Our language is holistic and logical correct system. Its smallest unit is sound, its smallest meaningful unit is morpheme. Words, which are considered the basic unit of language, are made up of morphemes. They can be considered from the point of view of their sound, as well as from the point of view of structure, as or as members of a sentence.
Each of the named linguistic units corresponds to a certain linguistic layer, tier. Sound is a unit of phonetics, a morpheme is a unit of morphemics, a word is a unit of vocabulary, parts of speech are a unit of morphology, and sentences are a unit of syntax. Morphology and syntax together make up grammar.
At the level of vocabulary, tropes are distinguished - special turns of speech that give it special expressiveness. Similar means at the syntax level are figures of speech. As we see, everything in the language system is interconnected and interdependent.
Lexical means
Let us dwell on the most striking linguistic means. Let's start with the lexical level of the language, which - recall - is based on words and their lexical meanings.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are close in their lexical meanings. For example, beautiful – wonderful.
Some words or combinations of words acquire a close meaning only in a certain context, in a certain linguistic environment. This context synonyms.
Consider the sentence: “ Day was August, sultry, painfully boring" . Words August , sultry, painfully boring are not synonyms. However, in this context, when characterizing a summer day, they acquire a similar meaning, acting as contextual synonyms.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meaning: tall - low, high - low, giant - dwarf.
Like synonyms, antonyms can be contextual, that is, acquire the opposite meaning in a certain context. Words wolf And sheep, for example, are not antonyms out of context. However, in A.N. Ostrovsky’s play “Wolves and Sheep” two types of people are depicted - human “predators” (“wolves”) and their victims (“sheep”). It turns out that in the title of the work the words wolves And sheep, acquiring the opposite meaning, become contextual antonyms.
Dialectisms
Dialecticisms are words that are used only in certain areas. For example, in the southern regions of Russia beet has another name - beetroot. In some areas the wolf is called the biryuk. Växa(squirrel), hut(house), towel(towel) - all these are dialecticisms. In literary works, dialectisms are most often used to create local color.
Neologisms
Neologisms are new words that have recently entered the language: smartphone, browser, multimedia and so on.
Outdated words
In linguistics, words that have fallen out of active use are considered obsolete. Outdated words are divided into two groups - archaisms and historicisms.
Archaisms– these are outdated names of objects that still exist today. Other names, for example, used to have eyes and a mouth. They were named accordingly eyes And mouth.
Historicisms– words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts and phenomena they denote from everyday use. Oprichnina, corvee, boyar, chain mail- objects and phenomena called by such words, in modern life no, which means these are historicism words.
Phraseologisms
Phraseologisms are adjacent to lexical linguistic means - stable combinations of words reproduced equally by all native speakers. Like snow fell on your head, play spillikins, neither fish nor fowl, work carelessly, turn up your nose, turn your head... There are so many phraseological units in the Russian language and what aspects of life they do not characterize!
Trails
Tropes are figures of speech based on playing with the meaning of a word and giving speech special expressiveness. Let's look at the most popular trails.
Metaphor
Metaphor - the transfer of properties from one object to another based on some similarity, the use of a word in figurative meaning. Metaphor is sometimes called a hidden comparison - and for good reason. Let's look at examples.
Cheeks are burning. The word is used in a figurative meaning are burning. Cheeks seem to be on fire - that’s what hidden comparisons are like.
Sunset bonfire. The word is used in a figurative meaning bonfire. The sunset is compared to a fire, but the comparison is hidden. This is a metaphor.
Expanded metaphor
With the help of metaphor, a detailed image is often created - in this case, not one word, but several, appears in a figurative meaning. Such a metaphor is called expanded.
Here is an example, lines from Vladimir Soloukhin:
"Earth - cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe.”
The first metaphor is Earth is a cosmic body- gives birth to the second - we, people - astronauts.
As a result, a whole detailed image is created - human cosmonauts make a long flight around the sun on an Earth ship.
Epithet
Epithet– colorful artistic definition. Of course, epithets are most often adjectives. Moreover, the adjectives are colorful, emotional and evaluative. For example, in the phrase golden ring word golden is not an epithet, it is a common definition characterizing the material from which the ring is made. But in the phrase gold hair, golden soul - gold, golden- epithets.
However, other cases are also possible. Sometimes a noun plays the role of an epithet. For example, frost-voivode. Voivode V in this case application - that is, a type of definition, which means it may well be an epithet.
Often epithets are emotional, colorful adverbs, for example, funny in a phrase walks merrily.
Constant epithets
Constant epithets are found in folklore and oral folk art. Remember: in folk songs, fairy tales, epics, the good fellow is always kind, the maiden is red, the wolf is gray, and the earth is damp. All these are constant epithets.
Comparison
Likening one object or phenomenon to another. Most often it is expressed in comparative phrases with conjunctions as, as if, exactly, as if or comparative clauses. But there are other forms of comparison. For example, comparative adjectives and adverbs or the so-called instrumental comparison. Let's look at examples.
Time flies, like a bird(comparative turnover).
Brother is older than me(comparative turnover).
I younger than brother(comparative degree of the adjective young).
Squirms snake. (creative comparison).
