Church schism of the 17th century in Rus' and the Old Believers. History of Russia XVII century

Considering the 17th century, events and changes of rulers, historians characterize this period as a “rebellious century,” a century when an “unborn sovereign” could ascend to the royal throne. It was in this century that the dynasty of the last emperor of Russia, the family, began. The Russian economy still rests on agriculture, new territories are being developed in the Volga region, Siberia and on the southern borders. The first manufacture is born.

Trade in a landlocked country is developing poorly. Changes are taking place in cultural life - the spread of secular knowledge; in painting, architecture and sculpture there is a distance from the canons of the church. The church itself is weakened and is being subordinated to the state. Speaking about the 17th century, the events of the internal and external activities of the state, we should turn to a somewhat earlier period - the death and ascension to the reign of Boris Godunov.

Boris Godunov

Boris Fedorovich Godunov, after the death of his father in 1569, was raised by his uncle, the landowner Dmitry Godunov. He served as an oprichnik for Grigory (Malyuta) Skuratov, who headed the “oprichnina investigation” under Ivan IV, and was married to his daughter. Having become a boyar in the fall of 1580, Boris Fedorovich and his relatives, gaining influence, acquired a significant position among the nobility of Moscow. Intelligent, careful, able to choose the right moment for action, Godunov had necessary qualities policy.

Boris Fedorovich, in last years reign of Ivan the Terrible, was close to the tsar and influenced his court. After the death of Ivan IV, Fedor, his son, was crowned on the throne. The king, suffering from dementia, needed an adviser, a country to govern. A guardian council was drawn up from among the boyars, and Godunov was included among these boyars. Thanks to his skillful actions, the council collapsed, Boris Godunov's opponents were subjected to various repressions. Actual power in the state passed to Boris Fedorovich.

In 1581, under strange circumstances (from a knife wound), the young Tsarevich Dmitry died, in 1589, Fyodor Ioannovich died. Amid the crowd's cries of “Boris for the Tsar,” Godunov was crowned the Tsar. This is how the Rurik dynasty ended. Strengthening state foundations was the core of Boris Fedorovich’s policy, which he pursued within the country. The introduction of the patriarchate in 1859 strengthened the position of the tsar. Thanks to the adherence to the line, the internal policy of the tsarist government was productive.

On the outskirts of Rus', fortifications and fortresses are appearing, urban construction is underway, and “Yuriev Day” is being restored. Boris Fedorovich was the first to invite foreign specialists to work and send noble offspring to study abroad. In order to unite society, he stopped repressions against the boyars. He began to develop the Volga region. Godunov's foreign policy characterizes him as a skilled diplomat. He was able to conclude a successful peace treaty with Sweden, returning the captured Russian lands. The lean years of 1601–1603 and the onset of famine caused massive discontent among the population and led to a riot led by Cotton in 1603—the first mass uprising of the “rabble,” which was soon suppressed.

False Dmitry I

The year 1603 was marked not only by the rebellious performance of Cotton. This year, “Tsarevich Dmitry” appears - the fugitive monk Otrepiev, known as. Wanting to get Western Russian lands, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III decides to use the impostor for his own purposes. The king gives the money necessary for the army and allows the nobility to participate in the campaign. The impostor promises to marry the daughter of the Sambir elder Mniszek - Marina, give the western territories to the Poles and contribute to the introduction of Catholicism in Rus'.

In the summer of 1604, a four-thousand-strong combined detachment, led by False Dmitry I, landed near the Dnieper. The detachment is replenished with villagers and townspeople, False Dmitry advances to Moscow. In May 1605, fate presented a gift to the impostor - Tsar Boris Fedorovich suddenly died. Part of the government troops went over to his side and in June 1605, False Dmitry I occupied the capital, where he was crowned on the throne. By making concessions to the nobility, the impostor increases the search period for fugitive peasants, but the “Yuriev Day” promised to the people was not returned. He quickly emptied the state treasury, giving gifts to the gentry, however, he was in no hurry to spread Catholicism. The dissatisfied mood of the Moscow nobility and among the common people intensified after his wedding to M. Mnishek. On May 17, 1606, in Moscow, under the leadership of the Shuisky boyars, an uprising began - and False Dmitry I was killed.

Vasily Shuisky

In 1606, the Zemsky Sobor elected Vasily Shuisky, who had previously distinguished himself in battles and campaigns, as king. During his reign, an uprising broke out under the leadership of a Polish mercenary with the goal of elevating Tsar Dmitry to the throne. In October 1606, rebel troops even besieged Moscow. The uprising itself was suppressed in October 1607, Bolotnikov was executed. In the same year, False Dmitry II appears with Marina Mnishek as his wife. The impostor's attempt to ascend the throne failed - he was killed in 1610. Dissatisfied with Shuisky's rule, the nobles, led by Procopius Lyapunov, overthrow him and in July 1610 hand him over to King Sigismund. Subsequently, Shuisky was tonsured a monk.

"Seven Boyars" and the Polish intervention

The leadership of the state passes to a group of boyars (“seven boyars”), headed by Fyodor Mstislavsky. As a result of intrigues and disagreements over who should rule the state, a decision was made to “call to the throne” Prince Vladislav, the son of King Sigismund III. Being a Catholic, Vladislav did not intend to change his faith to Orthodox - as tradition required. Having agreed to come to the “bride” in Moscow, where he arrived with the army. It was possible to defend the independence of the country only with the help of the people. The first independent militia was assembled in Ryazan in the fall of 1611 by Prokopiy Lyapunov - but he was killed after entering into conflict with the Cossacks.

Second militia. Minin and Pozharsky

The second militia was assembled at the end of 1611, in Nizhny Novgorod under the leadership of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and with money collected by the merchant Kuzma Minin. The militia, commanded by Pozharsky, moved to Yaroslavl - where in the spring, in 1612, a new government was created. After staying in Yaroslavl for four months, determining tactics and recruiting people, the militia begins active operations. The fighting on the outskirts of Moscow, and in the city itself, continued throughout the summer and until October 26, 1612. The Poles fled.

Mikhail Romanov

At the Zemsky Sobor, which took place at the beginning of 1613 with the representation of broad sections of the population, under pressure from the Cossacks, sixteen-year-old Mikhail Romanov was elected tsar. The Romanovs were related to Ivan IV through his first wife. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Philaret, was captured by the Poles, and his mother took monastic vows. Upon the return of Father Mikhail from captivity in 1619, dual power sets in in the country - with the formal rule of Mikhail and the practical leadership of the country by Filaret.

This situation continued until 1633 - until the death of Filaret. During Mikhail's reign, taxes were reduced, the activity of foreign entrepreneurs intensified, who were allowed to build factories, and the growth of the metallurgical and metalworking industry began. Foreign policy was balanced, with virtually no wars. Mikhail Romanov died in 1645.

Alexey Romanov

After the death of his father, his son, Alexei, ascends to the throne. And during his reign, Alexey Mikhailovich, nicknamed “The Quietest,” carried out a number of transformations and reforms, incl. church and city. In 1645 it was published Cathedral Code. The Code consolidated the inviolability of the power of the monarch, finally formalized serfdom and strengthened the role of the nobles. Thanks to church reform, Alexei Mikhailovich was able to take control of the church. For this purpose, he legislated:

• the church is obliged to pay taxes to the treasury;
• the king was the judge of the church;
• deprived monasteries of the right to acquire land.

Patriarch Nikon, who also dealt with issues of church reformation - introducing foreign experience into Russian Orthodoxy, spoke out against the rise of secular power over spiritual power. caused opposition from supporters of the old church traditions, led by Archpriest Avaakum. And the church schism began. As a result:

• for opposition to strengthening the influence of the monarch, Patriarch Nikon was defrocked and imprisoned in a monastery prison;
• Archpriest Avaakum, for refusing to follow the official line of the church, was defrocked and cursed at the cathedral.

The city reform established:

• being recognized as free, the townspeople were assigned to their place of residence;
• peasants could now sell their goods only wholesale, and townspeople could conduct retail trade.

Period of Sophia's regency

In 1676, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, his sick son Fyodor was crowned to the throne; power was practically in the hands of relatives on his mother’s side. After his death, in 1682, the actual management of the state passed to Princess Sophia - due to the minority of princes Ivan and Peter and lasted until 1689. Results of her reign:

liberation of the townspeople from mandatory attachment to the city;

unsuccessful Crimean campaigns allow us to conclude that it is necessary to find a direct access to the sea.

Results

The 17th century is a time of unrest and contradictions in the history of the Russian state. With the dominant position of the feudal structure in the country's economy, the emergence of a capitalist economic system begins. Serfdom was being formalized, but given the general difficult situation of the people, it was he who could help the contender to the royal throne ascend, to ascend the throne.

Time of Troubles. The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, the weak and sickly Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598) became his heir and tsar.

