The fate of the Russian language is a topic that cannot leave any wordsmith indifferent. It is obvious that language is changing significantly right before our generation's eyes. Ten to twenty years is an insignificant period for the development of a language, but there are periods in history when the rate of linguistic change increases significantly. Thus, the state of the Russian language in the seventies and nineties can serve as an excellent confirmation of this fact. The changes affected both the language itself and, first of all, the conditions of its use. If we use linguistic terminology, we can talk about a change in the linguistic situation and the emergence of new types of discourse. Communication between a person from the seventies and a person from the nineties could very well end in communication failure due to a simple misunderstanding of the language and, perhaps, incompatible linguistic behavior. As confirmation, it is enough to indicate the most noticeable, although not the most interesting, change: the appearance of a huge number of new words (including borrowings) and also the disappearance of some words and meanings, that is, a change in the Russian lexicon. The twentieth century turned out to be extremely interesting not only for historians, but also for linguists.
Analysis of the modern language situation in Russia and the study of the laws of development of television speech provides interesting material for the relationship between literary norms and the phenomenon of variation. Variation can expand boundaries literary language, change its composition linguistic means, but the opportunity to choose does not always become a positive trend. The media provide a truly impressive picture of the use of language, which causes conflicting judgments and assessments of what is happening. “Some scrupulously collect gross errors in speech, focusing on the traditional literary norm of the past; others welcome and unconditionally accept “verbal freedom”, discarding any restrictions in the use of language - up to the admissibility of printed use in the language of rough vernacular, jargon and obscene words and expressions." [Active problems of linguistics, http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook050/01/index.html?part-002.htm]
Changes that have occurred in the Russian language over the past last years, touched all sides of this multi-level system. In particular, it is observed a large number of borrowings, rethinking the semantics of words, active processes in word formation, phraseology, grammar, and so on are noted. “The style of today’s communication is characterized by blurred boundaries between communicative spheres and leveling of types of speech” [Skovorodnikov A.P., 2001. - P. 21].
Active processes take place in the word formation system. “As is known, the active methods of compressive word formation are conversion, fusion, contraction, phrases and abbreviation. It is generally accepted that all of the listed types of compression implement one of the main trends in the development of language - the tendency to save means of expression.” [Kalenchuk M.L., 2000. - P. 43] But in modern speech the anti-tendency of this method of word formation is increasingly used. For example, “grandparents”, “person-whom-I-show-on-TV” (uneconomical fusion). Changing the meaning of a word using a new overlay -<драконат>(dragon and deanery),<стервис>(bitch and service). New formations -<бывшевики> (former Bolsheviks), <бес паники>(demon in the literal sense of the word instead of without). New types of fusion -<кадела?>(instead of how are you),<катотак>(something like this).
With the advent of criminal chronicles in the media in common language jargons such as<бабки>, <штука>(meaning money),<грины>, <баксы>(dollars),<тёлки>, <торчать>, <туфта>, <замели>and so on.
IN Lately Words such as party, showdown, freebie, goofy and others have migrated from youth slang into everyday language. Borrowed words have begun to be used more often in everyday speech, despite the fact that there are their equivalents in the Russian language -<имидж>(image),<консенсус>(agreement),<конверсия>(conversion),<шоу>(performance),<прессинг>(pressure),<джу>with (juice) and so on. The use of borrowings that complicate the perception of speech by the general reader or listener. For example: “He wears a police badge,” “Several large traders came to the city,” “They staged a performance in another room,” and so on.
Quite often, obscene vocabulary is used in speech. It occupies a prominent place not only in Everyday life and profane culture, but also in public space: works of art often replete with profanity; euphemisms of obscene expressions are popular in advertising (<несун>, <ночной пансион>). For a number of public figures, the use of obscene language serves as almost a “calling card.” And there is also an intensified imposition of language by clerks (<реализация>, <наработки>, <на предмет написания>, <зафиксировано>, <по вопросу>) and linguocinisms (<покорение природы>, <рабсила>, <человеческий материал>, <людское сырьё>, <крестьянские ресурсы>, <человекоединица>). It is interesting that, for example, the encyclopedic dictionary classifies the expression “making love” as a linguocinism; apparently, this refers to a euphemizing connection with the social devaluation of this process.
Some manifestations of euphemism in modern media are curious. For example, it is prohibited to advertise alcoholic beverages on live television, that is, to say words like vodka, cognac, etc. Therefore, the live broadcast hosts came up with a roundabout move, replacing these words with the following nominations: “wheat juice”, “fortified grape drink”
Today, the excessive use of jargon by young people is alarming. The danger of jargon penetrating the language is that it not only affects the quality of the speaker’s speech, simplifying and impoverishing it, but also shapes the speaker’s personality, actively influencing the range of his ideas, life position, and value system. The problem of jargonization of speech has become most acute due to the widespread spread of the Internet and the emergence of a subculture in it, whose representatives call themselves “bastards” (this is not an insult, but a new word formed by replacing the letter o with the letter a). The bastards became the founders of a new jargon popular among network users called the “Albanian” language or newspeak [About the language of the bastards - http://www.lovehate.ru/].