Personification
Endowing inanimate objects or phenomena with the properties and qualities of living things: the sun is laughing, spring has come.
Metonymy
Metonymy is the replacement of one concept with another based on contiguity. What does it mean? Surely you studied in geometry lessons adjacent angles- angles that have one common side. Concepts can also be related - for example, school and students.
Let's look at examples:
School went out on a cleanup day.
Kiss plate ate.
The essence of metonymy in the first example is that instead of the word students the word is used school la. In the second example we use the word plate instead of the name of what is on the plate ( soup, porridge or something similar), that is, we use metonymy.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is similar to metonymy and is considered a type of it. This trope also consists of replacement - but the replacement must be quantitative. Most often, the plural is replaced by the singular and vice versa.
Let's look at examples of synecdoche.
“From here we will threaten Swede… “- thinks Tsar Peter in A.S. Pushkin’s poem “ Bronze Horseman" Of course, this meant more than one Swede, A Swedes- that is, the singular number is used instead of the plural.
And here is a line from Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: "We all look at Napoleons". It is known that the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was alone. The poet uses synecdoche - uses the plural instead of the singular.
Hyperbola
Hyperbole is excessive exaggeration. “At one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed”, writes V. Mayakovsky. And Gogolsky had trousers “as wide as the Black Sea.”
Litotes
Litotes is the opposite trope of hyperbole, an excessive understatement: a boy with a finger, a man with a nail.
Irony
Irony is hidden mockery. At the same time, we put into our words a meaning that is directly opposite to the true one. “Get off, smart one, your head is delusional”, - such a question in Krylov’s fable is addressed to the Donkey, who is considered the embodiment of stupidity.
Periphrase
We have already considered paths based on the replacement of concepts. At metonymy one word is replaced by another according to the contiguity of concepts, when synecdoche The singular number is replaced by the plural or vice versa.
A paraphrase is also a replacement - a word is replaced by several words, a whole descriptive phrase. For example, instead of the word “animals” we say or write “our little brothers.” Instead of the word "lion" - king of beasts.
Syntactic means
Syntactic means are those linguistic means that are associated with a sentence or phrase. Syntactic means sometimes called grammatical, since syntax, along with morphology, is part of grammar. Let's look at some syntactic means.
Homogeneous members of the sentence
These are members of a sentence that answer the same question, refer to the same word, are one member of a sentence and, in addition, are pronounced with a special intonation of enumeration.
Grew in the garden roses, daisies,bells . — This sentence is complicated by homogeneous subjects.
Introductory words
These are words that more often express an attitude towards what is being communicated, indicate the source of the message or the way the thought is expressed. Let's analyze the examples.
Fortunately, snow.
Unfortunately, snow.
Maybe, snow.
According to a friend, snow.
So, snow.
The above sentences convey the same information (snow), but it is expressed with different feelings (fortunately, unfortunately) with uncertainty (maybe), indicating the source of the message (according to a friend) and the way to formulate thoughts (So).
Dialogue
A conversation between two or more people. Let us recall, as an example, a dialogue from a poem by Korney Chukovsky:
- Who's talking?
- Elephant.
- Where?
- From a camel...
Question-and-answer form of presentation
This is the name for constructing a text in the form of questions and answers to them. "What's wrong with a piercing gaze?" — the author asks the question. And he answers to himself: “Everything is bad!”
Separate members of the sentence
Secondary members of a sentence, which are distinguished by commas (or dashes) in writing, and by pauses in speech.
The pilot talks about his adventures, smiling at the listeners (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by an adverbial phrase).
The children went out into the clearing, illuminated by the sun (a sentence with a separate circumstance expressed by a participial phrase).
Without a brother his first listener and admirer, he would hardly have achieved such results.(offer with a separate widespread application).
Nobody, except her sister, didn't know about it(sentence with a separate addition).
I'll come early at six o'clock in the morning (sentence with a separate clarifying circumstance of time).
Figures of speech
At the syntax level, special constructions are distinguished that give expressiveness to speech. They are called figures of speech, as well as stylistic figures. These are antithesis, gradation, inversion, parcellation, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, etc. Let's look at some of the stylistic figures.
Antithesis
In Russian, antithesis is called opposition. An example of this is the proverb: “Learning is light, but ignorance is darkness.”
Inversion
Inversion is the reverse order of words. As you know, each member of a sentence has its own “legitimate” place, its own position. So, the subject must come before the predicate, and the definition must come before the word being defined. Certain positions are assigned to adverbial and complementary elements. When the order of words in a sentence is violated, we can talk about inversion.
Using inversion, writers and poets achieve the desired sound of a phrase. Remember the poem "Sail". Without inversion, his first lines would sound like this: “A lonely sail whitens in the blue fog of the sea”. The poet used inversion and the lines sounded amazing:
The lonely sail turns white
In the blue sea fog...
Gradation
Gradation is the arrangement of words (usually being homogeneous members, in increasing or decreasing order of their values). Let's look at examples: "This optical illusion, hallucination, mirage« (a hallucination is more than an optical illusion, and a mirage is more than an optical illusion). Gradation can be either ascending or descending.