A struggle for power within the country began. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts by external forces to eliminate the state independence of Russia. Throughout almost the entire century, it had to fight off the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and the raids of the Crimean Tatars - vassals Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Russia went through a period called the Time of Troubles. XVII century marked the beginning of the peasant wars; This century marks the revolt of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the schism Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called it rebellious.

The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the Tsar's brother-in-law Boris Godunov (1598-1605), Fyodor Godunov (from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605 - May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II ( 1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).

Boris Godunov won the difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian Tsar to receive the throne not by inheritance, but by election at the Zemsky Sobor. During his short reign, he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, resolving controversial issues with Poland and Sweden for 20 years; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe.

Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603 Russia was hit by a “great famine” caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed slaves to leave their masters, distributed bread from state storehouses to the hungry.

However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, which was led by Cotton Crookedfoot. Many historians consider this uprising to be the beginning of the Peasant War.

The highest stage of the Peasant War at the beginning of the 17th century. (1606-1607) there was an uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, in which slaves, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, as well as the nobles who joined them, took part. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops of Vasily Shuisky (the new Russian Tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, etc.

In October-December 1606, the rebels besieged Moscow, but due to disagreements and betrayal of the nobles, they were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. In the summer and autumn of 1607, together with the detachments of the slave Ilya Gorchakov (Ileika Muromets, ?–ca. 1608), the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered and the uprising was suppressed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.

At such a critical moment, an attempt was made at Polish intervention. The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II.

Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars.

The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call the young Polish king Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610, a Swedish intervention began with the goal of separating Pskov, Novgorod, and the northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia.

• End of the intervention. The fight for Smolensk
• The Council Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
• Foreign policy
• Domestic political situation
• Economy of Russia in the 17th century.

Causes of the Time of Troubles:

1. Dynastic crisis. The end of the Rurik dynasty.
2. Russia's emerging lag behind the West is leading to the emergence of a large number of supporters of development along the Western path. Poland is cited as a role model, which by this time was turning into an aristocratic republic (“Rzeczpospolita” - “republic” in Polish). The Polish king is elected by the Sejm. Boris Godunov is also becoming a moderate “Westerner.”
3. Growing public dissatisfaction with the government.

The election of Boris Godunov as Tsar in 1598 is considered to be the beginning of the Time of Troubles. The new Tsar prepared a project of reforms and pursued a fairly successful foreign policy. The relatively calm course of events was interrupted by crop failures and a terrible famine in 1601-1603. The population, driven to despair, blamed the new king for all their troubles. It was believed that famine was God’s punishment for Godunov’s murder of Tsarevich Dmitry.

1602-1604 – Khlopok uprising in Ukraine and southern Russia.

In 1602, False Dmitry I appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the fugitive monk Grigory Otrepiev, who declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry. He was supported by the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III, Polish-Lithuanian magnates and gentry. One of the magnates even betrothed his daughter Marina Mnishek to False Dmitry.

December 1604 The city of False Dmitry, at the head of a small detachment, crossed the border of Rus' and was defeated by the royal army near Dobrynichi. However, he received massive support from the Russian population, who had long been awaiting the arrival of a legitimate sovereign. The triumphal campaign of False Dmitry against Moscow begins. In April 1605, Boris Godunov died suddenly. His 16-year-old son Fedor became Tsar. In June, a coup took place in Moscow - Fedor and his mother were killed and the impostor took the throne.

Having become king, False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill the promises made to the Poles - to introduce Catholicism in Russia, transfer Smolensk to Poland, etc. At the same time, with his Polish manners and reluctance to restore “St. George’s Day,” he also disappointed the Russian population. Rumors about the Tsar’s adoption of Catholicism for the sake of marriage with Marina Mnishek added fuel to the fire. May 17 1606 Mr. False Dmitry was killed. Vasily Shuisky, a supporter of the traditional Russian way of life, became Tsar.

The struggle of various segments of the population against the boyar tsar began already in 1606. It was led by Ivan Bolotnikov, a former military serf, posing as the governor of False Dmitry. Bolotnikov's army consisted of peasants, serfs, townspeople, Cossacks and nobles dissatisfied with the boyars. On the eve of the decisive battle near Moscow in December 1606, a significant part of the nobles, led by Prokopiy Lyapunov, went over to Shuisky’s side, which ensured the Tsar’s victory. Bolotnikov's army retreated to Tula, was besieged there and capitulated in October 1607. One of the reasons for the king's victory was his promise to grant forgiveness to the rebel slaves. Bolotnikov and part of the rebels were executed.

In 1607, a new False Dmitry appeared on the southwestern outskirts of Rus' - False Dmitry II. He pretended to be Dmitry, who had survived (for the second time). His words were confirmed by Marina Mnishek, who recognized False Dmitry as her husband. False Dmitry II no longer received such massive support from the population as False Dmitry I, so he was unable to gather significant forces. In 1608 he approached Moscow and became a camp in Tushino(hence the nickname Tushino thief). A confrontation began between the boyar tsar, sitting on the throne in Moscow, and the Tushino impostor. In fact, the country was divided into two parts. Both have kings, orders, Boyar Dumas and even patriarchs: in Moscow - Hermogenes, in Tushino - Filaret.

Unable to cope with the Tyshinsky thief, Shuisky entered into an agreement with Sweden in February 1609. He gave the Karelian volost to the Swedes, receiving military assistance in return. However, the Swedes were in no hurry to help Shuisky. At the same time, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sigismund III, who was constantly at enmity with Sweden, regarded this treaty as a desired pretext for open intervention against Russia. In September 1609 The city of Sigismund besieged Smolensk. In 1610, False Dmitry, whom Sigismund no longer needed, was killed by the Poles. Initially, the fight against Polish aggression was relatively successful. A talented young commander, nephew of the Tsar, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky was able to win a number of victories. However, his glory as a winner frightened Vasily Shuisky. Skopin-Shuisky was poisoned. IN 1610 The Polish hetman Khodkevich defeated Shuisky's army in a general battle near the village of Klushino (west of Mozhaisk).

July 17th 1610 The boyars and nobles, led by Hermogenes, overthrew Shuisky, who had lost all authority. Before the election of a new tsar, power in Moscow passed into the hands of a government of 7 boyars - seven-boyars. The seven-boyars were headed by boyar F. Mstislavsky.

On the initiative of Filaret, in order to stop the intervention, Sigismund's son Vladislav was invited to the throne. At the same time, conditions were set: Vladislav had to promise to preserve the Moscow order and accept Orthodoxy. Although Sigismund did not agree to the last condition, the agreement was nevertheless concluded. In 1610, a Polish army led by Voivode Gonsevsky entered Moscow, who, as Vladislav's governor, was supposed to rule the country. However, the Polish intervention continues. Sweden, which took the overthrow of Shuisky as a release from all obligations, occupied a significant part of the north of Rus' and began the siege of Novgorod.

Under these conditions, in Ryazan in 1611, a First militia, whose goal was to liberate the country from invaders and enthrone the Russian Tsar. A significant part of the Tushino nobles and Cossacks, as well as a few boyars who supported the impostor, sided with him. The leader of the militia was the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov, who headed Council of the whole earth(the governing body of the militia). The militia besieged Moscow and after the battle on March 19, 1611, captured most of the city; however, China Town remained with the Poles. A long siege of Moscow began, complicated by contradictions between the leaders of the besiegers. They were most clearly manifested in the relationships between the leaders of the nobles and Cossacks - Prokopiy Lyapunov and the Cossack ataman Ivan Zarutsky. The desire of the nobles to restore the despotic state and serfdom did not satisfy the Cossacks. Constant clashes ended in the summer of 1611 with the murder of Lyapunov, after which most of the nobles left the militia.

In June 1611 Smolensk fell, the defense of which was led by boyar Mikhail Borisovich Shein. A month later, the Swedes captured Novgorod. In conditions when the independent existence of the Russian people was under threat, in the east of the country, in Nizhny Novgorod, in the fall of 1611, a Second militia. Its main organizer was the merchant Kuzma Minin, while Prince D.I., a member of the first militia, was elected as its leader. Pozharsky. Having gathered large forces, the militia entered Moscow in May 1612, merging with the remnants of the first militia, and completely blockaded the Kremlin. October 26 (November 4) 1612 The Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated.

In January 1613 The 3emsky Council met in Moscow, at which 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Patriarch Filaret (in the world - the former guardsman of the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov), was elected the new Tsar of Rus'. This event is generally considered to mark the end of the Time of Troubles, although foreign intervention still continued. IN 1617 The Stolbovo Peace Treaty was concluded with the Swedes: Russia returned Novgorod, but lost the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland. IN 1618 In the village of Deulino, a truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Russia ceded Smolensk and a number of cities and lands located along the western border.

Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the 17th century.