According to A.A. Murashov, jargon is a language game that saturates speech with figurative, expressive and ironic words and phraseological units, which often contain the meaning of entire phrases, and sometimes lead to genuine linguistic intuition, to word creation [Murashov A.A., 2003. - P. 63] . To discover what is unique about a new type of jargon, you need to find out how it is created and compare the methods of its formation with traditional ways replenishment of slang vocabulary. The electronic encyclopedia "Wikipedia" lists 140 of the most common lexical units of bastard jargon. Of them:
65 (46%) units are words and phrases with distorted spelling. As a result, a stamp is formed to express the attitude towards the entry and its author:<Аффтар, пеши исчо!>(high positive assessment, recognition creativity). Conversely, a low assessment of creativity with a proposal to commit suicide:<убей сибя апстену> (<убейсибяапстену>).
48 (34%) units are obscene vocabulary. Words that have always been obscene and therefore unprintable, thanks to Internet conditions, have become printed, and their spelling is deliberately closer to pronunciation.
9 units are abbreviations, not of compound names, but of expressions, mostly obscene (<ппц>).
When forming 8 units, a phonetic method of transmitting a foreign word was used:<в газенваген>, <ахтунг>, <во френды>.
3 units are new formations from foreign language bases according to word formation models existing in the Russian language:<гламурно>, <гламурненько>, <готично>.
1 word is a striking example of lazy word creation, formed as a result of the word “diary” being mistakenly typed into the English layout -<лытдыбр>With negative meaning"uninteresting post"
Newspeak is also characterized by the “swallowing” of letters and entire syllables in words. For example,<дарова>(great)<пасибо>(Thank you),<как-нить>(somehow)<мона>(Can),<зара>(tomorrow) and so on.
Based on the mini-research conducted, we can conclude that the “Albanian” language has nothing in common with traditional methods of adding jargon. Here, a method of word formation that does not exist in the Russian language prevails, such as replacement correct letter to the wrong one, according to the principle “write as you hear.” It turns out that all the most negative language processes today are concentrated in this jargon: foul language, spelling illiteracy, speech cliches. E.A. Zemskaya in her work “Russian language of the late 20th century (1985-1995)” gives a broad interpretation of newspeak - this is the name for any linguistic innovations that are distinguished by ugliness [Zemskaya E.A., http://www.nspu.net/fileadmin/ library/books/].
Another modern linguistic trend is the “non-normative use of prepositional-pronominal combinations “about what” [Bryzgunova E.A., http://evartist.narod.ru/text12/11.htm]. For example: “...polls show that his rating is growing..."; "...these facts show that the reforms are stalling"; "I doubt that everything will end well"; "She figured out what needs to be done" ; “Everyone understood that a second such case would not arise”; “He could not believe that there was such thin ice on the river.” oral speech.
In oral speech, pronunciation errors also predominate, primarily accentological ones, for example:<квАртал>(norm - quarter),<Умерший>(norm - deceased),<средствА>(norm - means),<хозяевА>(norm - owners),<углУбить>(norm - deepen), etc. [Lapteva O.A., 1997. - P. 47-54.]. There are also deliberate deviations from accentological norms, for example, in the name of the company “RibOk” (instead of “Ribok”).
A softening of the consonant before [e] in foreign-language names and surnames is often observed: Sylvester Stallo[n"e], Simone Signo[r"e], Flo[b"e]r [Ageenko F.L., 1990. - P. 54 ].
Quite often in speech there are errors that indicate a partial or even complete misunderstanding by the speaker (writer) of the meaning of the word. For example, “We consider our main goal to be the restoration and exaggeration of Russia,” “There were no casualties, but three residents were injured.” This category of errors also includes the so-called non-distinction (mixing) of paronyms, for example: “He makes contradictory [need: contradictory] statements that further aggravate the situation” “The Republic represents [need: provides] the right of extraterritoriality for criminals of different calibers.”
Speaking about borrowed English words, you need to remember that often one foreign word replaces an entire description of a process or action in Russian and, accordingly, unloads speech. " External reasons borrowings of Anglicisms “join” with internal ones (for example, the communicative relevance of Anglo-Americanism) through socio-psychological ones, this is especially noticeable in the shift of the antinomy “speaker / listener” in favor of the former in a pronounced tendency to replace Russian descriptive phrases with one (English) word: trafficking (transportation and trafficking of women),<таггер>(a person who makes inscriptions and drawings with a spray gun),<запер>(a person constantly switching TV channels)" [Dyakov A.I., 2003. - P. 35-43].
We believe this is a positive development. But today, on the basis of English and Russian, another language has been formed - Runglish (Russian-English language). This trend of Americanization of the Russian language negatively affects the latter. “Recently, Russian culture has been increasingly influenced by the so-called “Runglish” - the jargon of the “cool” generation of young Russians, saturated with Anglicisms.” Naturally, Runglish is mostly used by people of the younger generation. For example, "We send our<френдам>invitation to<дринк>V<паб>via SMS or via the Internet. And whoever doesn’t understand what we’re talking about just<лузер>".
And also especially in the language, violations of various norms of the Russian language can be traced, especially in oral speech:
Tautology - “The ice cover was removed from the icebreaker in the area from Volgograd to Astrakhan. The thickness of the ice reached seventy centimeters, but all ice work, as the service told us... was carried out successfully.”
