and forced him to retreat behind the Rhine and Main. Ferdinand, however, could not build on his success: he had to send 12 thousand soldiers to King Frederick, whose position in the east was very bad.

The Russian commander Saltykov led the campaign of 1759 very slowly and only in July reached the Oder. On July 23, 1759, he defeated the Prussian general Wedel at Züllichau and Kai. This defeat could have been disastrous for Prussia and ended the Seven Years' War. But Saltykov, fearing the imminent death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna and the coming to power of the "Prussophile" Peter III, continued to hesitate. On August 7, he connected with the Austrian corps of Laudon, and on August 12, 1759, he entered the battle of Kunersdorf with Frederick II himself. In this battle, the Prussian king suffered such a defeat that after him he already considered the war lost and thought about suicide. Laudon wanted to go to Berlin, but Saltykov did not trust the Austrians and did not want to assist them in acquiring unconditional hegemony over Germany. Until the end of August, the Russian commander stood motionless in Frankfurt, citing heavy losses, and in October he returned to Poland. This saved Frederick the Great from inevitable defeat.

Pyotr Saltykov, one of the four Russian commanders-in-chief in the Seven Years' War

Frederick began the campaign of 1760 in the most desperate situation. On June 28, 1760, the Prussian general Fouquet was defeated by Laudon at Landsgut. However, on August 15, 1760, Frederick the Great, in turn, defeated Laudon at Liegnitz. Saltykov, who continued to avoid any decisive undertakings, took advantage of this failure of the Austrians to withdraw beyond the Oder. The Austrians moved Lassi's corps on a short raid on Berlin. Saltykov sent Chernyshov's detachment to reinforce him only after a strict order from St. Petersburg. On October 9, 1760, the combined Russian-Austrian corps entered Berlin, stayed there for four days and took an indemnity from the city.

Frederick the Great meanwhile continued to fight in Saxony. On November 3, here, at the Torgau fortress, the most bloody battle Seven Years' War. The Prussians won a brilliant victory in it, but most of Saxony and part of Silesia remained in the hands of their opponents. The alliance against Prussia was replenished: Spain, ruled by a side branch of the French Bourbons, joined it.

But soon the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna (1761) died, and her successor, Peter III, an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick II, not only abandoned all the Russian armies conquests, but even expressed his intention to go over to the side of Prussia in the Seven Years' War. The latter did not happen only because Peter III, after the coup on June 28, 1762, was deprived of the throne by his wife Catherine II. She abstained from any participation in the Seven Years' War, Russia withdrew from it. The Swedes also lagged behind the coalition. Frederick II could now direct all his efforts against Austria, which was inclined towards peace, especially since France fought so ineptly that it seemed to have completely outlived its former military glory of the era of Louis XIV.

The Seven Years' War on the European continent was accompanied by colonial struggle in America and India.

The results of the Seven Years' War - briefly

The results of the Seven Years' War determined the Paris and Hubertsburg Peace Treaties of 1763.

The Peace of Paris in 1763 put an end to the maritime and colonial struggle between France and England. England wrested from the French an entire empire in North America: Southern and Eastern Canada, the Ohio River Valley and the entire left bank of the Mississippi. From Spain, the British received Florida. Until the Seven Years' War, the whole south of India was subject to French influence. Now it was completely lost there, to soon pass to the British.

Results of the Seven Years' War in North America. Map. The British possessions before 1763 are marked in red, the accession of the British following the Seven Years' War is marked in pink

The Hubertsburg Treaty of 1763 between Prussia and Austria summed up the results of the Seven Years' War on the continent. In Europe, the old borders have been restored almost everywhere. Russia and Austria failed to return Prussia to the position of a minor power. However, Frederick the Great's plans for new conquests and the weakening of the power of the Habsburg emperors of Germany to the benefit of the Prussians did not come true.

The war of two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India. One of the coalitions included England and Prussia, the other - France, Austria and Russia . Between England and France there was a struggle for colonies in North America. Here, clashes began as early as 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. In January 1756, the Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, Prussia's main rival, Austria, made peace with its old enemy France. The Austrians hoped to regain Silesia, while the Prussians were going to conquer Saxony. Sweden joined the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to win Stettin and other territories lost during the Great Northern War from Prussia. At the end of the year, Russia joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia in order to later transfer it to Poland in exchange for Courland and Semigallia. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.