After the Time of Troubles, Russia underwent a restoration process for almost three decades. Only from the middle of the 17th century. New, progressive trends begin to appear in the economy:

1. Process in progress zoning– economic specialization of various regions. In the north-west, in the Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk lands, flax, hemp (hemp) and other industrial crops are cultivated. The northeast - Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod lands - begins to specialize in cattle breeding. The black earth regions (their development began in the 17th century) and the Volga region grow wheat. The Moscow region (including Tula) is becoming a center of metallurgy.
2. Peasant farming is undergoing noticeable development crafts: in the north-west - weaving, in the north-east - leather. The original Filimonovsky craft (Filimonovskaya toy) appears in the Tula region.
3. The increasing exchange of agricultural and commercial products led to the emergence of trade centers - fairs. In total there were about 80 of them, three of which were central: Makaryevskaya (Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya (Southern Urals) and Svenskaya (near Bryansk).
4. Production gains small-scale character (sales oriented).
5. A new phenomenon in the economy has become manufactories – large productions with a division of labor, mostly manual. Number of manufactories in Russia XVII V. was insignificant. The only industry in which they arose was metallurgy.
6. The coin system was improved. Under Mikhail Fedorovich, the silver ruble, consisting of one hundred kopecks, became the national coin.

The presence of these trends, new for Russia, indicates the formation of single all-Russian market, i.e. global national system of commodity exchange.

Socially, the nobility is becoming an increasingly significant force. While continuing to give land to service people for their service, the government avoided taking them away. Increasingly, estates are inherited, i.e. are becoming more and more like fiefdoms and the state, interested in strengthening the nobility, contributes to this process.

IN 1649 G. Council Code Serfdom was finally formalized: the search for fugitives became indefinite. This enslavement was still of a formal nature - the state did not have the strength to actually attach the peasantry to the land. In addition, the Cathedral Code brought the estate and patrimony even closer together.

The authorities took measures to maintain the trading class. In 1653 it was adopted Trade charter, which established high protectionist tariffs.

Zemsky Sobors under the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei Mikhailovich ( 1645-1676 gg.) cease to convene. The last full-fledged council was convened in December 1653 and decided to annex Ukraine to Russia. The tsarist government took control of the Boyar Duma, introducing into it duma clerks and nobles (up to 30% of the composition), who unconditionally supported the tsar. Thus, in Russia the transition to absolutism, i.e. unlimited power of the monarch.

Proof of the increased strength of the tsarist power and the weakening of the boyars was the abolition of 1682 city ​​of localism. The boyars were thus deprived of class privileges when appointed to positions and, in this sense, were equal in rights with the nobles.

The administrative bureaucracy, which served as a support for the tsar, strengthened and expanded. The order system becomes cumbersome and clumsy: by the end of the 17th century. there were more than 70 orders, some of them were functional in nature - Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, etc., and some were territorial - Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc. An attempt to control it with the help of the Secret Affairs order was unsuccessful.

On the ground in the 17th century. Elected governing bodies are finally becoming obsolete. All power passes into the hands of to the governors appointed from the center.

In the second half of the 17th century. appear in Russia new shelves(infantry) and Reiter regiments(cavalry), in which “willing people” - volunteers - served for a salary. At the same time, it was built on the Volga "Eagle"- the first ship capable of withstanding sea voyages.

One of the main problems during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Quiet ( 1645-76 gg.) the question arises of overcoming the voluntary international isolation of Russia. The king creates an island of European life on Lake Kukui - German settlement- a colony for emigrants from Europe. By his order it opens Slavic-Greek-Latin School(later, from 1687, an academy), training translators and diplomats. However, the expansion of ties with the West is hampered by the church, which, moreover, claims control over the state. This trend arose under Mikhail Fedorovich, since his father, Patriarch Filaret, actually ruled the country.

Alexey Mikhailovich, trying to undermine the economic power of the church, creates a Monastic Order to manage its property.

To weaken the influence of the church on public life and expand ties with the West, Alexei Mikhailovich begins 1654 d. church reform. Patriarch Nikon became the main ideologist of the reform. The reason for the reform was the need to correct church books (translations from Greek at the beginning of the 11th century), in which a lot of errors had accumulated over the centuries. The Greek originals became the model for correction, which in itself meant the church’s recognition of the possibility of cultural borrowing from Europe. In addition, church rituals were slightly changed: triplicate was introduced, the Catholic cross was allowed along with the Orthodox one, etc.

The reform had a colossal meaning:

1. The centuries-old spiritual isolation of Russian society began to collapse. Conditions have been created for future global transformations of society.
2. The state, having become the initiator of the reform, confirmed its priority right to govern society. This was confirmed by the Great Moscow Council of 1666-1667. The same council, at the insistence of Alexei, dismissed Nikon, who tried to strengthen his power.
3. The reform led to Schism– the division of society into supporters and opponents of the reform (schismatics), led by Archpriest Avvakum. As a sign of protest, schismatics go to sparsely populated areas or commit burning– self-immolation. The fight against schismatics will reach its climax under Peter I and will continue almost until the middle of the 19th century. >

Russian foreign policy in the 17th century.

Russia's first priority in foreign policy was the return of Smolensk, the most important fortress on the western border, captured by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Time of Troubles.

IN 1632-1634 gg. Russia led Smolensk war, which ended in victory for Poland. The Peace of Polyanovsky in 1634 left Smolensk for the Poles. However, the war also had a positive meaning - the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Wladyslaw IV renounced claims to Russian throne.

In 1648, an uprising broke out in Ukraine, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. The uprising began with the victories of the Cossacks over the troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, from 1651 the Ukrainian army began to suffer defeats. Khmelnitsky turned to Russia for support. In 1653, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, and then, in 1654 G., Pereyaslavskaya Rada in Ukraine they spoke in favor of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia. After this, another Russian-Polish war began.

The first actions of the Russian troops were successful: in 1654, they returned Smolensk and captured a significant part of Belarus, which rebelled against the Poles. However, without bringing this war to an end, in 1656 Russia started a new war with Sweden, trying to break through to the Baltic Sea. The protracted struggle on two fronts continued with varying degrees of success. In the end, Russia achieved much less than desired. According to the Treaty of Kardis with Sweden (1661), Russia returned to it all the Baltic territories captured during the war. It was not possible to achieve complete success in the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: according to Andrusovo truce (1667 d.) Russia received Smolensk, Left Bank (Eastern) Ukraine and part of Right Bank Ukraine with Kiev and Zaporozhye Sich. Signed the Andrusovo Truce on the part of Russia A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin.

After these wars, Russia’s relations with the Ottoman Empire, which laid claim to the territory of Left Bank Ukraine, sharply deteriorated. In 1677, the united Ottoman-Crimean army besieged Chigirin, a Russian fortress in Ukraine. In 1678 it was captured, but the siege of Chigirin weakened the Ottomans and they no longer had enough strength for other military actions. IN 1681 An agreement was signed in Bakhchisarai, according to which the Turks recognized Russia’s right to its Ukrainian territories. In these events, Prince V.V. first became famous as a commander. Golitsyn.

IN 1686 Russia concluded the Eternal Peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, according to which Eastern Ukraine was forever assigned to our country. Under the same treaty, Russia became a member of the Holy League - a union of Austria, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Venice, created to fight the Ottoman Empire.

Popular movements in the 17th century.

Contemporaries called the 17th century rebellious. A characteristic feature of this time was uprisings in cities and on the outskirts of the state.

Reasons for popular protests:

1. The increase in military spending, which forces the government of Alexei Mikhailovich to introduce more and more new forms of taxes.
2. General strengthening of state control over society. Enslavement of the peasants.
3. Church reform. Many popular uprisings became part of the schismatic movement.

In the mid-1640s. A high duty on salt was introduced, which caused the price to rise sharply. In 1647, the government abandoned the salt duty; however, in 1648 g. flared up "Salt Riot", directed against the initiators of its introduction: boyar Morozov, city mayor Shaklovity, Duma deacon Chisty, guest(merchant engaged in foreign trade) Vasily Shorin and others. The revolt was supported by the archers, who also suffered from rising salt prices and had not received a salary for a long time. Taken by surprise, the government extradited or executed most of the figures hated by the crowd.

In 1650, an uprising began in Pskov. It was suppressed by one of Alexei Mikhailovich’s comrades, boyar A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin.

In 1662, the government, experiencing an acute shortage of precious metals, tried to replace the silver coin with a copper one. It made all its payments in copper money, and collected taxes in silver. This policy caused "Copper Riot" In July 1662 An excited crowd burst into the village of Kolomenskoye, the summer residence of Alexei Mikhailovich, and the archers had difficulty coping with the rebels. The authorities temporarily refused to issue copper coins.

From the middle of the 17th century, in connection with the search for fugitive peasants in the southern regions, the government's relations with the Don Cossacks became complicated. Constant conflicts between them led to the Cossack uprising of Stepan Razin.