Pleonasms, lexical redundancy - “What is known and is anything known about the whereabouts of Saddam Hussein...”
Errors in management - “There were about one hundred and forty children in the classrooms. Those of them who were on the second floor were cut off from the exit by heavy fire; a car that came from a neighboring region could only reach Sydy Bala in 40 minutes.”
Spelling and stylistic errors - “Journalistic solidarity, I think, is present there in full”
Thus, the development of borrowings, speech cliches, euphemisms, clericalisms, linguocinisms, jargonization and criminalization of the language, Newspeak and Runglish led to a general loss of linguistic taste. If earlier “new phenomena” were perceived as a “language game,” today these techniques have become the norm.
Everyone decides for himself how he will use the language and, according to V. Kostomarov, this choice is determined by “public taste and the extremes of fashion.” So, in order to change somehow speech situation V better side, it is necessary to introduce fashion into the native language. And for this you need to find effective means and ways that will help people realize the Russian language as a great national value, cultivate linguistic taste and a sense of shame for bad speech, and create the need to use their native language in all its splendor and beauty.
§19. OPERATING METHOD
OVER NEW LANGUAGE PHENOMENA
Work on new linguistic phenomena goes through a number of stages that are closely related to each other.
Repetition of information previously received by students or related information that is important for understanding a new phenomenon.
Related concepts from both the science of the Russian language itself and interdisciplinary material can act as a necessary associative background. For example, when familiarizing yourself with lexical meaning words need to be repeated grammatical meaning words that are opposed to each other. When getting acquainted with a numeral, it is useful to repeat the concept from mathematics number.
To organize repetition, questions are usually asked and tasks are offered, for example: what do you know about...? What is called something? What signs do such and such phenomena have? Etc.
Step by step learning new things linguistic phenomenon. Information about certain phenomena of language can be small and voluminous: for example, about animate and inanimate names nouns
Only the questions to which they answer are reported, and the following information is given about proper and common nouns: their purpose in the language; groups of proper nouns; contrasting proper names with proper names. Vast information about linguistic phenomena is available in all classes where our subject is studied.
School practice shows that students’ attention in Russian language lessons ranges from 5 to 7 minutes. During this time, it is necessary to provide children with new information and consolidate it. To overcome the overload of schoolchildren, it is advisable to communicate voluminous material in stages, i.e. in small parts. This organization of student activities ensures better learning of the material and participation of all children in the work.
Stages of students mastering a new linguistic phenomenon. Mastering new material goes through four stages: its perception, awareness of its essential properties, memorization, and reproduction.
To perceive a new linguistic phenomenon, it is necessary to present it to children. This can be done using different means: write an example in chalkboard, prepare a poster (table) with an example or a banner, the content of which can be projected onto the screen using an overhead projector, etc. It is important to draw children’s attention to a new linguistic phenomenon, which should be highlighted in font, color, etc., for example: Stuck frost, the earth sweated and thawed in the sun(T.).
Awareness of the essential features of the phenomena being studied involves the use of special teaching methods, i.e. ways of joint activities between teachers and students aimed at achieving educational goals. The methodology for teaching the Russian language has the following teaching methods:
- - to present knowledge to finished form - teacher message; independent and analysis children of linguistic text;
- - to gain knowledge based on observations of linguistic phenomena - conversation; independent analysis language materials.
Teacher's message as a method of presenting knowledge to students in a ready-made form consists of a coherent listing of the essential features of the phenomenon being studied, which must be learned by schoolchildren. Cooperative activity will be implemented provided that students are given the task of listening carefully and remembering the essential features of a new language phenomenon. It is advisable to teach children that they are on separate
These essential features were written down on sheets of paper or in a notebook for rough work. The message is followed by questions from the teacher, with the help of which he finds out what the children remembered (wrote) and how they understood the material presented. When using this method, it is necessary to take into account the following: 11-13 year old children (grades V-VI) perceive the material without distraction within 4-5 minutes, and 14-15 year olds - within 5-7 minutes.
Self-analysis students of a linguistic text as a method of familiarizing themselves with new material requires an attitude towards analyzing its content when reading. For this purpose, it is proposed that, while reading the text, identify the essential signs of a new phenomenon and remember them. It is useful to write down these essential features while reading in order to speed up the analysis process in the future. When organizing it, the teacher poses questions and gives tasks that help to identify what essential features characterize the linguistic phenomenon being studied. The text for reading and independent analysis should not exceed 4-5 minutes in grades V-VII and 5-7 minutes in grades VIII-IX.
For conversation as a teaching method, it is necessary to have observation materials and pre-prepared questions, by answering which students will find out the essential features of the linguistic phenomenon being studied. The source for observation can be the language material itself, tables and diagrams, drawings. During the conversation, students are recommended to make short notes in which they record the essential features identified during the analysis of the linguistic phenomenon.
Self-analysis students of observational material as a teaching method requires the teacher to explain the specifics of this material, and for children to search for significant signs. When performing a task, it is advisable to record the identified signs in one way or another. The work ends with the students’ answers to the teacher’s questions, who, with their help, finds out what and whether all the signs the children have identified.
