Units of measurement of length of ancient Rus'. Ancient Russian measures of weight and area

Elbow is one of the original ancient Russian measures, equal to length from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, was introduced already in the 11th century.
According to various sources the size ranged from 38 to 47 cm. However, from about the 16th century, the cubit was in less and less demand and three centuries later it was completely replaced by the arshin.

Arshin and step

An arshin, according to modern concepts, was approximately equal to 0.7112 m. There are several theories about the appearance of the arshin measure of length. The main version assumes the origin of this measure from the average human step (on flat terrain at an average walking pace). An arshin was a segment equal to approximately 70 cm. The value was the base for larger measures of length or distance, such as a verst. The theory is confirmed by the “arshin”. The root (“ar”) in the Old Russian language meant “surface of the earth.” Therefore, this measure could be used specifically to determine the distance traveled on foot. However, there was another, more obvious name for the arshin - step.

It is known that when selling goods, merchants, for speed and greater convenience, measured “from the shoulder” or with a special ruler with marked divisions, called “arshin”. But over time, in order to avoid measurement, a kind of standard (“government arshin”) was introduced in the form of a wooden ruler with a state mark riveted on both ends of the rod.

The step (71 cm) was used when it was necessary to measure a relatively short distance. In addition, the length could be calculated in “small fathoms” or in pairs of steps of an adult. For example: one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three. There was also a “breech” equal to three steps of an adult (one-two-three - one, one-two-three - two...)

Span

The span was also considered an old Russian measure of length and was used for smaller quantities. Around the 17th century, the “span” was renamed to the “quarter arshin” (“quarter”, “chet”). It was convenient, even by eye, to single out half of a span (equal to two inches), as well as ¼ of a span, respectively, equal to an inch.

There were two types of span: small and large. The small span was equal to 17.78 cm and represented the distance from the large to index finger. Large span (22-23 cm) - the distance from the thumb to the little finger.

Vershok

1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter equal to an inch, 4.44 cm in modern system. The term goes back to the lexeme “top”. In the literature of the 17th century there are references to fractions of an inch (half an inch and a quarter of an inch, and the like).

Fathom

The most common and popular measure of length in Rus' was the fathom. There were more than ten fathoms, they all differed in length and purpose. “Makhovaya fathom” - was the distance between the tips of the middle fingers of the hands, placed apart, and was about 1.76 m. “Oblique fathom” (2.48 m) was the name given to the gap between the toe of the left foot to the tip of the middle finger extended upward right hand. Over time, for convenience, planted ropes and wooden “warehouses” began to be used in construction.

Verst

A mile was the distance covered from one turn of the plow to the next. The size of the verst varied until in 1649 the concept of “boundary verst” was introduced, a multiple of one thousand fathoms. And in the 18th century, a “way mileage” of 500 fathoms appeared.

The foot and inch, which they began to use in Russia, are multiples in size English measures.

Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.
The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” meant the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other major measures determining lengths, distances(fathom, verst). The root “AR” in the word a r sh i n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring ones) means “EARTH”, “surface of the earth”, and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult (“small fathoms”; one-two – one, one-two – two, one-two – three...), or in threes (“official fathoms”; one-two-three – one , one-two-three - two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length the basic value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - “quarter arshin”, “quarter”, “chet”), from which, by eye, it was easy to get smaller shares - two vershok (1/2 span) or vershok (1/4 span).

Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring ‘from the shoulder’. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “government arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

STEP- average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.
SPAN(pyatnitsa) - an ancient Russian measure of length. SMALL SPAND (they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
BIG SPAN- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
FUCKING FLIP(“span with somersault”, according to Dahl - ‘span with somersault’) - span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. Two titles for a long time used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
“Verstoy” was also called a milestone on the road.

The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.

Mezhevaya Versta- Old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia - and to measure distances between settlements.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. the “travel” mileage remains, equal to 500 fathoms.

SAZHEN- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Makhovaya fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathoms” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has oblique fathoms in his shoulders” (in the meaning - hero, giant)
This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as one could reach with one’s hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured ... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds”, which were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.