At the first stage of the uprising (1669-1670 - so-called. Hike for zipuns) - Razin makes predatory campaigns in Persia and attacks trade caravans. Having plundered the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Razin returned to Astrakhan with great booty and the glory of an invincible leader.

In the spring of 1670, the second stage of the uprising began. Razin openly opposed the tsarist government. The participation of peasants in his army gave the campaign an anti-serfdom character, so with reservations it can be called a peasant war. Having captured Tsaritsyn in April, Razin returned to Astrakhan in June and proclaimed his power here. In the summer of 1670, Saratov and Samara went over to Razin’s side, and peasant unrest thus covered a vast territory. Only near Simbirsk is it large, but poorly trained and armed peasant army was broken. Razin fled to the Don where he was captured and handed over to the authorities by the rich ( homely) Cossacks. In 1671, Stepan Razin was executed in Moscow.

Another popular performance was Solovetskoe uprising 1667-1676 – one of the brightest pages in the history of the Schism. The uprising, which was purely anti-reform in nature, was suppressed only after the betrayal of one of the defenders of the Solovetsky Monastery.

17th century culture

The main trend in the development of culture of this period was secularization, manifested in all areas of culture.

XVII century was characterized by a noticeable increase in literacy among various segments of the population. Teaching aids are becoming widespread. Was especially popular "Primer" Vasily Burtsev (1633).

Secondary schools appeared where they studied foreign languages and other subjects (1640s - private school of boyar F. Rtishchev for young nobles; 1650s - school in the Chudov Monastery; 1660s - public school for clerks). In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School acquired the status of an academy and became the first higher educational institution in Russia.

A handwritten newspaper, Chimes, was distributed at the royal court.

Works of social thought at the beginning of the century were created under the fresh impression of the Time of Troubles, the turbulent events of which were viewed in them from various points of view. Clerk Ivan Timofeev in "Vremennik"(1620s) condemned Ivan the Terrible and Godunov, who exterminated the boyars and thereby, in his opinion, weakened the tsarist power. Abraham Palitsyn in his "Tales" blamed the Russian people for forgetting religion and morality.

In the middle and second half of the 17th century. the works of Simeon of Polotsk appear (the first monuments of poetry and drama), "Policy" Yuri Krizhanich, which substantiates the usefulness of autocracy for the development of the country. Simeon Polotsky became the teacher of the older children of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Among the works containing sharp criticism of state power and the official church, stands out "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" - a kind of autobiography written by the spiritual leader of the Schism.

The process of secularization in literature is especially clearly manifested in the growing popularity of works in such genres as everyday stories and satire.

Everyday stories were devoted to the themes of the clash between the younger and older generations, the moral choices of the heroes, and their personal experiences ( "The Tale of Misfortune"- mid-17th century; "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"- 1660s; "The Tale of Frol Skobeev"- 1680s). The main characters are merchants and poor nobles, as a rule, people of an adventurous disposition who easily reject the patriarchal foundations and moral standards of the past.

Social conflicts of the 17th century. gave rise to another genre - satire, which parodied the lives ( "The Lay of Hawkmoth"), legal proceedings ( “Shemyakin Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”), ridiculed the life of monks ( "Kalyazin Petition").

The tent style finally became the dominant style of church architecture. However, already in the second half of the 17th century. he is gradually losing his position. Churches of the mid-17th century, as a rule, violated the cross-domed pattern, were distinguished by asymmetry and extremely rich decorative decoration of the facades (Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, Trinity in Nikitniki; Yaroslavl churches of Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom). This style of architecture is called "Naryshkinskoe"(or Moscow, or northern) baroque. Of the civil buildings, the most remarkable were the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin and the wooden palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye (which has not survived to this day).

The Kremlin Armory Chamber controlled the activities of painters. In icon painting of the first half of the 17th century. The “Stroganov School” continued to dominate, whose masters (Procopius Chirin) devoted all their art to the careful and technically perfect execution of the canons. In the second half of the 17th century. A notable phenomenon is the painting of Simon Ushakov, in which realistic tendencies are already evident: he paints icons taking into account the anatomical structure of the face, using chiaroscuro and perspective. ( "Savior Not Made by Hands"). New features of pictorial art appeared in parsunah– portraits of real persons (Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, young Peter I), made in an iconographic manner.

From this time, the reign of the Romanov dynasty in Russia began, which lasted more than three hundred years, until February 1917. State power in Russia was restored in the form of an estate-representative monarchy, which gradually evolved into an absolute one. The first Romanovs - Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645), his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) and grandson Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682) were able to stabilize the difficult situation in the country, where devastation and chaos reigned, and strengthen their position. This time required action - in Russian state it was necessary to eliminate the backlog European countries in the economic, industrial, trade, management, educational and military fields, which is what the first Romanovs did. Thus, the 17th century became a new period in the history of Russia, a period when great changes took place in the economic, political and social spheres.

The Polish-Swedish intervention, wars with Poland and Sweden, and the Time of Troubles led Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. to the “great Moscow ruin.” The main task facing Russia was to restore the country’s destroyed economy, internal order and stability. The restoration of the destroyed economy took several decades and was largely completed only by the middle of the 17th century. due to the growth of local land ownership. The new Romanov dynasty generously distributed land, as a result of which there were practically no black-mown lands left in the center of the country. Extensive methods (development of the Volga region and Siberia) made it possible to achieve high yields. Areas appear where the production of commercial bread begins. However, in general, subsistence farming continues to dominate the country.

Feudal land ownership was strengthened and expanded, and the peasants were finally enslaved (after the adoption of the Council Code of 1649). It was in the 17th century. Two forms of exploitation developed: corvée (in the Black Earth Region) and quitrent (in kind and cash). Labor productivity remained at the same, extremely primitive level. A new phenomenon in the development of the economy compared to previous times was the strengthening of its connection with the market. The population of Russia was increasingly involved in trade and fishing activities.

In the 17th century the development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence of manufactories. However, unlike Western Europe, manufactories appeared in heavy industry not as a reaction to the extensive expansion of the sales market, but as a state necessity. The owners of Russian manufactories were foreign merchants or the state. The first state-owned manufactories arose in the 16th century. (Pushkarsky Dvor, Mint). Manufactories founded with the support of the state were called “possession”.

In connection with the specialization of regions and the transition of crafts to the stage of small-scale production, the formation of an all-Russian market takes place, i.e. Trade relations began to be established between various regions, the center of which continued to be Moscow.

The main form of trade was the fair (seasonal annual wholesale trade), which took place in the fall or spring. This form of trade was the most optimal for any Russian person. The largest shopping center was, of course, Moscow. The most famous were the Makaryevskaya fair near Nizhny Novgorod, the Irbitskaya fair in the Urals, and the Svenskaya fair near Bryansk. Small traders sold goods (usually everyday needs) by peddling. Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. Carpets, fabrics, metal products, cloth, paints, and wines were imported to Russia. Russia exported hemp (raw material for ship ropes), furs, leather, and industrial lard. The only port city was Arkhangelsk. All foreign trade was concentrated in the hands of foreign merchants, while the Russians had neither ships, nor capital, nor education, nor a certain organization. In order to reduce the penetration of foreign merchants deep into the country, in 1663. a corresponding trade charter was issued, which replaced numerous trade duties single tax 5%, and for foreign merchants - 6% (trade in Arkhangelsk), and within the country - 8%. In 1667 a new trade charter was adopted, which prohibited trade between foreigners, retail trade to foreign merchants, and also introduced double duties for them if they traded within the country.

General development state power in Russia in the 17th century. was characterized by a gradual transition to an absolute monarchy, characterized by the concentration of complete power in the hands of the monarch, who has full control of the treasury and army, receives the absolute right to make laws and creates an extensive bureaucratic apparatus to govern the country.

The first signs of absolutism in Russia were a change in the role
Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobor, the gradual withering away of which took place with bureaucratization state apparatus, including the Boyar Duma, which continued to operate for a long time and amounted to characteristic feature Russian monarchy of the 17th century.

The strong power of the Tsar in Russia found legislative expression in the Council Code adopted in 1649. Zemsky Sobor. This is a grandiose monument to Russian legal thought, which summed up the legislative activity of the Moscow state. In the Boyar Duma, the proportion of nobles increased, and additional bodies appeared inside: the State and the Execution Chambers.

The title of the Russian Tsar itself changed. The former title “Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus'” is replaced by “By the grace of God, Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke of all Great and Small and White Russia, autocrat.” The divine origin of autocratic power was emphasized. The Council Code established the death penalty for blasphemy against the Tsar and for intent against him.

In the 17th century The order system flourishes. By the end of the century, the number of orders reached 80, which were divided into permanent and temporary, territorial and military. The number of commanding people has increased sharply. But in general, the order system turned out to be extremely imperfect, since many orders duplicated each other.

An integral feature of Russian absolutism is that not only did no bourgeois elements emerge in Russia, but at the same time serfdom was further strengthened. Consequently, the feudal mode of production is being conserved in Russia.