The listed teaching methods are aimed at finding knowledge about the phenomenon being studied, therefore they have equal rights and should be used in school. Students must learn to obtain information from both sources: from the linguistic text and from observational material. Children will have to deal with the first source more often in later life than the second, so the school should teach children to extract necessary information from the text (see the chapter on learning to read).
The listed teaching methods are used separately and in combination with each other. The choice of one of them or some combination of them depends on the following conditions:
- - degree of familiarity with the linguistic phenomenon being studied;
- - features of the linguistic phenomenon itself (the clarity of its division into groups, the simplicity or complexity of the concept);
- - general preparedness of the class.
Thus, if the general preparedness of the class is weak, it is not advisable to use independent analysis by students of observation materials. However, this method cannot be completely excluded from working with such a class. It should be gradually introduced into the educational process, using transitional forms. For example, start with a conversation, and then offer an independent analysis of this material on other issues. If the language material being studied is clearly differentiated, it is advisable to use the conversation method. If a new phenomenon can be clearly divided into groups, but is quite complex and the children have not previously received information about it, then a teacher’s report is preferable.
Awareness of the linguistic phenomenon is completed working on the definition of a concept. It consists either in analyzing the definition given in the textbook, or in compiling it yourself. When analyzing a ready-made definition, it becomes clear what essential features are included in it, whether all the features identified during the analysis of a linguistic text or observation material are included in it. When giving the task to create a definition of the concept being studied, the teacher reminds the children that it is necessary to include its essential features identified during the analysis process. The compiled definition is compared with the wording of the definition given in the textbook. The sequence of listing essential features may not be the same, but their list must be the same.
Work to identify the essential features of a concept, as well as to define this concept, forms for schoolchildren an indicative basis for developing their ability to use language in different areas its application.
Memorization - important stage in mastering new material. It ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge. Memorization is realized in the form of reading the definition to oneself two or three times, as well as independently drawing up a plan for the theoretical material of the paragraph or tables, diagrams, in which either verbally or using generally accepted graphic means are reflected essential features studied linguistic phenomenon. For example, in grade V, graduation is reported
Basic information: role in a word, ways of expression. Students can show all this using a table:
Playback The students' mastery of a new linguistic phenomenon is completed. The ability to meaningfully convey what you have learned, either in your own words or from memory, indicates a high degree of awareness of what you have learned. Reproduction is carried out either in the form of oral answers to the teacher’s question from two or three students, or in the form of written answers from all students.
In the future, reproduction is organized when checking homework and when answering additional questions in connection with completing exercises (at school this work is called repetition of what has been covered).
A special stage in mastering new material is teaching children application of acquired knowledge on practice. To achieve this goal, the teacher gives an example of applying the new definition when analyzing two or three examples (they must be prepared in advance either on the chalkboard or on a banner for projection on the screen). For example, when introducing participles in the 7th grade, the teacher gives the following example (it is based on the essential features of the participles with which the students became familiar): the word setting(sun) denotes the attribute of an object by the action “such that it sets”, the attribute has no permanent property, and is happening at the present time, which means the word setting is a participle. Then, based on this sample, 2-3 examples are analyzed collectively and individually; This work is carried out with the goal of mastering the pattern of reasoning by all children.
Reasoning patterns are unique algorithms, i.e. cumulative sequences of actions when solving any problems (in in this case- linguistic). In current textbooks, after almost every definition of a concept, a sample of reasoning is given. In its absence, the teacher creates it himself. Necessary
Just remember that the sample algorithm does not contain more than 2-3 steps, since students have difficulty remembering more than that.
See: Baranov M.T. Types educational material and methods of teaching the Russian language // Rus. language At school. - 1984. - No. 3.
Linguistic phenomena similar to lexical homonymy
Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon is observed not only in vocabulary. In the broad sense of the word, homonyms sometimes refer to different linguistic units (in terms of content, structure, levels of belonging) that coincide in sound (that is, in terms of expression). Unlike actual lexical (or absolute) homonyms, all other consonances and various kinds coincidences are sometimes called relative homonyms. Although it would be more correct to talk not about homonymy in the broad sense of the word, and not even about relative homonymy, but about the homonymic use in speech of various types of homophones, which, as V.V. Vinogradov points out, include “all types of unity of sound or consonance - both in entire constructions, and in combinations of words or their parts, in individual segments of speech, in individual morphemes, even in adjacent sound combinations." Consequently, the broad concept of homophony covers the consonance of a wide variety of linguistic units. For example, homophony phenomena include
coincidence of the pronunciation of words, the so-called homophones themselves, or phonetic homonyms: flu - mushroom, labor - tinder;
coincidence of a word and a phrase: dumb - not mine, skid - by the nose - a type of homophony;
coincidence of individual forms of words, so-called homoforms, or grammatical homonyms: saw (noun) - saw (verb in the past tense), fly (from fly) - fly (from treat).
Homographs are often also classified as homonymy, that is, words that have the same spelling but differ in pronunciation, in particular, stress. This clearly distinguishes them from both homophones and lexical homonyms. Modern researchers include over a thousand pairs of words such as iris (candy) - iris ( type of thread), while considering different types of homographs:
lexical - atlas and atlas,
lexico-grammatical - village (verb) and village (noun), run (verb) and run (noun),
grammatical - houses and houses;
stylistic - compass (lit.) and compass (nautical).