The Prussian king Frederick II the Great had a well-trained 150,000-strong army, at that time the best in Europe. In August 1756, with an army of 95 thousand people, he invaded Saxony and inflicted a series of defeats on the Austrian troops who came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, the 20,000-strong Saxon army capitulated at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian troops. After that, the 50,000th Austrian army left Saxony.

In the spring of 1757, Frederick invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet begun the invasion of East Prussia, and France was going to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, 64,000 Prussians defeated 61,000 Austrians near Prague. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian army also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50 thousand Austrians were blocked in Prague by the 60 thousandth army of Frederick. To unblock the capital of the Czech Republic, the Austrians gathered at Kolin the 54,000-strong army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved to Prague. Friedrich fielded 33,000 men with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.

On June 17, 1757, the Prussians began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Kolin from the north, but Down noticed this maneuver in time and deployed his forces with the front to the north. When the next day the Prussians attacked, delivering the main blow against the enemy right flank, she was met with heavy fire. The Prussian infantry of General Gulsen managed to occupy the village of Krzegory, but the tactically important oak grove behind it remained in the hands of the Austrians. Down moved his reserve here. In the end, the main forces of the Prussian army, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, which fired grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flamg went on the attack. Down's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of Frederick's army retreated to Nimburg.

Down's victory was the result of a one-and-a-half superiority of the Austrians in people and a twofold advantage in artillery. The Prussians lost 14,000 killed, wounded and captured, and almost all of their artillery, while the Austrians lost 8,000 men. Frederick was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the Prussian border.

The strategic position of Prussia seemed critical. Allied forces numbering up to 300 thousand people were deployed against Frederick's army. The Prussian king decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then invade Silesia again.

The 45,000-strong allied army occupied a position near Müheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, lured the enemy out of the fortifications with a feigned retreat to the village of Rossbach. The French hoped to cut off the Prussians from crossings over the Saale River and defeat them.

On the morning of November 5, 1757, the allies marched in three columns around the left flank of the enemy. This maneuver was covered by an 8,000-strong detachment, which started a firefight with the Prussian avant-garde. Friedrich guessed the enemy's plan and at half past three in the afternoon ordered to withdraw from the camp and imitate a withdrawal to Merseburg. The allies tried to intercept the escape routes by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. However, she was suddenly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seidlitz.

Meanwhile, under the cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. Allied infantry was forced to line up in battle formation under enemy nuclei. Soon she was under the threat of a flank attack by Seidlitz's squadrons, trembled and ran. The French and their allies lost 7,000 killed, wounded and captured, and all their artillery - 67 guns and a convoy. The losses of the Prussians were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. Here, both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery, and the mistakes of the allied command, affected. The French commander-in-chief started a complex maneuver, as a result of which most of the army was in marching columns and was deprived of the opportunity to participate in the battle. Friedrich got the opportunity to beat the enemy in parts.

Meanwhile, the Prussian troops in Silesia were losing. The king rushed to their aid with 21,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 167 guns. The Austrians settled down near the village of Leiten on the banks of the Weistritsa River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. On the morning of December 5, 1757, the Prussian cavalry drove back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe Frederick's army. Therefore, the attack of the main forces of the Prussians was a complete surprise for the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Charles of Lorraine.

Frederick, as always, struck the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the avant-garde he drew the attention of the enemy to the opposite wing. When Karl realized the true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the Austrians' order of battle was broken. The Prussians took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry routed the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put them to flight. Then Seydlitz also attacked the Austrian infantry, which had previously been pushed back behind Leithen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete annihilation. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all artillery and baggage. The losses of the Prussians did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.

At this time, active hostilities began Russian troops. Back in the summer of 1757, the 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Apraksin S.F. moved to Lithuania, intending to take possession of East Prussia. In August, Russian troops approached Koenigsberg.

On August 19, the 22,000-strong detachment of the Prussian General Lewald attacked the Russian troops near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, having no idea either about the true number of the enemy, who was almost three times superior to him, or about his location. Instead of the left flank, Levald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of the Prussian forces during the battle only exacerbated the situation. The right flank of Lewald turned out to be overturned, which could not be compensated for by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to develop success. The losses of the Prussians amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, the losses of the Russians reached 5.5 thousand people. The Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Egersdorf had no decisive significance.