Makhovaya fathom- the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.
OBLIQUE FATHOUS(originally “splait”) - 2.48 m.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The value of this ancient measure of length, according to different sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

Elbow is a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in exact copy this temple is in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. IN retail trade canvas, cloth, linen - elbow was the main measure. In a large wholesale trade- linen, cloth, etc., came in the form of large sections - “postavs”, the length of which is different time and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific, quite specific value)

PALM= 1/6 cubit (six-palmed cubit)
VERSHOK equaled 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name “Vershok” comes from the word “top”. In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:
1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”
2 - combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"

For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”

For trees - “height *** arshins”

Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers
1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters
Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.
1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)
1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)
1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

1 quarter (span, small pip, pyadnitsa, pyada, pyaden, pyadyka) = 4 vershka = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)
The name p i d comes from the Old Russian word “metacarpus”, i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, “span” was replaced by “quarter arshin”)
Synonym for “quarter” is “chet”

Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.

A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.

1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).

1 finger ~ 2 cm.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
The name comes from Dutch - “thumb”. Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.

1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.)
The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.

1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm

1 point = 0.2540 millimeters

1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
(from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))
1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km
1 English mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 91.44 centimeters

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the "Description Books" armory Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow case, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershoks (10.5 vershoks) ... A large cast-iron arcal, an iron Lion, with belts, length three arshins three quarters and a half inch.” The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure of length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.

From the second half of the XVIII century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.

The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

Volume measures

Bucket

The basic Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is a bucket = 1/40 of a barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles(0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 liters - according to other sources, rare) V. - iron, wooden or leather utensils, mainly cylindrical, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on the rocker should be in a “woman’s lift.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups. The oldest “international” measure of volume is “handful”.

Before mid-17th century V. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel

The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l)

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:
oak - for beer and vegetable oils
spruce - under water
linden - for milk and honey

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the 15th century The ancient measures were still common - golvazhnya, lukno and harvesting. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobya and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk).

Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.

Wine measures

The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber.”

Bucket– Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters

Quarter = 3 liters (previously it was a narrow neck Glass bottle)

The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a shtof = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (the half-liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the count was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The production of glass vessels also dates back to this time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists.

Abroad, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - different countries this amounts to 0.63 to 0.76 liters

A flat bottle is called a flask.

Shtof (from German Stof) = 1/10 of a bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic drinks. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Mug (the word means ‘for drinking in a circle’) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.

Modern faceted glass was previously called “doskan” (“planed boards”), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.
Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.
Shkalik ( popular name- ‘mower’, from the word ‘mow’, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.
Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.

Endova
Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Leather bag (skin) – up to 60 l

Korchaga- 12 l
Nozzle- 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)
Ladle
Zhban
Tub– vessel height – 30-35 centimeters, diameter – 40 centimeters, volume – 2 buckets or 22-25 liters
Krynki
Sudenci, misa
Tuesa
Box- from whole pieces bast, sewn with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers
Balakir- a dugout wooden vessel, 1/4-1/5 in volume, buckets.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and represented a variety of clay pots, pots, milk bowls, jars, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, tubs, the capacity of which was approximately 1/4-1/2 bucket (about 3-5 liters). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia.

Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In Old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Ancient measures volume:

1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters
1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters=
1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm
1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)
1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm
1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm
1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:

flipper- 12 quarters
quarter(chet) – 1/4 part of kadi
octopus(eighth - eighth part)

Kad(tub, shackle) = 20 buckets or more
Big tub - bigger tub

Tsybik- box (of tea) = 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).
Details: The tea was tightly kneaded in wooden boxes, "tsibiki" - covered in leather frames, in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesto (‘Place’ - possible variant).

half an octagon
quadruple

Liquid measures (“wine measures”):

barrel(40 buckets)
boiler(from half a bucket to 20 buckets)
bucket
half a bucket
quarter bucket
osmukha (1/8)
crush(1/16 bucket)

Measures of volume of liquid and granular bodies:

1 quarter= 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 l
1 quadruple(“measure”) = 2.624 deciliters = 26.24 l
1 garnets= 3.280 liters

Weights

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:
Berkovets = 10 poods
pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
spool = 4.27 g
fraction = 0.044 g
…

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to denote both weight and monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

GOLDEN equaled 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

LB(from the Latin word ‘pondus’ - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.

Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)

LOT- an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE– the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD equaled 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).

The pud as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in the 18th century:

Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century) are highlighted

Area measures

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after “ Cathedral Code" 1649) mainly, the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, thus, a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then, in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because lands due to their location and irregular shapes were inconvenient to measure. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Surface area measures:

1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers
1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares
1 kopn = 0.1 tithe
1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters
1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters
1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm
1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m
1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter
1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeters

Units of measurement in Rus' in the 18th century

TO XVIII century there were up to 400 units of measures of different sizes used in different countries. The variety of measures made trading operations difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, uniform systems of measures were defined for the entire country. In the 18th century in connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, in Russia the question arose of the accuracy of measurements, the creation of standards on the basis of which verification work (“metrology”) could be organized.

The question of choosing standards from the many existing ones (both domestic and overseas) turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon arrival, and then reweighed repeatedly at the mints; At the same time, the weight turned out to be different.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. there was an opinion that more precisely scales at St. Petersburg customs. It was decided to make model scales from the customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.

A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as an example of a measure of length when determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. Using this half-arshin measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.

The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.

In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, and developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the Russian monetary account system was built on the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units measurements using length measures. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-piece was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”

According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736–1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce arshins “in the entire Russian state.” In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797, on the “Establishment throughout the Russian Empire true scales, drink and grain measures" was started big job on the ordering of weights and measures. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshins - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It’s interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). It was ordered to introduce state-branded yardsticks priced at 1 silver ruble in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of old yardstick templates.

Stage
Stage [Greek. stadion - stages (measure of length)] - this ancient measure of distances is more than two thousand years old (from it - Stadium in other Greece; Greek stadion - place for competitions). The size of the stage is about two hundred meters. “...directly opposite the city lay the island of Pharos, on the northern tip of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (7 stages)” (F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Ancient measures in modern language

In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings

Sayings:
“You write in big letters” - large
“Kolomenskaya Versta” is a very humorous name tall man.
“Oblique fathom in the shoulders” - broad-shouldered

in poetry:
You can’t understand Russia with your mind, you can’t measure it with a common (official) yardstick. Tyutchev

Dictionary
Currency units

Quarter = 25 rubles
Ruble = 2 half
Tselkovy - the colloquial name for the metal ruble
Poltina = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Five-altyn = 15 kopecks
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half a coin) = 1 kopeck.
Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

Foreign names:
Pint is an old French measure of liquids, about 0.9 liters; in England and the USA - a measure of the volume of liquids and bread, approximately 0.57 l
Eighth of a pound = 1/8 pound
Gallon English - 4.546 l
Barrel - 159 l
Carat - 0.2 g, weight of wheat grain
Ounce - 28.35 g
English pound - 0.45359 kg
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 small handweight = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg.
Yard -91.44 cm.
Nautical mile - 1852 m
1 cable - tenth of a mile
Rhumb - 11 1/4° = 1/32 fraction of a circle - unit of angular measure
Sea knot (speed) = 1 mph

Ancient Russian quantities:
Quarter - quarter, quarter
‘a quarter of wine’ = a fourth of a bucket.
‘four quarter grains’ = 1/4 cadi
kad - an old Russian measure of bulk solids (usually four pounds)
Osmina, osmukha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called osmushka (“osmushka tea”).
‘a quarter to eight’ – time = 7:45 am or pm
Five - five units of weight or length
A ream is a measure of paper, formerly equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
‘one hundred and eighty osmago November day osmago’ – 188 November eighth
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half a point = 4.5
Half elevenths = 10.5
Half a hundred - two hundred and fifty
Field - ‘arena, lists’ (115 steps - a variant of magnitude), later - the first name and synonym for ‘verst’ (field - million - mile), Dahl has a variant meaning of this word: “daily march, about 20 versts”
“Printed fathom” - official (standard, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
A cut is an amount of material in a single piece of fabric sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)
“No estimate” - no number
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match

Additional reading:
New domestic research

In this lesson we will look at units of length, area, and a table of area units. Let's look at different units of measurement of length and area and find out in what cases they are used. Let's systematize our knowledge using a table. Let's solve a number of examples of converting one unit of measurement to another.