In modern studies, manuals, and dictionaries, a tendency has become established to use double names for those phenomena that are built on various kinds of coincidences and consonances. For example: homophones are phonetic homonyms, homoforms are grammatical homonyms, homomorphemes are morphological homonyms (or derivational homonyms). Sometimes the following terms are used: homosyntagmas - syntactic homonyms, omostylems - stylistic homonyms. It seems that, despite the critical attitude of researchers towards this kind of double terminology, especially towards terms and phrases like “syntactic homonymy”, its use does not cause confusion, but, on the contrary, allows one to more clearly define this or that linguistic phenomenon. And the point here is not what to call the phenomenon, but what kind of understanding is put into the name, what is hidden behind it.
So, lexical homonymy itself (full and partial) cannot be confused or even brought together with homophony in the broad sense of the word, that is, with all the consonances and similar sounds that occur in speech. The phenomena of purely graphic coincidence, that is, homography, should be clearly distinguished from lexical homonymy proper and from different types of homophony.
| Linguistic phenomenon | Functions of linguistic phenomena |
| lexical means | |
| outdated words | 1) are used when describing distant times, recreating the flavor of bygone eras; |
| 2) are used as a means of speech characterization of characters; | 3) when rethought, they can act as a means of humor or satire, ironically coloring speech |
| book words | 1) give speech an elevated, solemn sound; |
| 2) traditionally used in works of civil and patriotic themes; | 1) help to reveal the contrast and inconsistency of objects, phenomena, qualities; 2) are a means of creating an antithesis and oxymoron; 3) the comparison of antonyms gives particular significance to each of the named objects; |
| 4) antonyms can show the breadth of spatial and temporal boundaries, the completeness of the reflection of facts, and convey a change in actions and events; | 5) stringing together antonyms with negation ( |
| neither friend nor foe, but so) | emphasizes the mediocrity of what is being described, the lack of bright qualities |
| new vocabulary | 1) give the text expressiveness, vivid imagery, force you to rethink well-known words and phrases; |
| 2) are a sign of texts of a scientific or journalistic style | dialectisms |
| 1) are used to create speech characteristics of characters, reflect the life and customs of people living in a given area; | |
| 2) are used to convey the speech characteristics of residents of a certain area | phraseological units |
| 1) give speech liveliness and imagery; | 2) used to achieve a comic effect |
| colloquial words and constructions | 1) are used as a means of speech characterization of characters; 2) give speech the effect of ease, lightness, spontaneity means of expression |
| replays | 1) help highlight, from the author’s point of view, what is most significant in the text; |
| 2) enhance the artistic effect, attract attention, make you think | rhetorical questions |
| 1) expression of the author’s position; | 2) involving the reader in co-reasoning; |
| 3) attracting the reader's attention | rhetorical exclamations |
| 1) are a means of expression strong feelings | |
| joy, fun, delight, fear, horror, surprise, etc.; unexpanded proposals | 1) focusing on a specific problem; |
| 2) expression of an accurate, unambiguous position; | 3) add dynamism to the narrative |
| dialogue | 1) the way of depicting characters and developing the plot; 2) gives credibility to the narrative, indicates the neutrality of the author; 3) used as a means of developing the philosophical thoughts or views of the characters; |
| direct speech | 1) helps the author preserve individual and |
| stylistic features | speech of the person whose statement is reproduced: dialect features, repetitions, pauses, introductory words, etc. |
| quotes | 1) give the text credibility; 2) used as an argument, confirmation of the author’s idea homogeneous members of the sentence 1) give completeness and persuasiveness to evidence, dynamism to reasoning; 2) indicate the homogeneity of the listed items, features, actions, etc. |
| introductory words and sentences | 1) serve to express various kinds of assessments of the content of a sentence: the degree of reliability of the statement, |
| emotional assessment | , the source of the message, the way thoughts are expressed; |
| 2) is | |
| syntactic means | connections between sentences in the text |
| complex sentences | 1) expression of cause-and-effect relationships in the text |
| plug-in structures | |
| used to express additional comments, explanations, clarifications | punctuation rules |
| punctuation marks for isolation | 1) one of the ways of semantically highlighting or clarifying part of a statement: - minor members of the sentence, close in meaning to the sentence; - clarifying members of the proposal;, characterized by imagery, emotionality of speech; 2) distinctive feature artistic style |
| speech can be called the use of special figures of speech, the so-called artistic tropes, which add color to the narrative, the power of depicting reality | journalistic style |
| 1) The task of speech: 1) to influence mass consciousness; 2) call to action; 3) provide information; | |
| 2) characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal; | 3) in addition to neutral, high, solemn vocabulary and phraseology, emotionally charged words, the use of short sentences are widely used - chopped prose, verbless phrases, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions, etc. |
| types of speech | description |
| used to depict any phenomenon of reality, an object, a person by listing and revealing its main features. | narration |
used to depict an event in its time sequence (in successive actions).
reasoning
used to present, clarify, confirm any idea.
Most versions of assignment C2.1 from previous years deal mainly with punctuation phenomena. Therefore, the information presented in the following table will not be superfluous for you. Get to know her.