Parcellation
Sometimes, to enhance expressiveness, the boundaries of a sentence are deliberately violated, that is, parcellation is used. It consists of fragmenting a phrase, which results in the formation of incomplete sentences (that is, constructions whose meaning is unclear outside the context). An example of parcellation can be considered a newspaper headline: “The process has begun. “Backward” (“The process has gone backward,” this is what the phrase looked like before fragmentation).
It is known that no European lexicon can compare with richness: this opinion is expressed by many literary scholars who have studied its expressiveness. It has Spanish expansion, Italian emotionality, French tenderness. Language means, used by Russian writers, resemble the brushstrokes of an artist.
When experts talk about the expressiveness of language, they mean not only the figurative means that they study at school, but also an inexhaustible arsenal of literary techniques. There is no unified classification of figurative and expressive means, however, linguistic means are conventionally divided into groups.
In contact with
Lexical means
Expressive means, working at the lexical language level, are an integral part literary work: poetic or written in prose. These are words or figures of speech used by the author in a figurative or allegorical meaning. The most extensive group of lexical means of creating imagery in the Russian language is literary tropes.
Varieties of Tropes
There are more than two dozen tropes used in the works. Table with examples combined the most used ones:
| № | Trails | Explanation of the term | Examples |
| 1 | Allegory | Replacing an abstract concept with a concrete image. | “In the hands of Themis”, which means: at justice |
| 2 | These are paths based on figurative comparison, but without using conjunctions (as, as if). Metaphor involves transferring the qualities of one object or phenomenon to another. | Murmuring voice (the voice seems to murmur). | |
| 3 | Metonymy | Substitution of one word for another, based on the contiguity of concepts. | The class was noisy |
| 4 | Comparison | What is comparison in literature? Comparison of objects based on similar characteristics. Comparisons are artistic media, highly imaginative. | Simile: hot as fire (other examples: turned white like chalk). |
| 5 | Personification | Transferring human properties to inanimate objects or phenomena. | The leaves of the trees whispered |
| 6 | Hyperbola | These are tropes that are based on literary exaggeration, helping to enhance a certain characteristic or quality on which the author focuses the reader’s attention. | Lots of work. |
| 7 | Litotes | Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon. | A man with a fingernail. |
| 8 | Synecdoche | Replacing some words with others regarding quantitative relations. | Invite for pike perch. |
| 9 | Occasionalisms | Artistic means created by the author. | The fruits of education. |
| 10 | Irony | Subtle ridicule based on an outwardly positive assessment or a serious form of expression. | What do you say, smart guy? |
| 11 | Sarcasm | A caustic, subtle mockery, the highest form of irony. | The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm. |
| 12 | Periphrase | Substituting words with similar ones lexical meaning expression. | King of beasts |
| 13 | Lexical repetition | In order to strengthen the meaning of a particular word, the author repeats it several times. | Lakes all around, deep lakes. |
The article provides main trails, known in the literature, which are illustrated in a table with examples.
Sometimes archaisms, dialectisms, and professionalisms are considered tropes, but this is not true. These are means of expression, the scope of which is limited to the depicted era or area of application. They are used to create the flavor of an era, a described place or a working atmosphere.
Specialized means of expression
- words that once called objects familiar to us (eyes - eyes). Historicisms denote objects or phenomena (actions) that have come out of everyday life (caftan, ball).
Both archaisms and historicisms - means of expression, which are readily used by writers and screenwriters who create works on historical topics (examples are “Peter the Great” and “Prince Silver” by A. Tolstoy). Poets often use archaisms to create a sublime style (womb, right hand, finger).
Neologisms are figurative means of language that entered our lives relatively recently (gadget). They are often used in literary texts to create an atmosphere youth environment and images of advanced users.
Dialectisms - words or grammatical forms , used in colloquial speech residents of the same area (kochet - rooster).
Professionalisms are words and expressions that are characteristic of representatives of a certain profession. For example, a pen for a printer is, first of all, spare material that is not included in the issue, and only then a place for animals to stay. Naturally, a writer telling about the life of a hero-printer will not ignore the term.
Jargon is the vocabulary of informal communication used in the colloquial speech of people belonging to a certain social circle. For example, language features text about the lives of students will allow us to use the word “tails” in the sense of “exam debt”, and not parts of the body of animals. This word often appears in works about students.
Phraseological phrases
Phraseological expressions are lexical linguistic means, whose expressiveness is determined by:
- Figurative meaning, sometimes with a mythological background (Achilles' heel).
- Each one belongs to the category of high stable expressions (sink into oblivion) or colloquial expressions (hang your ears). These can be linguistic means that have a positive emotional connotation (golden hands - a load of approving meaning), or with a negative expressive assessment (small fry - a shade of disdain for a person).
Phraseologisms are used, to:
- emphasize the clarity and imagery of the text;
- build the necessary stylistic tone (colloquial or sublime), having previously assessed the linguistic features of the text;
- express the author's attitude to the information being communicated.
The figurative expressiveness of phraseological turns is enhanced due to their transformation from well-known to individually authored: to shine throughout Ivanovskaya.
A special group is aphorisms ( idioms ). For example, happy hours are not observed.
Aphorisms include works folk art: proverbs, sayings.
These artistic means are used quite often in literature.
Attention! Phraseologisms like figurative and expressive Literary devices cannot be used in a formal business style.