A feature of Russian absolutism was also the absence of a regular army and financial system. The army consisted of noble militia, which gathered for each military campaign, and archers, who in peacetime were engaged in fishing and trade. Russia's finances were not a unified system; tax collection was under the jurisdiction of different orders, as was their distribution.

The formation of absolutism occurs during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, who, according to Klyuchevsky, completed a full course of ancient Russian education under the supervision of his grandfather Patriarch Filaret, and was a long process. Contemporaries call him “The Quiet”, and the century in which he ruled – “rebellious”. This was largely due to the formation of absolutism, i.e. change, both political and social life countries.

The prerequisites for the emergence of absolutism have been outlined since the second half of the 16th century, expressed in the strengthening of centralization of public administration, the elimination of the remnants of specific fragmentation and localism. The establishment of absolutism was accompanied by the gradual withering away of medieval representative institutions, which during the period of the estate-representative monarchy acted along with royal power, as well as the weakening of the role of the church in government. Boyar Duma during the 17th century. turned from a legislative and advisory body into an advisory body under the king. The boyars no longer opposed themselves to the autocracy, did not try to put pressure on the monarch or challenge his decisions. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, more than half of the Duma was composed of nobles.

Absolutism in Russia, in comparison with the absolutism of Western Europe, had a number of features. These include the weakness of the Russian bourgeoisie, generated by numerous reasons (delay in the development of cities as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, enslavement of the bulk of the rural and urban population, which led to the slow development of capitalism, etc.), which from the very moment of its emergence made it highly dependent from the state. The features of Russian absolutism were also determined by the fact that in Russia, unlike Western Europe, throughout the 18th and first half of the 19th century centuries The feudal system and the political dominance of the nobility, whose power was the feudal latifundia in European Russia, were preserved. These and a number of other factors led to the fact that in Russia the evolution of absolutism towards a bourgeois monarchy occurred very slowly. By the time of the February Revolution of 1917, this process had not yet been completed.

Strengthening royal power in the second half of the 17th century. was also expressed in her victory over the church. Patriarch Nikon, who was a personal friend of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and was appointed patriarch in 1652 with his assistance, began to lay claim to state power. He pointedly emphasized the superiority of spiritual power over secular power. In fact, he becomes the co-ruler of the tsar, and during the absence of Alexei Mikhailovich he even took his place. But Nikon overestimated his strengths and capabilities: the priority of secular power was already decisive in the country’s politics.

In 1653, Patriarch Nikon began church reform, the essence of which was to unify the norms of church life and bring them in accordance with the norms of the Greek and other Orthodox churches, making corrections in church books. The innovations caused resistance from a significant part of the Russian clergy, led by Archpriest Avvakum. Thus, a split occurred in the Russian Orthodox Church: supporters of the “old faith” (who began to be called schismatics) demanded the abolition of Nikon’s reform.

However, the struggle continued for eight years. And only a church council in 1666 passed a verdict on the deposition of Nikon and his exile as a simple monk to the northern Ferapontov monastery. At the same time, the church council declared a curse on all opponents of the reform, which the church still needed.

After this, the split in Russia flared up with much greater force. A purely religious movement at first takes on a social overtones. However, the forces of the Reformed and Old Believers arguing among themselves were unequal: the church and the state were on the side of the former, the latter defended themselves only with words.

As for the official church, it compromised with the secular authorities. Cathedral 1667 confirmed the independence of spiritual power from secular power. By decision of the same council, the Monastic Order was abolished, and the practice of court of a secular institution over the clergy was also abolished.

The split became both a sign of the conservative anti-government opposition of church and secular feudal lords, and a sign of the anti-feudal opposition. The masses, coming to the defense of the “old faith,” thereby expressed their protest against feudal oppression, covered and sanctified by the church.

The movement acquired a mass character after the church council of 1666-1667, which anathematized the Old Believers as heretics and decided to punish them. This stage coincided with the rise of the anti-feudal struggle in the country. The movement reached its apogee and spread in breadth, attracting new layers of the peasantry, especially serfs, who fled to the outskirts.

From the middle of the 17th century, Russia was shaken by powerful uprisings that took place in response to government measures to increase exploitation and further enslavement of the peasants - the expansion of noble land ownership, the introduction of new fees and duties.

In 1648 A movement broke out in Moscow, which was called the “salt riot”. Beginning on June 1, the uprising lasted for several days. The unrest in the capital did not stop until the end of the year. A powerful, albeit fleeting, uprising broke out again in Moscow in 1662, called the “Copper Riot.” Its participants presented their demands to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich: a reduction in taxes, which had increased greatly due to the wars with Poland and Sweden, and the abolition of copper money, issued in huge quantities and equal to silver.

The main evidence of the country's crisis was the movement led by the Don Cossack Stepan Razin, who knew well the situation and needs of the people. Initially, the actions of the detachment of the Don Ataman Stepan Razin were in the nature of an ordinary predatory raid on trade caravans. However, at the end of 1669 Razin, preparing a new campaign, unexpectedly sets the goal of punishing the “traitorous boyars.”

April 13, 1670 Razin's detachment approached Tsaritsyn and captured it without difficulty. The streltsy detachments sent against the rebels were defeated. Soon after this, Astrakhan was taken. The Astrakhan archers went over to Razin.

In the rebel camp it was decided to move up the Volga. Saratov and Samara voluntarily went over to the side of the rebels. Razin addressed the population of the Volga region with “charming letters” in which he called on them to join the uprising and “bring out” the traitors, that is, the boyars, nobles, governors and clerks. On September 4, Razin approached Simbirsk and stubbornly besieged it for almost a month.

The raging crowds of Razinites led a riotous life, accompanied by copious shedding of blood: they took the lives of governors, servicemen and clerks, Streltsy heads, as well as Streltsy who did not want to join the movement. Government troops did not show mercy either - they put to death everyone who survived on the battlefield. The same fate befell almost all the Razinites who were captured and executed without trial.

The frightened government announced the mobilization of the capital and provincial nobility. August 28, 1670 the tsar bade farewell to 60 thousand servicemen from their homeland who were on their way to the Middle Volga region. Meanwhile, the military men, led by the governor Prince Ivan Miloslavsky, settled in the Simbirsk Kremlin and withstood four rebel assaults.

On October 3, government troops under the command of Yuri Baryatinsky approached Simbirsk from Kazan and, after the defeat inflicted on Stepan Razin, united with Miloslavsky’s military men. Razin went to the Don to gather a new army, but was captured by homely Cossacks and handed over to the government.

The uprising failed. The main reason for the defeat was the spontaneity and poor organization of the movement, the lack of clear goals of the struggle. Crowds of poorly armed people could not resist government troops who had undergone military training.

June 4, 1671 Razin was taken to Moscow and executed on Red Square two days later. The Church anathematized him. The government celebrated the victory. At the same time, the name of the successful Ataman Razin turned into a legend - the people's memory has preserved many songs and epics about him. Individual rebel detachments fought with the tsarist troops until the fall of 1671.

After the Peasant War, the government forced the Don Cossacks to take an oath that they would not give shelter to the Tsar’s enemies, and in 1676 the Cossacks for the first time took an oath of allegiance to the Tsar, common to all tax-paying people.

The peasant war under the leadership of Stepan Razin forced the government to look for ways to strengthen the existing system. Thus, the power of local governors was strengthened, a reform of the tax system was carried out (from 1679 they switched to household taxation), and the process of spreading serfdom to the southern outskirts of the country intensified.

After the Time of Troubles, Russia had to abandon an active foreign policy for a long time. However, as the economy was restored and the situation within the country stabilized, the tsarist government began to solve pressing foreign policy problems. In the northwest, the first priority was to regain access to the Baltic Sea. Here Russia's enemy was Sweden, which by that time had become one of the strongest powers in Europe. In the west, the task was to return the Smolensk, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk lands lost during the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. The solution to this problem has become more acute in connection with the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples for reunification with Russia. During this struggle, a clash with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was inevitable. In the south of Russia we constantly had to repel raids Crimean Khan- a vassal of powerful Turkey, causing enormous damage to the southern fertile lands of Russia.

The struggle for the return of the western and northwestern lands began with the war of 1632-1634. for Smolensk (Smolensk War), which ended unsuccessfully for Russia: it was not possible to take Smolensk.

At the end of the 1640s. A third force intervened in the confrontation between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: a powerful uprising broke out in Ukraine and Belarus. It was caused by the difficult situation in which the local population found itself. If Ukrainian and Belarusian feudal lords in the 16th - 17th centuries. While the majority accepted the Catholic faith and became Polish, the peasants and townspeople continued to remain faithful to Orthodoxy, native language, national customs. In addition to social inequality, they also had to suffer from religious and national oppression, which was extremely strong in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Many tried to flee to the eastern outskirts of the state, to the Dnieper Cossacks. These Cossacks, who retained self-government, carried out border service, protecting the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from attacks by the Crimean Tatars. However, the Polish government strictly controlled the number of Cossacks, entering them into special lists - registers. It considered everyone not included in the register as runaways, trying to return them to their owners. Conflicts constantly broke out between the government and the Cossacks. In 1648 they grew into an uprising led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky.