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Preparing for the State Examination in Russian
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Volkova O.V., Alekseeva Ya.V.
Preparing for the GIA in the Russian language (a manual for students) / O.V. Volkova, Y.V. Alekseeva - Kazan: Publishing house of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Tatarstan, 2012. - p.
This manual is intended for
A3.Indicate a sentence in which metaphor is the means of expressiveness of speech
1. Indicate in what meaning the word “flashed” is used in the sentence: When the openwork tower of the lighthouse appeared in the distance and the dawn barely flared
Independent work No. 2.
1.Write down the answers to the questions. The answer can be one word, a number, the words “yes” or “no”.
1) What means is used in the expression
Test No. 2. 1.Indicate which product speech expressiveness
used in sentences: – What else are you complaining about, young man?
- Hee hee! – Iliko coughed. - More about
Sound laws of the Russian language
In the area of vowels In the area of consonants 1) After hard consonants in place of the letter O without stress, [a] is pronounced: oxen [val
Independent work No. 3.
1.Write down the answers to the questions. The answer can be one word, a number, the words “yes” or “no”.
1). The branch of linguistics that studies sounds in
HONEY [m’ot], honey – 1 syllable.
M – [m’] – acc., sound. sonor., soft unpaired
Yo - [o] - voice, blow.
D – [t] – acc., par. dull, hard
3 letters, 3 sounds.
1) Request
Test No. 3.
1. Indicate the erroneous judgment.
1) The word REQUEST contains the sound [z’].
2) In the word ADJUTANT, the letter Y makes two sounds.
3) In the word DRINKING the last sound is [ya].
Independent work No. 4.
1. If you agree with the statement, put a + sign, disagree –, if you don’t know the answer to the question, put?
Statement Answer
Test No. 4.
1. Identify a word with an alternating vowel.
1) marveled 2) wedged in 3) touch 4) wrote Answer: ______________________
Ways to Express Subject
subject (WHO? WHAT?) noun, pronoun Football is the childhood of the century. We p
Ways of expressing the predicate
Simple verbal predicate one verb Birch trees rustle in the distance.
By the presence of the main members of the sentence
subject + predicate TWO COMPONENTS OR subject OR predicate ONE COMPONENT
Independent work No. 8.
1.Write down the answers to the questions. The answer can be one word, a number, the words “yes” or “no”.
1) Write out the subject from the sentence “C”
Test No. 8.
1. Write out the grammatical basis of the sentence: We need to take him to the hospital for examination and, probably, for surgery!
Answer: ______________________
Constructions that complicate a simple sentence
Name of the construction Varieties of the construction Example I. Homogeneous members of the sentence 1) homogeneous g
Punctuation marks for constructions that complicate a sentence
Rule Example 1. Homogeneous members of a sentence 1) without conjunctions: Ο,Ο,Ο 2) with single conjunctions
Independent work No. 9.
1.Write down the answers to the questions. There are no punctuation marks in the examples.
The answer can be one word, a number, the words “yes” or “no”.
In the sentence below from the text read, all commas are numbered. Write down the numbers indicating commas in the introductory word
“Okay,” (1) you say, (2) in the dark, (3) of course, (4) you can listen to singing or music, (5) but it’s unclear, (6) how the actors managed to perform performances in the forest at night.
Answer: ______
In the sentences below from the text, all commas are numbered. Write down the numbers indicating commas in the introductory word
When it becomes unbearably painful for me from memories, (1) but they don’t leave, (2) and never, (3) probably, (4) they will never leave those, (5) who went through the war, (6) when again and again before those stand up for me,(
In the sentences below from the text read, all commas are numbered. Write down the number(s) indicating commas in the introductory construction
- That’s right, (1) well done, (2) you’re a good boy! Well, run home!
One day on the day of class, neighbor Iliko came to our yard.
6) Until the middle of its height, the stack gradually expands in all four directions,1 then the throwers begin to complete the stack,2 that is, gradually narrow it,3
Test No. 10.
1. In the sentences below from the text read, all commas are numbered. Write down the number indicating the comma between the parts complex sentence related Sochi
Homonymy of conjunctions and allied words in subordinate clauses
so such in this way, (that...) so the manner of action and degree THAT
Complex sentence with several subordinate clauses
type of subordination homogeneous subordination of subordinate clauses heterogeneous (parallel) subordination of subordinate clauses sequential subordination of subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with different types of connections
1. Highlight the grammatical basics. Number them if necessary.
2. Find structures that complicate the sentence. Determine which grammatical bases they refer to.
3. Label
Independent work No. 11.
1.Write down the answers to the questions. The answer can be one word, a number, the words “yes” or “no”.
1. Which subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction like this
Which sentence does not have a subordinate tense?
1) The Korshunovs arrived after the bride and groom had been taken to church.
2) Gerasim continued his work as a janitor, when suddenly one unexpected circumstance occurred.
3)
Test No. 11.
1. Among the sentences, find a complex non-union sentence. Write the number of this offer.
(1) There the walls of snow palaces sparkled with sparklers,
Criteria for evaluating concise presentation
3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points IR1. Contents of the presentation. It is necessary to convey the main information of the text without Text No. 1.(1) It happens that a star that has gone out for itself, for us people, burns on earth for thousands of years.