Unexpectedly, Apraksin ordered a retreat, citing a lack of supplies and separation of the army from their bases. The field marshal was accused of treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by 9,000 Russian troops. This port was turned into the main base of the Russian fleet for the duration of the war.

Instead of Apraksin, General-in-Chief Villim Vilimovich Fermor was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. An Englishman by birth, he was born in Moscow. He was a good administrator, but an indecisive man and a poor commander. Soldiers and officers, mistaking Fermor for a German, expressed dissatisfaction with his appointment to the post of commander in chief. It was unusual for Russian people to observe that under the commander-in-chief, instead of Orthodox priest there was a Protestant chaplain. Upon arrival at the troops, Fermor first of all gathered all the Germans from his headquarters - and there were quite a few of them then in the Russian army - and led them to a tent, where a prayer service was held with strange for Orthodox chants in an unfamiliar language.

The conference set before Fermor at the end of 1757 - the beginning of 1758 the task of mastering the whole of East Prussia and bringing its population to the oath of allegiance to Russia. This task was successfully solved by the Russian troops. In bitter frosts, bogged down in snowdrifts, formations under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev and P.S. Saltykov.

On January 22, 1758, the Russian army occupied Koenigsberg, and after that, the whole of East Prussia. In these operations, Fermor did not even show signs of military talent. Almost all operational and tactical plans were developed and carried out independently by Rumyantsev and Saltykov, and Fermor often interfered with them with his ill-conceived orders.

When the Russian troops entered Königsberg, the burgomaster of the city, members of the magistrate and other officials with swords and in uniforms solemnly came out to meet them. To the thunder of the timpani and the beat of the drums, the Russian regiments entered the city with their banners unfurled. Residents looked with curiosity at the Russian troops. Following the main regiments, Fermor drove into Königsberg. He was handed the keys to the capital of Prussia, as well as to the Pillau fortress, which protected Koenigsberg from the sea. The troops settled down to rest until morning, lit fires for heating, music blared all night, fireworks fired up into the sky.

The next day, thanksgiving prayers of Russians were held in all the churches of Prussia. The single-headed Prussian eagle was everywhere replaced by the double-headed Russian eagle. On January 24, 1758 (on the birthday of the Prussian king, one can easily imagine his condition), the entire population of Prussia swore an oath to Russia - their new homeland! The following fact is cited in history: with his hand on the Bible, the great German philosopher Immanuel Kant took the oath, which was perhaps the most striking episode in his boring life.

The German historian Arkhengolts, who idolized the personality of Frederick II, wrote about this time: “Never before has an independent kingdom been conquered so easily as Prussia. But never have the winners, in the rapture of their success, behaved so modestly as the Russians.

At first glance, these events may seem incredible, some kind of historical paradox: how was this possible? After all, we are talking about the citadel of the Prussian Junkers, from where the ideas of domination over the world originated, from where the German Kaisers took personnel to implement their plans of conquest.

But there is no paradox in this, if we take into account the fact that the Russian army did not capture and occupied Prussia, but joined this ancient Slavic land to Slavic Russia, to Slavic land. The Prussians understood that the Russians would not leave here, they would remain on this Slavic land, once captured German principality of Brandenburg. The war waged by Frederick II devastated Prussia, took people for cannon fodder, horses for cavalry, food and fodder. The Russians who entered the borders of Prussia did not touch the property of local citizens, treated the population of the occupied areas humanely and friendly, even helped the poor in any way they could.

Prussia became a Russian governor-general. It would seem that for Russia the war could be considered over. But the Russian army continued to fulfill its "duties" to the Austrian allies.