The uprising began with the victories of the Cossacks over the troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648. at Zheltye Vody and at Korsun. After this, the Cossack uprising, supported by the masses, grew into a war of liberation. In 1649 near Zborov, Khmelnitsky’s army defeated the Poles. After this, the Zboriv Treaty was concluded, which significantly expanded the lists of registered Cossacks (from 8 thousand to 40 thousand). The agreement was of a compromise nature and could not reconcile the warring parties. In the same year, the liberation war also engulfed Belarus in addition to Ukraine. In 1651, in the battle of Verestechko Ukrainian army due to the betrayal of the Crimean Khan, an ally of Khmelnitsky, she was defeated. The new Belotserkovsky Treaty, which limited the number of registered Cossacks to 20 thousand, satisfied the rebels even less. Khmelnitsky, who well understood the impossibility of coping with the Poles on his own, repeatedly turned to Russia for support. However, the tsarist government considered the country not ready for war and was slow to take decisive action. Only after, first in 1653, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, and then in 1654. The Ukrainian Rada (people's assembly) in Pereyaslavl spoke out in favor of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia, and another Russian-Polish war began.

The first actions of the Russian troops were successful: in 1654. they returned Smolensk and captured a significant part of Belarus. However, without bringing this war to an end, in 1656 Russia started a new one with Sweden, trying to break through to the Baltic Sea. The protracted battle on two fronts went on with varying degrees of success. In the end, Russia achieved much less than it expected. According to the Treaty of Kardis with Sweden (1661), Russia returned all the Baltic territories it had captured during the war. It was not possible to achieve complete success in the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: according to the Truce of Andrusovo, Russia returned Smolensk, and received Left Bank Ukraine - all the lands east of the Dnieper - and Kyiv on the western Dnieper bank. Right-Bank Ukraine remained under the authority of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

After these wars, Russia’s relations with the Ottoman Empire, which by that time had captured the Northern Black Sea region and was trying to extend its power to the whole of Ukraine, sharply worsened. In 1677 The united Ottoman-Crimean army besieged Chigirin, a Russian fortress in Ukraine. In 1678 they managed to capture it, but the siege of Chigirin weakened the Ottomans and they no longer had enough strength for other military actions. In 1681 An agreement was signed in Bakhchisarai, according to which the Ottomans recognized Russia's right to its Ukrainian territories. In 1686, Russia concluded “ eternal peace"with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - recent enemies became allies in the fight against the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. According to the agreement, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognized all territorial acquisitions of Russia, which undertook to conduct an active offensive against Turkey and the Ottoman Khanate, which was the result of the Crimean campaigns in (1687 and 1689) and Azov campaigns(1695 and 1696).

Thus, in the 17th century. Russia pursued an active foreign policy, managing to achieve the annexation of a number of territories in the west, east and southeast. The prerequisites were created for the transformation of Russia into a great European power, which was also facilitated by the development of Russian culture. Social conflicts, changes in socio-economic life, and the expansion of ties with Western European countries determined the emergence of new trends in the development of culture. The deepening of commodity-money relations and the formation of an all-Russian market strengthened cultural ties between regions. The needs of the economy and constant wars required the development of various branches of science. The strengthening of Russia's economic and political position created favorable opportunities for the further development of architecture, painting, and literature. A new phenomenon in the development of Russian culture in the 17th century. her “worldliness” appeared. Secular principles began to manifest themselves more and more in all spheres of life, a departure from religious canons, and increased attention to the human personality, which was actively opposed by the church, which saw Western influence in this phenomenon.

In the 17th century, as before, the process of accumulation of knowledge continued. Great strides have been made in the fields of medicine, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, and geography. The increased level of education is evidenced by the emergence of public schools. In 1687, the first higher education institution was founded in Moscow educational institution- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where they taught “from grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology.” The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) during one day of V.F.’s Primer. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. Thus, printing press made it possible to publish uniform manuals for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. Interest in Russian history has also increased. The chronicle as a type of historical work is gradually becoming a thing of the past. The question arises about creating a work on the history of the Russian state. The first printed book on history was “Synopsis”, created by the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisel. It outlined the history of Rus' from ancient times and the relations between Moscow and Ukraine. A secular work was “Scythian History” by Andrei Lyzlov, written mainly from Latin and Polish sources and telling about the fight against the Tatars and Turks. The central place in historical literature was occupied by historical stories that had a journalistic character (“Vremennik of clerk Ivan Timofeev”, “Another Legend”, etc.) and were a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. Poetry was also new in the literature of this period, which, first of all, is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk, the Belarusian educator, mentor of the royal children. In 1678 and 1679 Two collections of his poems were published, in which the so-called “Baroque style” was embodied - “Vertograd of many colors” and “Rhymelogion”. This poetic direction was continued at the end of the century by Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin.

The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. Russian painters showed interest in the human personality; biblical scenes served only as a pretext for depicting real life. The most important artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his famous icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the image, elements of direct perspective. The new direction also affected the painting of churches. Biblical scenes on frescoes begin to be depicted in real life images. These are the paintings of the Trinity Church in Nikitniki, Yaroslavl churches - the Church of Elijah the Prophet and John the Baptist.

New trends also appeared in architecture and, above all, in the departure from medieval severity and asceticism, in the desire for external elegance, picturesqueness, and decoration. Compared to previous times, stone (brick) construction has received significantly greater development. New types of building materials began to be widely used - figured bricks, multi-colored tiles, white stone parts. However, wood remained the main mass building material. An outstanding monument wooden architecture became the palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, built in 1667-1678.

The customers for the construction of churches are increasingly merchants and townspeople. Monumental churches are giving way to small township churches. They are distinguished by their elegance, a variety of walls, windows, domes and bell towers, and are decorated with rich architectural ornaments and colored tiles. These are the Moscow churches of the Trinity in Nikitniki, the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, Yaroslavl churches - the churches of Elijah the Prophet, John the Baptist, St. Nicholas the Mokroy, and John Chrysostom.

The Church stubbornly resisted the penetration of secularism into religious architecture. Patriarch Tikhon banned the construction of stone tented churches, demanding that traditional Byzantine models be followed in architecture. In the style of strict monumentalism and church traditions, in order to show the power of the church, ensembles of monasteries are being built: New Jerusalem monastery near Moscow and Iversky monastery in Valdai. However, despite all the prohibitions, the tent style became predominant in church architecture. At the end of the 17th century. a new one arises architectural style- Naryshkinsky, or “Moscow baroque”, in the formation of which the influence of Western European architecture played a significant role. A remarkable monument of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built by the uncle of Peter I.

Along with church ones, in the 17th century. stone civil structures are being built - residential and outbuildings secular nobility, spiritual rulers, rich townspeople. Outstanding secular buildings are the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, the palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, built in 1635-1636, the stone chambers of wealthy merchants in Novgorod, Pskov, Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. Commercial and industrial construction is being further developed. Gostiny dvors are being built in Kitay-Gorod in Moscow and Arkhangelsk.

The 17th century was a turning point in the development of Russian culture. There was a transition from medieval religious-feudal culture to the culture of modern times. He expressed himself in the spread of secular scientific knowledge, departure from religious canons in literature, architecture, painting. The decisive factor in the changes taking place was the appeal to the human personality.

Events at the turn of the 16th – 17th centuries. received, with the light hand of contemporaries, the name “Time of Troubles.” The time of hard times affected all aspects of Russian life - the economy, government, domestic and foreign policy, ideology and morality. Never before has the political struggle for power in the state become a commonplace affair for ordinary nobles, and even more so for the lower social classes. Tsars changed with incredible speed, in different parts of the country at the same time recognizing the power of different sovereigns.

The comprehensive development of the concept of the Troubles belongs to V.O. Klyuchevsky, who saw its cause in the difficult socio-economic situation that had developed in the country by the end of the 16th century. and aggravated by the suppression of the Rurik dynasty.

Most historians date the Troubles from 1598 to 1613. The first date is associated with the death of the childless Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, with whom the 736-year-old Rurik dynasty ended. The second is the date of the convening of the Zemsky Sobor, at which the decision was made to choose a new Russian Tsar. In 1598, the question of the heir to the throne became open due to the lack of a written will. A fierce struggle for power began between the largest noble families - the Shuisky, Yuryev-Romanov, Mstislavsky, Belsky. The victory was won by the brother-in-law of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, boyar Boris Fedorovich Godunov.