(2) Then the power of this word, like the light of an extinguished star, flies to a person on his paths in space and time
Text No. 2.
(1) Look around, and you will see many amazing things created by the mind and hands of man: radio, telephone, cars, ships, airplanes, rockets... (2) But the most amazing and wise thing is that he created
(1) For some people, the forest is just trees and firewood. (2) If there are no mushrooms or berries in the forest, they are bored. (3) For others, the forest is a world full of secrets and beauty, when a person is abandoned by all adversity and
Text No. 5.
(1) I'm back in the city, in two-story house… (2) It stands sideways to the street, there are eight windows on each floor, and where the face of the house should be, there are four windows... (3) A dirty man is sprawled out in front of the house
Text No. 6.
(1) One sunny winter day Grishka went out to clean the path. (2) I didn’t have time to spread it out, and the magpie was right there. (3) Flew down and started pecking green wool on the path. (4) Grishka began
Text No. 7.
(1) If you put currant syrup, say, near a beehive, then it will affect the quality of the honey, its vitamin content, because the bees will drink the syrup and quietly mix it into the natural honey
Text No. 9.
(1) Memory and knowledge of the past fill our world, make it interesting and significant. (2) If we do not see the past behind the world around us, it is empty for us. (3) We are bored and sad, and we finally
Text-narration + reasoning
(1) Some American billionaire, apparently Rockefeller, became decrepit, and it became harmful for him to worry. (2) He always read the same newspaper. (3) So as not to worry the billionaire
Text - reasoning
(1) Everyone makes mistakes. (2) Some are small, but very often. (3) And some are extremely rare, but on a large scale. (4) Mistakes are inseparable from people's lives.
(5) Someone smart said that the person on them
Text No. 13. (1) V modern world
There is no person who does not come into contact with art. (2) Its significance in our lives is great. (3) Books, cinema, television, theater, music, painting have become firmly established in our lives
Mastering text compression techniques WE STUDY TACTICS.· exclusion of details, details (removal): 1)
introductory words
;
Unfortunately, none of the strangers
Text No. 13. Text No. 15.(1) I often think: why do women love me? (2) Well, really, I’m handsome. (3) You can’t take this away from me. (4) Huge eyes, Greek profile. (5) Sometimes on the street I’ll look at some woman and
Magic chestnuts
ordinary life
miracles happen. (2) Why do they come to our world? (3) Who is responsible for the magic of unique moments?
2 points 1 point 0 points S1K1. Availability of a reasonable answer to the question posed.
given reasoned
1. Read the assignment. Determine which branch of linguistics the linguistic phenomenon named in the task belongs to (vocabulary, spelling, punctuation and
Functions of punctuation marks
separate some segments of speech from others (act as single punctuation marks) highlight different segments
Text No. 18.
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
Essay modeling.
3.Using the material from the previous assignment, we will illustrate the thesis given at the beginning of the essay. Fill in the blanks.
We begin to study the rules for setting this punctuation mark
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
Text No. 19.
(1) Not far from Kursk, in the poetic upper reaches of a local river, where Afanasy Fet once worked with inspiration, my friend Evseika lives.
(2) He has only just passed his tenth year, and ho
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
7.Using the material from the previous assignment, we will illustrate the first part of G. Stepanov’s statement: “The dictionary of a language testifies to what people are thinking about...”. Fill in the blanks.
Sl
Text No. 20.
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
(1) Walking towards the distant forest, Sashka had not yet decided what to do and what to do. (2) Various thoughts rushed through his head from the moment he heard the words of the battalion commander, which he forced out: 5.Continue the essay and illustrate 2 functions of the ellipsis. The first, well-known function is ._________________________________ ___________________________________
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
Text No. 21.
(1) A shell fragment broke the strings on the violin. (2) There is only one left, the last one. (3) The musician Egorov did not have spare strings; there was nowhere to get them, because this happened in the fall of 1941.
2.Write an introduction to your essay. Use the technique
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
rhetorical question
. Kirill’s statement will help you with this. Come up with a chain of 3-4 questions, as well as a sentence that serves
(1) It was spring, awakened nature bloomed under the generous rays of the sun, and birds sang in the forest. (2) In the distance, on the slopes of the solemn mountains, herds grazed, and the air was filled with the spring aroma of wildflowers.
Write an essay-reasoning
Introduction (thesis).
Related to source text analysis
2 points 1 point 0 points S2K1. Understanding the meaning of the fragment.
true
The procedure for working on an essay-reasoning
1. Read the text. Think about what problem the author is thinking about.
2. Find in the text the phrase indicated in the task
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
Text No. 24.
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
(1) A large audience gathered to listen to the original musician. (2) He was blind, but rumor conveyed miracles about his musical talent and his personal destiny. (3) They said that in childhood he was
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
3. Let's make an introduction. Choose the aphorism that you like best and continue the introduction with your thoughts (1-2 sentences).
A. “Music motivates us
5. Let’s formulate a thesis that needs to be proven. Fill in the blank.
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
So, in the work of V.G. Korolenko felt the power of sounds escaping from under the musician’s hands
10.Using the keywords written out earlier, we will compose arguments for the thesis. Fill in the blanks.