Of the battles of 1758, the battle of Zorndorf on August 14, 1758, should be noted, when Frederick, by his maneuver, forced our army to fight on an inverted front. The fierceness of the battle fully corresponded to the name of the place where it took place. Zorndorf (Zorndorf) in German means "angry, furious village." The bloody battle did not end with an operational victory for either side. The result was hard on both sides. Both armies simply crashed into each other. Russian losses - about half of the entire army, Prussians - more than a third. Morally, Zorndorf was a Russian victory and a cruel blow to Friedrich. If earlier he thought with disdain about the Russian troops and their combat capabilities, then after Zorndorf his opinion changed. The Prussian king paid tribute to the steadfastness of the Russian regiments at Zorndorf, stating after the battle: "Russians can be killed to one and all, but you cannot be forced to retreat." http://federacia.ru/encyclopaedia/war/seven/ The resilience of the Russian King Frederick II set as an example to his own troops.

Fermor showed himself in the battle of Zorndorf ... He did not show himself in any way, and in the literal sense of the word. For two hours, the Russian troops withstood the destructive fire of the Prussian artillery. The losses were heavy, but the Russian system stood firm, preparing for the decisive battle. And then Willim Fermor left the headquarters and, together with his retinue, galloped off in an unknown direction. In the heat of battle the Russian army was left without a commander. A case unique in the history of world wars! The battle of Zorndorf was fought by Russian officers and soldiers against the king, proceeding from the situation and showing resourcefulness and ingenuity. More than half of the Russian soldiers lay dead, but the battlefield was left to the Russians.

By the night the battle was over, Fermor appeared from nowhere. Where he was during the battle - there is no answer to this question in historical science. Huge losses and the absence of a specific tactical result for the Russian army - this is the logical result of the battle of Zorndorf, carried out without a commander.

After the battle, Frederick retreated to Saxony, where in the autumn of the same (1758) year he was defeated by the Austrians due to the fact that his best soldiers and officers were killed at Zorndorf. Fermor, after an unsuccessful attempt to capture the heavily fortified Kolberg, led the army to winter quarters in the lower reaches of the Vistula. http://www.rusempire.ru/voyny-rossiyskoy-imperii/semiletnyaya-voyna-1756-1763.html

In 1759, Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal Count Saltykov P.S. By that time, the Allies had put up 440,000 men against Prussia, whom Frederick could only oppose with 220,000. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. July 23 in Frankfurt an der Oder, she joined the Austrian troops. On July 31, Friedrich, with a 48,000-strong army, took up a position near the village of Kunersdorf, hoping to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, which greatly outnumbered his troops.

Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, Frederick attacked the left flank of the allied forces. The Prussians managed to capture an important height here and put up a battery there, which brought down fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussian troops pressed the center and the right flank of the Russians. However, Saltykov managed to create a new front and go on a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated behind the Oder in disarray. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3,000 soldiers at hand, as the rest scattered around the surrounding villages, and they had to be gathered under the banners for several days.

Kunersdorf is the largest battle of the Seven Years' War and one of the brightest victories of Russian weapons in the 18th century. She nominated Saltykov to a number of outstanding Russian generals. In this battle, he used the traditional Russian military tactics - the transition from defense to offensive. So Alexander Nevsky won on Lake Peipsi, Dmitry Donskoy - on the Kulikovo field, Peter the Great - near Poltava, Minikh - at Stavuchany. For the victory at Kunersdorf, Saltykov received the rank of field marshal. The participants in the battle were awarded a special medal with the inscription "To the Victor over the Prussians".

Campaign of 1760

"NOTE. RUSFACT .RU: "...When Friedrich found out that Berlin, during its occupation by the Russians, received only minor damage, he said: "Thanks to the Russians, they saved Berlin from the horrors with which the Austrians threatened my capital." These words were recorded in history by witnesses. But at the same moment, Friedrich gave one of his closest writers the task of writing a detailed memoir about what “atrocities the Russian barbarians committed in Berlin". The task was completed, and malicious lies began to circulate throughout Europe. But there were people, real Germans, who wrote The truth is known, for example, the opinion about the presence of Russian troops in Berlin, which was expressed by the great German scientist Leonhard Euler, who treated both Russia and the king of Prussia equally well. He wrote to one of his friends: “We had a visit here that would have been extremely pleasant under other circumstances. However, I always wished that if Berlin was ever destined to be occupied by foreign troops, then let it be Russians ... "

Voltaire, in letters to Russian friends, admired the nobility, steadfastness and discipline of the Russian troops. He wrote: "Your troops in Berlin make a more favorable impression than all of Metastasio's operas."