He managed to bypass his rivals, and at the Zemsky Sobor he was proclaimed Tsar of Moscow. The main reason for his election was that after the defeat of political enemies in a kind of guardian council under Fyodor, appointed before his death by Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov was the de facto ruler of the state. In 1594, he was officially denounced by the power of the regent with a special letter.

Boris Godunov (1598-1605) was energetic, ambitious, capable statesman. In difficult conditions - economic ruin, difficult international situation - he continued the policies of Ivan the Terrible, but with less brutal measures. He led a successful foreign policy. Under him, further advancement into Siberia took place, and the southern regions of the country were developed. In 1595, the Treaty of Tyavzin was concluded with Sweden, Russia regained its lost lands on the Baltic coast - Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korelu. An attack by the Crimean Tatars on Moscow was prevented.

A major success was the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia in 1589. The rank and prestige of the Russian Church increased, it finally became full-fledged in relation to the Orthodox Churches. Job, a supporter of Godunov, was elected the first Russian patriarch in 1589. There were noticeable efforts to stabilize the situation in the country and consolidate the ruling class. The consequences of the economic crisis were not overcome, but some increase in the productive forces was achieved.

During the crowning ceremony, Boris Godunov declared: “God is my witness to this, no one will be poor or poor in my kingdom.” But this promise was not so easy to fulfill, despite the fact that the first two years were successful. Having given some benefits to the nobility and townspeople, the government at that time took the path of further enslavement of the peasantry. In 1597, an order appeared on scheduled flights, i.e. on the introduction of a period for searching fugitive peasants. At first the term was set at 5 years, then 15, and then became indefinite. This caused discontent among the broad masses of the people, accompanied by the flight of peasants to the outskirts of the land, primarily the southern ones, where the discontent of the Cossacks was growing due to economic instability.

The unprecedented scale of crop failures and famine of 1601-1603, from which peasants and serfs suffered the most, had an extremely detrimental effect on the position of Tsar Boris. Popular unrest, riots and riots broke out everywhere. The largest of them was an uprising in the central districts of the state led by Ataman Cotton Kosolap (1603-1604). It was mainly attended by serfs and Cossacks. With great difficulty, government troops managed to suppress the rebellion. But the flames of popular anger could no longer be stopped.

The political fate of B. Godunov was complicated by events related to the death in 1591 under unclear circumstances in Uglich of Tsarevich Dmitry. Popular rumor, as well as accusations staged by Godunov's opponents, attributed to him the organization of the murder of the prince in order to seize power. However, historians do not have convincing documents that would prove Godunov’s guilt. Distrust in the legitimacy of the power of Tsar Boris, due to the lack of blood ties with the Rurikovichs or any princely family, was intensified by the novelty of the policy's measures. Among them are sending young nobles to study abroad, inviting foreigners to Russia, the desire to open a school and even a university in the European style. All this was perceived by traditional Russian society as the destruction of the country and led to a sharp decline in the authority of a person who could become the founder of a new dynasty. According to some scientists, with more favorable conditions Godunov was able to provide the country with an alternative path of development, to begin modernization a hundred years earlier and more peacefully than it was under Peter I.

However, economic instability and social conflicts people of that time explained how God’s punishment for the unrighteous actions of the illegal “rootless” king - B.F. Godunov. The tsar tried to soften the situation, distributed bread from state granaries, and allowed slaves to leave their masters and look for an opportunity to feed themselves. But all these measures were unsuccessful. His unexpected death and the murder of his 16-year-old son Fyodor Godunov, who was in power for only 2 months, as a result of a conspiracy, facilitated the accession to the throne of False Dmitry I. The era of impostors began, appearing in different parts of the country.

According to the official version of the government of B. Godunov, the person who pretended to be Tsarevich Dmitry was the monk Gregory (in the world - the minor nobleman Yuri Bogdanovich Otrepiev). In his youth, he was a servant of Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, after whose exile he became a monk. In Moscow, he lived in the Chudov Monastery located in the Kremlin and served under Patriarch Job. The impostor had outstanding abilities, extensive, but traditional in Rus', erudition, a sharp mind, a capacious memory and an almost brilliant adaptability to any situation. Having appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, he achieved the support of King Sigismund III, promising the Poles Russian lands and the introduction of Catholicism. Thus, the political support of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth played a big role in the history of False Dmitry I. But the Russian people were also ready to follow the impostor. This was soon confirmed by subsequent events.

In 1604, False Dmitry, with the help of Polish magnates, recruited 2 thousand mercenaries and took advantage of the discontent of the Cossacks, undertook a campaign against Moscow. He was supported by many boyars, nobles and the masses, who pinned hopes on him for deliverance from oppression and improvement of their situation. However, sitting on the throne turned out to be easier than holding on to it. On June 20, 1605, False Dmitry, at the head of the army that had come over to his side, triumphantly entered Moscow and was proclaimed tsar. But False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill the obligations given to the Polish magnates, realizing that if he had tried to introduce Catholicism or give the original Russian lands to the Polish feudal lords, he would not have been able to stay in power. At the same time, False Dmitry confirmed the legislative acts adopted before him that enslaved the peasants. I was especially outraged by the wedding of False Dmitry with Marina Mnishek, who came to Moscow. The Poles who appeared in the capital behaved brazenly and unceremoniously. There were rumors among the people that the tsar had turned his back on Orthodox customs and was pandering to the “Latins.”

Several boyars, led by Prince Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, decided to take advantage of the precarious situation. They organized a conspiracy against False Dmitry. The impostor was killed, his body was burned, and a cannon was loaded with ashes mixed with gunpowder, which was fired towards Poland.

Two days after his death, supporters of Vasily Shuisky convened an impromptu Zemsky Sobor. On it, Shuisky, a descendant of Alexander Nevsky, was “called out” by the Moscow Tsar and became the second elected ruler in Russian history. Tsar Vasily Ivanovich gave a “kissing record” - a letter in which he pledged to preserve the privileges of the boyars: not to disgrace or execute without trial and to rule in accordance with the interests of the boyar elite. Shuisky, thus, took the first oath in the history of Russia to his people, which brought Russia closer to a legal feudal state. Therefore, I associate with the name of Vasily Shuisky another failed alternative to the Time of Troubles.

Shuisky's four-year reign became a turning point in the Time of Troubles. New trials befell Russia. At the same time, three main misfortunes occurred: the movement of I. Bolotnikov; the appearance of False Dmitry II - the “Tushino thief” and Moscow’s fight against him; foreign intervention.

The uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607) was the culmination of the peasant war of the early 17th century. The main opponents of Vasily Shuisky were on the southwestern outskirts of Russia. Here taxation, abolished by False Dmitry I, was restored. The ideological ideas of the rebels were of a tsarist nature. Naive monarchism and faith in a “good” tsar underlay the views of the Cossacks and the peasantry on the state structure.

At a time when V. Shuisky was besieging I.I. Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the city of Starodub Seversky, not far from the Russian-Polish border. Seeing that Bolotnikov’s movement had gotten out of control and was now on the brink of death, the Polish magnates decided to support the next rogue. His movement quickly gained popularity. In the summer of 1608, False Dmitry approached Moscow, but attempts to take the capital ended in vain. He stopped 17 kilometers from the Kremlin, in the town of Tushino, and received the nickname “Tushino Thief.” Soon Marina Mnishek also moved to Tushino. The impostor promised her 3 thousand gold rubles and income from 14 Russian cities after his accession to Moscow, and she recognized him as her husband.

For more than a year and a half, there was a dual power: Shuisky ruled from Moscow, False Dmitry II ruled from Tushin. In a divided Russia, foreigners saw an opportunity to make money at the expense of the “Russians” who were restless in civil strife.

The atrocities of the Tushino Poles and Cossacks contributed to the growth of popular resistance, the center of which was the northern and Volga cities. V. Shuisky was afraid to rely on the patriotic trend and concluded a Russian-Swedish treaty in Vyborg in February 1609, according to which Russia renounced its claims in the Baltic, ceded the Korelia volost to its northern neighbor, and Sweden provided its troops to fight False Dmitry. As it turned out, this was a serious political mistake, since the Shuiskys actually opened the borders of the state to Swedish intervention. In the spring, troops began to arrive in Novgorod land. The Polish king Sigismund III, who claimed the Swedish throne, convinced the Sejm of the need for war with Russia. The Poles besieged Smolensk, which steadfastly defended itself from the enemy for twenty months. Thus, in 1609, the Polish intervention in Russia began. Under these conditions, False Dmitry II ceased to interest the Poles. At the same time, under the command of the talented military commander M.V. Skopin-Shuisky, the Tsar's nephew, began to win their first victories over the Tushins. However, soon the young governor suddenly died. There were rumors that he was poisoned by relatives, allegedly becoming too popular.