Firstly, it gives ________________ food to humans, soil for _____________
(1) Gloomy Lieutenant - that’s what pilot Yarovoy was nicknamed in our regiment, and this nickname best suited his character. (2) Rarely did anyone see a smile on his sharply defined lips. (3) He was very
Text No. 25.
“(1) Grandma, this is for you,” Tanya said, entering the apartment, accompanied by two girls and one serious boy. (2) Blind Anna Fedotovna stood on the threshold of the kitchen, not seeing, but knowing for sure that
3. We suggest you start your argumentative essay by using the “nominative topic” technique. You have two entry options. Fill in the blanks.
A.
Text No. 26. (1) Three guys entered the yard. (2) They looked ordinary, only Sanka immediately realized that they were from an orphanage.- (3) What do you want? - Sanka asked rudely with the expression with which everyone in the village
Write an essay-reasoning
Introduction (thesis).
10. Below are the thesis and arguments of the future essay-reasoning. Complete it.
(1) The second time the hunting dog Bim and his owner Ivan Ivanovich came to the forest late in the morning, but without a gun.
Write an essay-reasoning
Introduction (thesis).
(2) Fragrant swollen birch buds, powerful odors of roots, the finest
Speech errors
Classification of errors Examples Speech proper 1. Lexical (misunderstanding of the meaning of a word, unjustified
Connection of sentences in the text Lexical means : Lexical repeats - repeats
the same word or the same root word.
We discussed the book we read for a long time
Indicate errors in phrases and sentences. What type of errors would you classify them as? Justify your answer. Correct and write down the sentences
1. Griboyedov depicted in a comedy the decomposition of the noble class into two camps. 2. Farmers are preparing for spring sowing. 3. We don’t like their views.
4. Looking at such a
Monkey tongue This Russian language is difficult, dear citizens! The trouble is, what a difficult one. main reason
Independent work No. 2.
The fact is that there are a hell of a lot of foreign words in it. Well, take French speech. Everything is good and clear. Keskose, Mer
Sound laws of the Russian language
Text No. 31.
No matter what cities in the world I visit, no matter how much I admire their beauty, Moscow remains for me the most
the best city
1. Read the text. Think about what problem the author is thinking about.
in the world. You walk around Moscow, through its squares, along quiet alleys and feel, in your heart
A. “Music motivates us
1.1) metonymy, 2) metaphor, 3) epithet, 4) metaphor, 5) quick mind, 6) personification, 7) hyperbole, 8) comparison, 9) as, as if, as if, than, 10) knee-deep sea.
2 1.1) phonetics, 2) 6, 3) [f'], 4) 3, 5) [y'a], 6) th, h, sch, 7) [b]-[b'], 8) yes, 9) ъ,ь, 10) [b]-[p'], 11) [p']- [b'], 12) no, voiced, 13) yes, 14) [t], 15) no. 2. Independent work No. 12. 1. (stratification) – lexical: the use of a word in the wrong meaning. 2. (to spring sowing) – morphological: error in the use of the number of nouns. 2.. Although it would be more correct to talk not about homonymy in the broad sense of the word, and not even about the relative homonymy, but about the homonymous use in speech of various types homophones, which, as indicated by V.V. Vinogradov, includes “all types of unity of sound or consonance - both in whole constructions and in combinations of words or their parts, in individual segments of speech, in individual morphemes, even in adjacent sound combinations.” Therefore, the broad concept homophony covers the consonance of a wide variety of linguistic units. For example, to the phenomena homophony relate
coincidence of the pronunciation of words, the so-called proper homophones, or phonetic homonyms: flu - mushroom, labor - tinder;
matching word and phrase: dumb - not mine, skid - by the nose - variety homophony;
Often to homonymy also include homographs, that is, words that are the same in spelling, but differ in pronunciation, in particular, stress. This clearly distinguishes them from homophones and from lexical 1. (stratification) – lexical: the use of a word in the wrong meaning.. Modern researchers include over a thousand pairs of words among such words, such as iris (candy) - iris (type of thread), while considering different types of homographs:
lexical - atlas And atlas,
lexico-grammatical - village (verb) And village (noun), run (verb) And run (noun),
grammatical - Houses And Houses;
stylistic - compass(lit.) and compass(marine).
In modern studies, manuals, and dictionaries, a tendency has become established to use double names for those phenomena that are built on various kinds of coincidences and consonances. For example: homophones- phonetic homonyms, homoforms- grammatical homonyms, homomorphemes- morphological homonyms(or derivational homonyms). Sometimes the following terms are used: homosyntagms - syntactic homonyms, omostylems are stylistic homonyms. It seems that, despite the critical attitude of researchers towards this kind of double terminology, especially towards terms-phrases such as “syntactic homonymy”, its use does not cause confusion, but, on the contrary, allows one to more clearly define this or that linguistic phenomenon. And the point here is not what to call the phenomenon, but what kind of understanding is put into the name, what is hidden behind it.
So, the actual lexical homonymy(full and partial) cannot be mixed or even brought together with homophony in the broad sense of the word, that is, with all the consonances and similar sounds that occur in speech. From the actual lexical homonymy and from different types homophony it is necessary to clearly delimit the phenomena of purely graphic coincidence, that is homography.