... The keys to Berlin were transferred to St. Petersburg for eternal storage, where they are still in the Kazan Cathedral. More than 180 years after these events, the ideological heir of Frederick II and his adorer Adolf Hitler tried to seize St. Petersburg and take the keys to his capital, but this task turned out to be too tough for the demoniac furer ... " http://znaniya-sila.narod. ru/solarsis/zemlya/earth_19_05_2.htm)

Campaign of 1761

Capture of Kolberg (1761). The first Russian attempts to take Kolberg (1758 and 1760) ended in failure. In September 1761 a third attempt was made. This time, the 22,000-strong corps of General Pyotr Rumyantsev, the hero of Gross-Jägersdorf and Kunersdorf, was moved to Kolberg. In August 1761, Rumyantsev, using the tactics of loose formation, new for those times, defeated the Prussian army under the command of the Prince of Württemberg (12 thousand people) on the outskirts of the fortress. In this battle and in the future, the Russian ground forces were supported by the Baltic Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Polyansky. On September 3, the Rumyantsev Corps began the siege. It lasted four months and was accompanied by actions not only against the fortress, but also against the Prussian troops, who threatened the besiegers from the rear. The military council spoke three times in favor of lifting the siege, and only the unyielding will of Rumyantsev made it possible to bring the matter to a successful end. On December 5, 1761, the garrison of the fortress (4 thousand people), seeing that the Russians were not leaving and were going to continue the siege in the winter, capitulated. The capture of Kolberg allowed Russian troops to capture the Baltic coast of Prussia.

The battles for Kolberg made an important contribution to the development of Russian and world military art. Here the beginning of a new military tactic of loose formation was laid. It was under the walls of Kolberg that the famous Russian light infantry, the rangers, was born, the experience of which was then used by other European armies. Near Kolberg, Rumyantsev first used battalion columns in combination with loose formation. This experience was then effectively used by Suvorov. This method of combat appeared in the West only during the wars of the French Revolution.

Peace with Prussia (1762). The capture of Kolberg was the last victory of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War. The news of the surrender of the fortress found Empress Elizabeth Petrovna on her deathbed. The new Russian emperor Peter III concluded a separate peace with Prussia, then an alliance and returned to her free of charge all her territories, which by that time had been captured by the Russian army. This saved Prussia from inevitable defeat. Moreover, in 1762, Frederick managed, with the help of Chernyshev's corps, which was now temporarily operating as part of the Prussian army, to oust the Austrians from Silesia. Although Peter III was overthrown in June 1762 by Catherine II and the union treaty was annulled, the war was not resumed. The number of those killed in the Russian army in the Seven Years' War amounted to 120 thousand people. Of these, approximately 80% were those who died from diseases, including from the smallpox epidemic. The excess of sanitary losses over combat losses was at that time also characteristic of other countries participating in the war. It should be noted that the end of the war with Prussia was not only the result of the moods of Peter III. It had more serious reasons. Russia achieved its main goal - the weakening of the Prussian state. However, its complete collapse was hardly part of the plans of Russian diplomacy, since it primarily strengthened Austria, Russia's main competitor in the future division of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. And the war itself has long threatened a financial catastrophe for the Russian economy. Another question is that the "chivalrous" gesture of Peter III towards Frederick II did not allow Russia to take full advantage of the fruits of its victories.

For Russia, the consequences of the Seven Years' War turned out to be much more valuable than its results. She significantly increased the combat experience, military art and authority of the Russian army in Europe, which had previously been seriously shaken by Minich's wanderings in the steppe. In the battles of this campaign, a generation of outstanding commanders (Rumyantsev, Suvorov) and soldiers were born who achieved striking victories in the "age of Catherine". It can be said that most of Catherine's successes in foreign policy were prepared by the victories of Russian weapons in the Seven Years' War. In particular, Prussia suffered huge losses in this war and could not actively interfere with Russian policy in the West in the second half of the 18th century. In addition, under the influence of impressions brought from the fields of Europe, in Russian society after the Seven Years' War, ideas about agrarian innovations, the rationalization of agriculture, are born. Interest in foreign culture is also growing, in particular, in literature and art. All these sentiments were developed in the next reign.