Syntactic tricks
Syntactic figures of speech are phrases used by the author to better convey the necessary information or general meaning text, sometimes to give the passage an emotional overtones. These are what they are syntactic means expressiveness:
- Antithesis is a syntactic means of expressiveness based on opposition. "Crime and Punishment". Allows you to emphasize the meaning of one word with the help of another, opposite in meaning.
- Gradations are means of expressiveness that use synonymous words, arranged according to the principle of increase and decrease of a sign or quality in the Russian language. For example, the stars shone, burned, shone. This lexical chain highlights the main conceptual meaning of each word – “to shine.”
- Oxymoron - straight opposite words, located nearby. For example, the expression “fiery ice” figuratively and vividly creates the contradictory character of the hero.
- Inversions are syntactic means of expression based on unusual sentence construction. For example, instead of “he sang,” it is written “he sang.” The word that the author wants to highlight is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
- Parcellation is the deliberate division of one sentence into several parts. For example, Ivan is nearby. Stands, looks. The second sentence usually contains an action, quality or attribute that takes on the author's emphasis.
Important! These figurative means Representatives of a number of scientific schools classify them as stylistic. The reason for replacing the term lies in the influence exerted by the expressive means of this group on the style of the text, although through syntactic constructions.
Phonetic means
Sound devices in the Russian language are the smallest group of literary figures of speech. This is the special use of words with the repetition of certain sounds or phonetic groups for the purpose of depicting artistic images.
Usually like this figurative language used by poets in poetic works, or writers in lyrical digressions when describing landscapes. The authors use repeated sounds to convey thunder or the rustling of leaves.
Alliteration is the repetition of a series of consonants creating sound effects, which enhance the imagery of the described phenomenon. For example: “In the silky rustle of snow noise.” The intensification of the sounds S, Ш and Ш creates the effect of imitating the whistle of the wind.
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in order to create an expressive artistic image: “March, march - we wave the flag // We march to the parade.” The vowel “a” is repeated to create an emotional fullness of feelings, a unique feeling of universal joy and openness.
Onomatopoeia is a selection of words that combine a certain set of sounds that creates a phonetic effect: the howl of the wind, the rustling of grass and other characteristic natural sounds.
Means of expression in the Russian language, tropes
Using expressive words
Conclusion
It is the abundance of figurative means expressiveness in Russian makes it truly beautiful, juicy and unique. Therefore, foreign literary scholars prefer to study the works of Russian poets and writers in the original.
Means of expression are special artistic and rhetorical techniques, lexical and grammatical means language that attracts attention to the utterance. They are used to give speech expression, emotionality, clarity, and make it more interesting and convincing. Means of expression have long been considered as an important component rhetorical canon(see Chapter 4).
The means of expression are trails And figures.
Trails- these are figures of speech based on the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning (epithet, comparison, metaphor, etc.). Figures of speech, or rhetorical figures, are special forms of syntactic constructions with the help of which the expressiveness of speech and the degree of its impact on the addressee are enhanced (repetition, antithesis, rhetorical question, etc.). Tropes are based on verbal imagery, while figures are based on syntactic imagery.
There are several main types of tropes.
I. Comparison- a figurative expression based on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three components: firstly, that which is compared, secondly, that with which it is compared, and thirdly, that on the basis of which one is compared with another. As an example, we can cite the statement of the famous physiologist I. P. Pavlov: “Like the perfect wing of a bird, it could never lift it up without relying on the air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to fly. Without your “theories” are empty attempts.”
II. Epithet - an artistic definition that makes it possible to more vividly characterize the qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enriches the content of the statement. For example, geologist A.E. Fersman uses epithets to describe precious stones: a brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green; bright golden “peridot” of the Urals, a beautiful sparkling demantoid stone; a whole range of tones connects weakly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines.
III. Metaphor - this is the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in shape, color, function, etc.): “golden autumn”, “dead silence”, “iron will”, “sea of flowers”. Metaphor is also called a figurative designation in artistic, poetic speech or in journalism of any object or phenomenon based on its similarity with another object or phenomenon: capitalist sharks, political games, score points, nationalist card, paralysis of power, dollar injection. A metaphor should be distinguished from a comparison, which is usually formalized using the conjunctions “as,” “as if,” “as if,” or can be expressed in the instrumental case of a noun. A successful metaphor activates perception and is well remembered:
The dome of the museum rises two steps away, below boils[Zanlavskaya Square - I made a rather large circle (L. Kabakov. Everything can be fixed).
“And in general,” said Perkhushkov, choking with melancholy, “how scary and difficult it is to live in the world, friends! What dramas, collisions, hurricanes, storms, tornadoes, cyclones, anticyclones, typhoons, punamis, mistrals, barguzins, khamsins and boreas, not speaking of longenfengs, they happen at every step in our spiritual life!” (T. Tolstaya. Limpopo).
The Shcherbinsky case became the “uranium rod” that, being lowered into our Russian political reactor, would trigger the process of fission of the civilian nucleus (“Results”. 2006. M 13).
In literary and journalistic texts, an extended metaphor can be used, which is based on several associations of similarity:
The ship of your health has run aground. It needs to be towed, refloated, and then, when there is free water under its keel, it will float on its own. Medicines are a tug, free water is time, and the ability to swim on your own is restored adaptive capabilities (advertising).