The Moscow and “Tushino” boyars decided to end the internecine war by deposing their rulers. In the summer of 1610, the townspeople of Moscow and the nobility overthrew Shuisky. A government of seven boyars came to power - the seven-boyars. In August 1610, the government concluded an agreement to recognize the Polish prince Vladislav as Russian Tsar. Along with the terms of Vasily Shuisky’s “cross-kissing record,” the agreement also contained new clauses: a ban on appointing immigrants from Poland and Lithuania to administrative positions in Russia; erect Catholic churches; the obligation of the invited king to preserve inviolable the law and existing order in the country; Vladislav's marriage to a Russian Orthodox bride; the cleansing of all Russian cities from Poles; release of Russian prisoners; Vladislav's baptism into the Orthodox faith.

It was not possible to agree on the last point with the Polish king, since an Orthodox Christian could not become king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia, with this demand, eliminated the danger of first a personal and then a state union with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which threatened the loss of national independence of our state. However, negotiations in Warsaw failed. The siege of Smolensk continued. One after another, the interventionists tore away more and more lands from Russia. Never before has Russia faced such an acute threat of losing its independence.

The violence of the Tushino gangs and the atrocities of the Polish troops who captured the Kremlin intensified popular indignation. On the initiative of Patriarch Hermogenes, letters began to be sent to cities and regions calling for the creation of a people's militia. The first to respond to Moscow's call was the Ryazan land, where in March 1611 the first people's militia was created. It was headed by the nobleman Prokopiy Lyapunov. He moved noble detachments to Moscow, and I. Zarutsky and Prince D. Trubetskoy brought Cossacks from the Kaluga camp, which disintegrated as a result of the murder of False Dmitry II.

An anti-Polish uprising broke out in the capital, which was ended only by setting the city on fire. The Muscovites left homeless fled the city. The militia did not approach Moscow. The Seven Boyars and the interventionists held the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod, having powerful artillery and reliable fortifications. The first people's militia failed to liberate Moscow.

By the fall of 1611, the situation in the country had deteriorated sharply. The militia disintegrated, defeated not by enemies, but by internal strife. In such a dramatic situation, the Nizhny Novgorod merchant, zemstvo elder Kozma Minin-Sukhoruk began to assemble a second militia (September 1611). The militia was headed by K. Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. On October 22, 1612 (November 4, new style), on the day of the discovery of the icon of the Kazan Mother of God, which accompanied the militia, Kitay-Gorod was taken. On October 26, 1612, Moscow was completely liberated from the invaders. The Russian people defended their state independence.

The victory was won as a result of the heroic efforts of the Russian people. The feat of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, who sacrificed his own life in the fight against the Polish invaders, forever serves as a symbol of loyalty to the Motherland. Grateful Russia erected the first sculptural monument in Moscow to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky (on Red Square, sculptor I.P. Martos, 1818). The memory of the defense of Smolensk and the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, of the struggle of the inhabitants of the city of Karela against the Swedish invaders, has been preserved forever.

The first priority after the liberation of Moscow was the restoration of statehood. Now the “Council of the Whole Earth” faced the main task - to elect a new sovereign. People were tired of the endless turmoil, they wanted peace.

The Zemsky Sobor began its work in January 1613. It was the most representative of all Zemsky Sobors, since, according to some information, even elected representatives of the black-growing peasants were present. There were several contenders for the throne. However, the Moscow Tsar was chosen by someone who had no intention of laying claim to the Russian throne. On February 21, 1613, the cathedral elected 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of the same Filaret (in the world Fedor Nikitich Romanov), who once took monastic vows on Godunov’s orders, to the throne. In addition, the young tsar seemed not dangerous to the boyars; they pinned hopes on him that there would be no disgrace and exile, everything would go as before and life would return to its usual track.

The religious and political movement of the 17th century, which resulted in the separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of some believers who did not accept the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, was called a schism.

Also at the service, instead of singing “Hallelujah” twice, it was ordered to sing three times. Instead of circling the temple during baptism and weddings in the direction of the sun, circling against the sun was introduced. Instead of seven prosphoras, the liturgy began to be served with five. Instead of the eight-pointed cross, they began to use four-pointed and six-pointed ones. By analogy with Greek texts, instead of the name of Christ Jesus in newly printed books, the patriarch ordered to write Jesus. In the eighth member of the Creed (“In the Holy Spirit of the true Lord”), the word “true” was removed.

The innovations were approved by church councils of 1654-1655. During 1653-1656, corrected or newly translated liturgical books were published at the Printing Yard.

The discontent of the population was caused by the violent measures with which Patriarch Nikon introduced new books and rituals into use. Some members of the Circle of Zealots of Piety were the first to speak out for the “old faith” and against the reforms and actions of the patriarch. Archpriests Avvakum and Daniel submitted a note to the king in defense of double-fingering and about bowing during services and prayers. Then they began to argue that introducing corrections according to Greek models desecrates the true faith, since the Greek Church apostatized from the “ancient piety”, and its books are printed in Catholic printing houses. Ivan Neronov opposed the strengthening of the power of the patriarch and for the democratization of church government. The clash between Nikon and the defenders of the “old faith” took on drastic forms. Avvakum, Ivan Neronov and other opponents of reforms were subjected to severe persecution. The speeches of the defenders of the “old faith” received support in various layers of Russian society, from individual representatives of the highest secular nobility to peasants. The sermons of the dissenters about the advent of the “end times”, about the accession of the Antichrist, to whom the tsar, the patriarch and all the authorities supposedly had already bowed down and were carrying out his will, found a lively response among the masses.

The Great Moscow Council of 1667 anathematized (excommunicated) those who, after repeated admonitions, refused to accept new rituals and newly printed books, and also continued to scold the church, accusing it of heresy. The council also stripped Nikon of his patriarchal rank. The deposed patriarch was sent to prison - first to Ferapontov, and then to the Kirillo Belozersky monastery.

Carried away by the preaching of the dissenters, many townspeople, especially peasants, fled to the dense forests of the Volga region and the North, to the southern outskirts of the Russian state and abroad, and founded their own communities there.

From 1667 to 1676, the country was engulfed in riots in the capital and in the outskirts. Then, in 1682, the Streltsy riots began, in which schismatics played an important role. The schismatics attacked monasteries, robbed monks, and seized churches.

A terrible consequence of the split was burning - mass self-immolations. The earliest report of them dates back to 1672, when 2,700 people self-immolated in the Paleostrovsky monastery. From 1676 to 1685, according to documented information, about 20,000 people died. Self-immolations continued into the 18th century, and isolated cases at the end of the 19th century.

The main result of the split was church division with the formation of a special branch of Orthodoxy - the Old Believers. By the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century, there were various movements of the Old Believers, which were called “talks” and “concords”. The Old Believers were divided into priestly and non-priestly. The priests recognized the need for the clergy and all church sacraments, they were settled in the Kerzhensky forests (now the territory of the Nizhny Novgorod region), the areas of Starodubye (now the Chernigov region, Ukraine), Kuban (Krasnodar region), and the Don River.

Bespopovtsy lived in the north of the state. After the death of the priests of the pre-schism ordination, they rejected the priests of the new ordination, and therefore began to be called non-priests. The sacraments of baptism and penance and all church services, except the liturgy, were performed by selected laymen.

Patriarch Nikon no longer had anything to do with the persecution of Old Believers - from 1658 until his death in 1681, he was first in voluntary and then in forced exile.

At the end of the 18th century, the schismatics themselves began to make attempts to get closer to the church. On October 27, 1800, in Russia, by decree of Emperor Paul, Edinoverie was established as a form of reunification of the Old Believers with the Orthodox Church.

Old Believers were allowed to serve according to old books and observe old rituals, including highest value was given to double-fingered, but the services and services were performed by Orthodox clergy.

In July 1856, by order of Emperor Alexander II, the police sealed the altars of the Intercession and Nativity Cathedrals of the Old Believer Rogozhskoe cemetery in Moscow. The reason was denunciations that liturgies were solemnly celebrated in churches, “seducing” the believers of the Synodal Church. Divine services were held in private prayer houses, in the houses of the capital's merchants and manufacturers.

On April 16, 1905, on the eve of Easter, a telegram from Nicholas II arrived in Moscow, allowing “to unseal the altars of the Old Believer chapels of the Rogozhsky cemetery.” The next day, April 17, the imperial “Decree on Tolerance” was promulgated, guaranteeing freedom of religion to the Old Believers.

In 1929 the Patriarchal Holy Synod formulated three resolutions:

— “On the recognition of old Russian rituals as salutary, like new rituals, and equal to them”;

— “On the rejection and imputation, as if not former, of derogatory expressions relating to old rituals, and especially to double-fingeredness”;

— “On the abolition of the oaths of the Moscow Council of 1656 and the Great Moscow Council of 1667, which they imposed on the old Russian rites and on the Orthodox Christians who adhere to them, and to consider these oaths as if they had not been.”

The Local Council of 1971 approved three resolutions of the Synod of 1929.

On January 12, 2013, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Kirill, the first liturgy after the schism according to the ancient rite was celebrated.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources V

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