You are familiar with the different units of length. What units of length are convenient to use when measuring the thickness of a match or the length of a ladybug's body? I think you said millimeters.

What units of length are convenient to use when measuring the length of a pencil? Of course, in centimeters (see Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Length measurement

What units of length are convenient to use when measuring the width or length of a window? It is convenient to measure in decimeters.

What about the length of the corridor or the length of the fence? Let's use meters (see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Length measurement

To measure larger distances, for example, distances between cities, a unit of length larger than a meter is used - a kilometer (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Length measurement

There are 1000 meters in 1 kilometer.

Express the distance in kilometers.

1 kilometer is a thousand meters, which means that the number of thousands will indicate kilometers.

8000 m = 8 km

385007 m = 385 km 7 m

34125 m = 34 km 125 m

In numbers, the number of hundreds, tens and units is indicated by meters.

You can reason differently: 1 km is a thousand times more than 1 meter, which means the number of kilometers should be 1000 times less than the number of meters. Therefore 8000: 1000 = 8, the number 8 means the number of kilometers.

385007: 1000 = 385 (remaining 7). The number 385 stands for kilometers, the remainder is the number of meters.

34125: 1000 = 34 (rest. 125), that is, 34 kilometers 125 meters.

Read the table of length units (see Figure 4). Try to remember it.

Rice. 4. Table of length units

Different standards are used to measure areas. A square centimeter is a square with a side of 1 cm (see Fig. 5), a square decimeter is a square with a side of 1 dm (see Fig. 6), a square meter is a square with a side of 1 m (see Fig. 7).

Fig.5. Square centimeter

Rice. 6. Square decimeter

Rice. 7. Square meter

To measure large areas, a square kilometer is used - this is a square whose side is 1 km (see Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Square kilometer

The words “square kilometer” are abbreviated with numbers as follows - 1 km 2, 3 km 2, 12 km 2. For example, the area of cities is measured in square kilometers; the area of Moscow is S = 1091 km 2 .

Let's calculate how many square meters are in one square kilometer. To find the area of a square, you need to multiply the length by the width. We are given a square with a side of 1 km. We know that 1 km = 1000 m, so to find the area of such a square, we multiply 1000 m by 1000 m, we get 1,000,000 m 2 = 1 km 2.

Express in square meters 2 km 2. We will reason like this: since 1 km 2 is 1,000,000 m 2, that is, the number of square meters is a million times greater than the number of square kilometers, so we multiply 2 by 1,000,000, we get 2,000,000 m 2.

56 km 2: multiply 56 by 1,000,000, we get 56,000,000 m 2.

202 km 2 15 m 2: 202 ∙1,000,000 + 15 = 202,000,000 m 2 + 15 m 2 = 202,000,015 m 2.

To measure small areas, square millimeters (mm2) are used. This is a square whose side is 1 mm. The words “square millimeter” with a number are written as follows: 1 mm 2, 7 mm 2, 31 mm 2.

Let's calculate how many square millimeters are in one square centimeter. To find the area of a square, you need to multiply the length by the width. We are given a square with a side of 1 cm. We know that 1 cm = 10 mm. This means that to find the area of such a square, we multiply 10 mm by 10 mm, we get 100 mm 2.

Express 4 cm2 in square millimeters. We will reason like this: since 1 cm 2 is 100 mm 2, that is, the number mm 2 is 100 times greater than the number cm 2, so we multiply 4 by 100, we get 400 mm 2.

16 cm 2: multiply 16 by 100 = 1600 mm 2.

31 cm 2 7 mm 2: this is 31 ∙ 100 + 7 = 3100 + 7 = 3107 mm 2.

In life, units of area such as are and hectare are often used. Ap is a square with a side of 10 m (see Fig. 9). For numbers ar they write shorter: 1 a, 5 a, 12 a.

Rice. 9. 1 ar

1 a = 100 m2, which is why it is often called a hundred square meters.

A hectare is a square with a side of 100 m (see Fig. 10). The word “hectare” in numbers is abbreviated as follows: 1 ha, 6 ha, 23 ha. 1 ha = 10000 m2.

Rice. 10. 1 hectare

Calculate how many ares there are in 1 hectare.