Metaphors play a significant role in shaping the picture of the world. The famous researcher of political rhetoric A.P. Chudinov proceeds from the fact that the system of metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the spirit of the times. He explored the following basic metaphors of modern Russian reality: criminal ("political showdowns"), militaristic ("opposition camp", "show a united front"), medical ("paralysis of power", "separatism syndrome"), gaming ("nationalist card" , "gain points"), sports ("come to the finish line", "pick up speed").
The idea that the type of politician can be determined by the nature of his speech behavior, in particular by the metaphorical models that he chooses, has become firmly established in the public consciousness. For example, the persistence of the militaristic model “Russia is a military camp” is explained by the fact that numerous wars have influenced all generations of Russians. This model provokes the verbal deployment of the scenario “War and all its varieties”: informational, psychological warfare, election campaign, ideological, pre-election front, go on the offensive, all-round defense, smoke screen, take revenge, state of siege, economic blockade, ordinary party soldiers. The militaristic metaphor is dangerous because it simplifies reality, imposing alternatives: either enemy - or friend, or black - or white.
IV. Metonymy based on contiguity. If, when creating a metaphor, two objects, phenomena, actions must be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy, two objects or phenomena that receive the same name must be adjacent, closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the names of capitals to mean “government of the country”, the words “audience”, “class”, “school”, “apartment”, “house”, “factory”, “collective farm” to designate people, naming a product made of material as the same as the material itself (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay), for example: Moscow is preparing a return visit; London has not yet made a final decision; Negotiations between Moscow and Washington; Five houses in our area have changed management companies; Our athletes received gold and silver, bronze went to the French.
V. Paraphrase - replacing a word with a descriptive expression that allows you to characterize any features of what is being said. Often the basis of periphrases is metaphorical transfer. Paraphrases are often found in means mass media. Successful, fresh paraphrases help to enliven speech, help avoid repetition, and enhance emotional assessment: an earthquake is an “underground storm,” a forest is “green wealth,” a forest (forests) are “the lungs of the planet,” journalists are “the fourth estate,” AIDS is “ plague of the 20th century.", chess - "gymnastics of the mind", Sweden - "land of the Vikings", St. Petersburg - "Venice of the North", Japan - "land of the rising sun".
VI. Hyperbole - this is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, phenomenon, object or its properties; it is used to enhance the artistic impression, emotional impact (“He rushed faster than lightning”; “The berries this year grew as big as a fist”; “He is so thin, like a skeleton”). Due to the hyperbole, the subject of the speech appears exceptional, often incredible: “From the Urals to the Danube, to the big river, swaying and sparkling, the regiments are moving” (M. Lermontov). Hyperbole is actively used both in commercial advertising to exaggerate the functional qualities and aesthetic properties of goods and services (“Bounty is a heavenly delight”), and in propaganda (“fateful decisions”, “the only guarantor of the Constitution”, “evil empire”).
VII. Litota - a trope that is the opposite of hyperbole and consists of a deliberate weakening, downplaying of the property or attribute that is being spoken about (“a little guy”, “two steps from here”, “wait a second”).
VIII. Irony - using a name or even an entire statement in the opposite of its literal sense, deliberately stating the opposite of what the speaker actually thinks. The highest degree of irony - sarcasm. Irony is usually revealed not formally, but on the basis of background knowledge or context (“Listen to this intellectual: now he will dot all the i’s” - about a poorly educated, narrow-minded person; “Well, how could this man of honor break the law” - about a swindler).
IX. Among the rhetorical figures stands out repeat, intended primarily for demonstration strong feeling. Often this is simply a repetition of a certain word. Here is an example of using the repetition technique in a speech by D. S. Likhachev:
Russian culture, simply because it includes the cultures of a dozen other peoples and has long been associated with the neighboring cultures of Scandinavia, Byzantium, the southern and western Slavs, Germany, Italy, the peoples of the East and the Caucasus, is a universal culture and tolerant of the cultures of others peoples This the last line Dostoevsky clearly described it in his famous speech at the Pushkin celebrations. But Russian culture is also European because it has always been, at its deepest core, devoted to the idea of personal freedom... ("O
There are several types of repetition.
1. Anaphora - repetition of words at the beginning of adjacent segments of speech. For example: “give yourself the unique grace of French makeup, give yourself a piece of French charm.” The famous speech of Martin Luther King, a fighter for the rights of the black population in the United States, is built on the anaphora “I have a dream.” Another example of anaphora is a fragment of an article by the famous poet V. I. Ivanov “Thoughts on Symbolism”:
So, I am not a symbolist if I do not, with an elusive hint or influence in the listener’s heart, evoke indescribable sensations, sometimes similar to an initial memory... sometimes like a distant, vague premonition, sometimes like the thrill of someone’s familiar and desired approach...
I am not a symbolist...if my words do not directly convince him of the existence of hidden life where his mind did not suspect life; if my words do not move in him the energy of love for that which until then he did not know how to love, because his love did not know how many abodes it has.
I am not a symbolist, if my words are equal...
2. Epiphora - This is the repetition of words at the ends of adjacent segments of speech. As an example, we can cite a fragment of the speech of American President F. D. Roosevelt “On Four Freedoms”:
In the future... we will see a world built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second is freedom of religious cultures everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which... means mutual understanding in the sphere of economic relations, ensuring for each state a peaceful, prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which... means the reduction of armaments throughout the world to such an extent that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world.
- 3. Joint - This is the repetition of words on the boundaries of adjacent segments within a sentence or on the border of sentences. For example: “Only here, here and nowhere else”; “This cannot but be called a crime. Other actions of the authorities should also be called a crime.”
- 4. Syntactic parallelism - This is a repetition of the same type of syntactic units in the same type of syntactic positions. Let us give an example of the use of this figure by Academician D. S. Likhachev:
Let us have heroes of the spirit, ascetics who give themselves to serve the sick, children, the poor, other nations, saints, finally. Let our country again be the birthplace of Oriental studies, the country of “small nations”, their preservation in the “Red Book of Humanity”. Let the unconscious desire to devote oneself entirely to some holy cause, which has so distinguished Russians at all times, again take its rightful place (“O national character Russians").
Syntactic parallelism is also used in advertising: Children build for fun, you build for them.
Syntactic parallelism may be accompanied by an antithesis: “A strong governor - great rights, a weak governor - no rights; a public politician - the republic is known in the country, a non-public politician - no one knows about it.”
X. Antithesis - a figure based on the opposition of compared concepts, for example in proverbs and sayings: “A smart person will teach, a fool will get bored”; "It's easy to make friends, hard to be separated." The antithesis was used by Cicero in his famous speech against Senator Catiline:
A sense of honor fights on our side, arrogance on the other side; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deception; here - valor, there - crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - a shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, all virtues fight injustice, corruption, laziness, recklessness, and all sorts of vices; finally, abundance battles poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, and finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
XI. Inversion - rearranging parts of a sentence, breaking the usual word order to emphasize certain words. This is often associated with cases where the predicate comes before the subject in order to highlight new information in the sentence. For example: “Spring evenings are nice”; “History is made by people, and not by some objective laws of history”; “The whole team honored the hero of the day”; “No matter how difficult it is, we must do it.” Inversion can also be used for stylization: “We sit at long, oak, uncovered tables. The servants serve rusk kvass, daily cabbage soup, rye bread, boiled beef with onions and buckwheat porridge.” (V. Sorokin. Day of the Oprichnik).
XII. Parcellation - this is the division of the original utterance into two or more independent, intonationally isolated segments, for example: “They know. They remember. They believe”; “A person was always beautiful if his name sounded proud. When he was a fighter. When he was a discoverer. When he was daring. When he did not give in to difficulties and did not fall to his knees in the face of trouble”; "He went too. To the store. To buy apples."
Parcelation usually serves to convey the features of living things in written text. oral speech and is actively used in fiction and journalism: “But she didn’t get sick. She lied. But there are lies, and there are lies. And only a strong opponent should lie, and then a lie is an event. You can lie and die. Or kill. lies, nothing changes in you. It neither decreases nor increases..." (A. Gosteva. Daughter of a samurai).
Parcelation is impossible in official business and scientific speech.
XIII. A rhetorical question - a question-exclamation that does not require an answer, but conveys a message about something: “Do you think that I don’t know this?”; “Is there another city like ours!”; “What does this mean?... The famous reformer, the “architect of reforms,” could not do anything against the adoption of the law. How can we trust such a country now?
D. S. Likhachev uses a whole complex of rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical questions in his speech “On the National Character of Russians”:
There was legislation, "Russian Truth". “Code of Law”, “Code”, which defended the character and dignity of the individual. Is this not enough? Isn't it enough for us? popular movement to the East in search of freedom from the state and a happy Belovodsk kingdom? ...Do not constant riots and such leaders of these riots as Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev and many others testify to the ineradicable desire for personal freedom? And the northern fires, in which hundreds and thousands of people burned themselves in the name of loyalty to their beliefs! What other uprising can we contrast with the Decembrist one, in which the leaders of the uprising acted against their property, estate and class interests, but in the name of social and political justice? And the village gatherings, which the authorities were constantly forced to reckon with! And all Russian literature, which has strived for social justice for a thousand years!
Traditional means of expressiveness, developed over centuries, are still the most important means of creating effective, impactful speech, but only their skillful, proportionate and appropriate use will avoid artificiality and false pathos.
Fine means of expressive language are artistic and speech phenomena that create the verbal imagery of the narrative: tropes, various forms of instrumentation and rhythmic and intonation organization of the text, figures.
In the center are examples of the use of visual means of the Russian language.
Vocabulary
Trails– a figure of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning. Paths are based on internal rapprochement, comparison of two phenomena, one of which explains the other.
Metaphor- a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another based on similarity of characteristics.
(p) “The horse is galloping, there is a lot of space,
The snow is falling and the shawl is laying down"
Comparison- comparison of one object with another based on their similarity.
(p) “Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
Stands alone in the entire Universe"
Personification- a type of metaphor, the transfer of human qualities to inanimate objects, phenomena, animals, endowing them with thoughts with speech.