1 ha = 10000 m2

1 a = 100 m 2, which means 10000: 100 = 100 a

Now carefully look at the table of area units (see Fig. 11), try to remember it.

Rice. 11. Table of area units

In the lesson we got acquainted with a new unit of length - km and units of area - m 2, km 2, a, ha.

Bashmakov M.I. Nefedova M.G. Mathematics. 4th grade. M.: Astrel, 2009.
M. I. Moro, M. A. Bantova, G. V. Beltyukova and others. Mathematics. 4th grade. Part 1 of 2, 2011.
Demidova T. E. Kozlova S. A. Tonkikh A. P. Mathematics. 4th grade 2nd ed., rev. - M.: Balass, 2013.

School.xvatit.com ().
Mer.kakras.ru ().
Dpva.info().

Homework

Find the area of a square with a side of 15 dm.
Express: in square meters: 5 hectares; 3 ha 18 a; 247 acres; 16 a;
in hectares: 420,000 m2; 45 km 2 19 hectares;
in acreage: 43 hectares; 4 ha 5 a; 30,700 m2; 5 km2 13 ha;
in hectares and acres: 930 a; 45,700 m2.

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:

Berkovets = 10 poods
pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
spool = 4.27 g
fraction = 0.044 g

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small and expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

POUND (from the Latin word “pondus” - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.

Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)

LOT is an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).

The pud as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in the 18th century:

Ancient Russian measures of length, weight, volume

Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century) are highlighted

Area measures

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit, the tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The yield measure of the haystack was used more often. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through the geometric measure tithe.

Surface area measures:

The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following main measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

STEP- average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
"Verstoy" was also called a milestone on the road.
The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

VERSHOK equaled 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

Length measures(used in Russia after the “Decree” of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers

1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters

Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.

1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)

1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)

1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

Volume measures

Bucket

bucket= 1/40 barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters
Barrel- most often in peasant life small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Wine measures

Bucket– Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters

Quarter<четвёртая часть ведра>= 3 liters (previously it was a narrow-necked glass bottle)

Measure" bottle"appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle= 1/20 bucket = 1/2 damask = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (half a liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the count was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

A flat bottle is called flask.

Shtof(from German Stof) = 1/10 bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 l. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Mug(the word means “for drinking in a circle”) = 10 glasses = 1.23 l.

Modern faceted glass was previously called "doskan" ("planed boards"), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.

Charka(Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.

Stack= 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.

Shkalik(popular name - “kosushka”, from the word “mow”, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.

Quarter(half a scale or 1/16 of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Ancient volume measures:

1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters

1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters

1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm

1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)

1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm

1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm

1 quart is a little more than a liter.

Weights

In Rus' the following measures were used in trade weight(Old Russian):
Berkovets = 10 poods
pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
spool = 4.27 g
fraction = 0.044 g
...

Hryvnia(latest pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

GOLDEN equaled 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

LB(from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound of raisins is."
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

LOT- an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE– the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD equaled 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg.

Area measures

Area measures surfaces:

1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers

1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares

1 kopn = 0.1 tithe

1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters

1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters

1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm

1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m

1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter

1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeters

Ancient measures in modern language

In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings

Sayings:

“You write in big letters” - large

"Kolomenskaya Versta" is a humorous name for a very tall person.

"Oblique fathoms in the shoulders" - broad-shouldered

Dictionary

Currency units

Ancient Russian quantities:
Quarter - quarter, quarter
"a quarter of wine" = a fourth of a bucket.
"quadruple grain" = 1/4 cady
kad - an old Russian measure of bulk solids (usually four pounds)
Osmina, osmukha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called osmushka ("octam of tea").
"a quarter to eight" – time = 7:45 am or pm
Five - five units of weight or length
A ream is a measure of paper, formerly equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
"one hundred and eighty osmago November day of osmago" - 188 November eighth
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half a point = 4.5
Half elevenths = 10.5
Half a hundred - two hundred and fifty
Field - "arena, lists" (115 steps - a variant of the magnitude), later - the first name and synonym for "verst" (field - million - mile), Dahl has a variant meaning of this word: "daily march, about 20 versts"
“Printed fathom” - official (standard, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
A cut is an amount of material in a single piece of fabric sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)
“No estimate” - no number
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match