(p) “The sleepy birch trees smiled,
Silk braids disheveled"
Hyperbola- exaggeration.
(p) “A yawn tears wider than the Gulf of Mexico”
Metonymy- replacement of the direct name of an object or phenomenon with another that has a causal connection with the first.
(p) “Farewell, unwashed Russia,
Country of slaves, country of masters..."
Periphrase– similar to metonymy, often used as a characteristic.
(p) “Kisa, we will still see the sky in diamonds” (we will get rich)
Irony- one of the ways of expressing the author’s position, the author’s skeptical, mocking attitude towards the depicted.
Allegory– the embodiment of an abstract concept, phenomenon or idea in a specific image.
(p) In Krylov’s fable “Dragonfly” is an allegory of frivolity.
Litotes– an understatement.
(p) “... in big mittens, and he’s as small as a fingernail!”
Sarcasm- a type of comic, a way of demonstrating the author’s position in a work, caustic ridicule.
(p) “I thank you for everything:
For the secret torment of passions... the poison of kisses...
For everything I was deceived by"
Grotesque– a combination of contrasting, fantastic and real. Widely used for satirical purposes.
(p) In Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita,” the author used the grotesque, where the funny is inseparable from the terrible, in a performance staged by Woland in a variety show.
Epithet– a figurative definition that emotionally characterizes an object or phenomenon.
(p) “The Rhine lay before us all silver...”
Oxymoron- a stylistic figure, a combination of opposite in meaning, contrasting words that create an unexpected image.
(p) “heat of cold numbers”, “sweet poison”, “living corpse”, “ Dead Souls».
Stylistic figures
Rhetorical exclamation- the construction of speech, in which a particular concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation, in a heightened emotional form.
(p) “Yes, it’s just witchcraft!”
A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer.
(p) “What summer, what summer?”
Rhetorical appeal- an appeal that is conditional in nature, imparting the necessary intonation to poetic speech.
Stanza ring– sound repetition located at the beginning and at the end of a given verbal unit - lines, stanzas, etc.
(p) “The darkness gently closed”; " Thunder skies and guns thunder"
Multi-Union- such a construction of a sentence when all or almost all homogeneous members are interconnected by the same conjunction
Asyndeton- omission of unions between homogeneous members, giving thinness. speech compactness, dynamism.
Ellipsis- an omission in speech of some easily implied word, part of a sentence.
Parallelism– concomitance of parallel phenomena, actions, parallelism.
Epiphora– repetition of a word or combination of words. Identical endings of adjacent poetic lines.
(p) “Baby, we are all a bit of a horse!
Each of us is a horse in our own way...”
Anaphora- unity of beginning, repetition of the same consonances, words, phrases at the beginning of several poetic lines or in a prose phrase.
(p) “If you love, it’s crazy,
If you threaten, it’s not a joke..."
Inversion- a deliberate change in the order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase special expressiveness.
(p) “Not the wind, blowing from above,
Touched the sheets on the moonlit night..."
Gradation– use of funds artistic expression, consistently strengthening or weakening the image.
(p) “I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry...”
Antithesis– opposition.
(p) “They came together: water and stone,
Poems and prose, ice and fire..."
Synecdoche– transfer of meaning based on the convergence of the part and the whole, the use of singular parts. instead of plural
(p) “And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced...”
Assonance– repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in verse,
(p) “my son grew up on nights without a smile”
Alliteration– repetition or consonance of vowels
(p) “Where the grove of neighing guns neighs”
Refrain– exactly repeated verses of the text (usually its last lines)
Reminiscence – in a work of art (mainly poetic) certain features inspired by the involuntary or deliberate borrowing of images or rhythmic-syntactic moves from another work (someone else’s, sometimes one’s own).
(p) “I have experienced a lot and many”
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As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important constituent element his artistic means. Proper Use vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.
In context, a word is a special world, a mirror of the author’s perception and attitude to reality. It has its own metaphorical precision, its own special truths, called artistic revelations; the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.
Individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is, first of all, the self-expression of an individual. The literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotionally affecting image of a particular work of art. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring, creating a unique world that we discover for ourselves while reading the text.
Not only in literary, but also in oral, we use, without thinking, various techniques artistic expressiveness in order to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, and imagery. Let's figure out what artistic techniques there are in the Russian language.
The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.
Metaphor
Artistic techniques in literature cannot be imagined without mentioning the most important of them - the method of creating language picture world based on the meanings already existing in the language itself.
The types of metaphors can be distinguished as follows:
- Fossilized, worn out, dry or historical (bow of a boat, eye of a needle).
- Phraseologisms are stable figurative combinations of words that are emotional, metaphorical, reproducible in the memory of many native speakers, expressive (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
- Single metaphor (eg homeless heart).
- Unfolded (heart - “porcelain bell in yellow China” - Nikolay Gumilyov).
- Traditionally poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
- Individually-authored (sidewalk hump).
In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, periphrasis, meiosis, litotes and other tropes.
The word “metaphor” itself means “transfer” in translation from Greek. In this case, we are dealing with the transfer of a name from one item to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some similarity, they must be adjacent in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects in some way.
As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, metaphor is one of the most striking means of expressiveness of artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the lack of expressiveness of the work.
A metaphor can be either simple or extensive. In the twentieth century, the use of expanded ones in poetry is revived, and the nature of simple ones changes significantly.
Metonymy
Metonymy is a type of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means “renaming,” that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word with another based on the existing contiguity of two concepts, objects, etc. This is the imposition of a figurative word on the direct meaning. For example: “I ate two plates.” Mixing of meanings and their transfer are possible because objects are adjacent, and the contiguity can be in time, space, etc.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means “correlation.” This transfer of meaning occurs when the smaller is called instead of the larger, or vice versa; instead of a part - a whole, and vice versa. For example: “According to Moscow reports.”
Epithet
It is impossible to imagine the artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, without an epithet. This is a figure, trope, figurative definition, phrase or word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action with a subjective
Translated from Greek, this term means “attached, application,” that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.
The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness.
Constant epithets are used in folklore as a means of typification, and also as one of the most important means of artistic expression. IN strict meaning of the term, only those of them belong to the tropes, the function of which is words in a figurative meaning, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed in words in direct meaning(red berry, beautiful flowers). Figurative ones are created when words are used in a figurative meaning. Such epithets are usually called metaphorical. Metonymic transfer of name may also underlie this trope.
An oxymoron is a type of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, forming combinations with defined nouns of words that are opposite in meaning (hateful love, joyful sadness).
Comparison
Simile is a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this is a comparison of different objects by similarity, which can be both obvious and unexpected, distant. It is usually expressed using certain words: “exactly”, “as if”, “similar”, “as if”. Comparisons can also take the form of the instrumental case.
Personification
When describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a type of metaphor that represents the assignment of properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. It is often created by referring to such natural phenomena as conscious living beings. Personification is also the transference of human properties to animals.
Hyperbole and litotes
Let us note such techniques of artistic expression in literature as hyperbole and litotes.
Hyperbole (translated as “exaggeration”) is one of the expressive means of speech, which is a figure with the meaning of exaggerating what is being discussed.
Litota (translated as “simplicity”) is the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is being discussed (a boy the size of a finger, a man the size of a fingernail).
Sarcasm, irony and humor
We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be complemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.
- Sarcasm means "tearing meat" in Greek. This is evil irony, caustic mockery, caustic remark. When using sarcasm, a comic effect is created, but at the same time there is a clear ideological and emotional assessment.
- Irony in translation means “pretense”, “mockery”. It occurs when one thing is said in words, but something completely different, the opposite, is meant.
- Humor is one of the lexical means of expressiveness, translated meaning “mood”, “disposition”. Sometimes entire works can be written in a comic, allegorical vein, in which one can sense a mocking, good-natured attitude towards something. For example, the story “Chameleon” by A.P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I.A. Krylov.
The types of artistic techniques in literature do not end there. We present to your attention the following.
Grotesque
The most important artistic techniques in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "bizarre". This artistic technique represents a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the works of, for example, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The Golovlevs,” “The History of a City,” fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of a hyperbole.
Sarcasm, irony, humor and grotesque are popular artistic techniques in literature. Examples of the first three are the stories of A.P. Chekhov and N.N. Gogol. The work of J. Swift is grotesque (for example, Gulliver's Travels).
What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel “Lord Golovlevs”? Of course it's grotesque. Irony and sarcasm are present in the poems of V. Mayakovsky. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, and Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic techniques in literature, examples of which we have just given, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.
Pun
A pun is a figure of speech that represents an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that arises when used in the context of two or more meanings of a word or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.
In puns, the play on words is based on homonymy and polysemy. Anecdotes arise from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A.P. Chekhov.
Figure of speech - what is it?
The word "figure" itself is translated from Latin as " appearance, outline, image." This word has many meanings. What does this term mean in relation to artistic speech? Syntactic means of expression related to figures: questions, appeals.
What is a "trope"?
“What is the name of an artistic technique that uses a word in a figurative sense?” - you ask. The term “trope” combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litotes, hyperbole, personification and others. Translated, the word "trope" means "turnover". Literary speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special turns of phrase that embellish the speech and make it more expressive. IN different styles different ones are used means of expression. The most important thing in the concept of “expressiveness” for artistic speech is the ability of a text or a work of art to have an aesthetic, emotional impact on the reader, to create poetic pictures and vivid images.
We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them evoke positive emotions in us, others, on the contrary, excite, alarm, cause anxiety, calm or induce sleep. Different sounds evoke different images. Using their combination, you can emotionally influence a person. Reading works of literature and Russian folk art, we perceive their sound especially keenly.
Basic techniques for creating sound expressiveness
- Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
- Assonance is the deliberate harmonious repetition of vowels.
Alliteration and assonance are often used simultaneously in works. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.
Technique of sound recording in fiction
Sound recording is an artistic technique that is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, the selection of words that imitate sounds real world. This technique in fiction is used both in poetry and prose.
Types of sound recording:
- Assonance means “consonance” in French. Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It promotes the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm and rhyme of poems.
- Alliteration - from This technique is the repetition of consonants in a literary text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
- Onomatopoeia is the transmission of auditory impressions in special words reminiscent of the sounds of phenomena in the surrounding world.
These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.