Modern Ukraine occupies the territories of a number of principalities into which Kievan Rus fell apart in the 12th century - Kiev, Volyn, Galitsky, Pereyaslavsky, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, as well as part of the Polovtsian Wild Field.
The name "Ukraine" appears in written sources at the end of the 12th century and is applied to the outskirts of a number of the named principalities bordering the Wild Field. In the XIV century, their lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and also became "Ukrainian" in relation to it (and after the Polish-Lithuanian union of 1569 - in relation to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). Chronicles of the 15th-16th centuries know "Ukrainians" not only in present-day Ukraine. There were, for example, Ryazan Ukraine, Pskov Ukraine, etc.
For a long time the words "Ukraine", "Ukrainian" had not ethnic, but purely geographical meaning. The Orthodox inhabitants of Ukraine continued to call themselves Rusyns at least until the 18th century, and in Western Ukraine- until the beginning of the twentieth century. In the treaty of Hetman Vyhovsky with Poland of 1658, according to which Ukraine became an independent state in the union with the Commonwealth, the Ukrainian state was officially called the "Russian Ukrainian Hetmanate."
In the 14th century, in Byzantium, the term "Little Russia" arose, with which the patriarchs of Constantinople designated a new metropolitanate with the center in Galich, created for the Orthodox on the lands of present-day Ukraine, to distinguish it from the Moscow metropolis. The name "Little Russia" is used from time to time in their title by the last independent Galician princes ("kings of Russia" or "Little Russia"). Subsequently, the opposition between Little and Great Russia received a political justification: the first was under the rule of Poland and Lithuania, and the second was independent. However, these names went from the fact that Little Russia was the historical core Kievan Rus, a Great Russia- the territory of the later settlement of the Old Russian people (cf. in antiquity: Little Greece - Greece itself, Great Greece - southern Italy and Sicily).
The name "Little Russia" (in Russian Empire- Little Russia) for today's Ukraine was adopted by the tsars. At the same time, the inhabitants of Ukraine themselves have never called themselves Little Russians. This was the definition given to him by the Russian administration. They got along with two self-names - Rusyns and Ukrainians (over time, they began to give preference to the second), although in the 19th century the government actively instilled the opinion that they were part of a single Russian people.
There was another name for some Ukrainians - Cherkasy. There are conflicting hypotheses about its origin. It did not apply to all Ukrainians, but only to the Cossacks. The first information about Ukrainian Cossacks dates back to the end of the 15th century. These were free people who did not obey their masters and settled in the territories of the Wild Field. The Cherkasy raided the Tatars' encampments in the steppe, and they themselves were sometimes attacked from their side. But the steppe freemen attracted more and more people from the estates of the Polish and Lithuanian lords to the ranks of the Cossacks. Not any Cossacks were called Cherkasy, but only Dnieper ones (at the same time Ryazan Cossacks were known, and in the 16th century - Don, Terek, etc.).
Ukrainian historiography made the Cossacks the basis of the national myth. However, in fact, the Cossacks for a long time it didn't matter who to rob. Their invasions in the XVI century were subjected to and Crimean Khanate, and the city of the Commonwealth, where Orthodox Ukrainians lived. Only from the beginning of the 17th century in the movement of the Cossacks against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began to appear glimpses of aspirations for independence for the whole of Ukraine.
Cossacks often and willingly made peace with the Polish kings, if they provided them with more privileges. The bulk of the Polish-Lithuanian troops that flooded the Moscow state in Time of Troubles the beginning of the 17th century, were Cherkasy. Poland sought to put the Cossacks under its control and included some of the Cossacks in the so-called. register, which was paid a salary for service on the border with the lands of the Crimean Tatars. At the same time, most of the Cossacks were outlawed, which did not stop those who wanted to "Cossack" in the independent military republic founded in the Zaporozhye Sich.
Bohdan Khmelnitsky, who raised the Cossacks in mid XVII centuries to the war of liberation, was not up to its historical task. He relied more on an agreement with the king than on the Ukrainian peasantry, which was ready to oppose the Polish lords, but did not wait for support from the Khmelnytsky Cossacks. As a result, Bogdan was unable to retain most of the Ukrainian lands and asked for patronage from the Moscow Tsar.
Difference in political concepts two parts of Russia came to light immediately, as soon as the Moscow government took Khmelnitsky (1653) under its authority. The Cossacks understood the alliance with Moscow as a bilateral alliance, in which Ukraine not only retains its governing bodies, finances and troops, but also freedom. external relations, and Moscow has no right to put its governors and governors in Ukraine. In addition, the Cossacks insisted that the tsar personally swear allegiance to the execution of the treaty, as Khmelnitsky swore allegiance to the tsar.
But the boyars replied that they didn’t have it so that the king would swear to someone. They viewed Khmelnytsky's step only as a transition to submission to the autocrat, and some of the autonomous rights left to Ukraine as a mercy bestowed on her. Thereafter, taking advantage of the war with Poland, Moscow appointed its voivods to the main cities of Ukraine, who began to administer justice and reprisals, and deployed garrisons there. This cooled the zeal of the Cossacks for the same faith in Moscow. Already Bogdan Khmelnitsky himself actually deviated from Moscow, establishing relations with Sweden and Crimea against both Poland and Russia. Under his successors, the betrayal of a part of the Cossack elite to Moscow became obvious.
On the long years Ukraine became the arena of the struggle between Russia and Poland, as well as the Cossacks themselves, who supported one side or the other. This time was named Ruin in the history of Ukraine. Finally, in 1667, an armistice was signed between Russia and Poland, according to which the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev withdrew to Russia.
In the era of the Ruins, hundreds of thousands of people fled from the Right Bank Ukraine to the Russian bank of the Dnieper. Right-bank Ukraine, which remained behind Poland, lost any shadow of autonomy. Things were different in the Left-Bank Ukraine. The Little Russian hetmanship was autonomous within Russia until Mazepa's betrayal in 1708. They had their own laws and courts (self-government was preserved in the cities according to Magdeburg law), the hetmanate had its own treasury and departments. In peacetime, the tsars had no right to send Cossacks to serve outside Ukraine.
In 1727, the government of the Dolgoruky princes under the young Tsar Peter II restored the hetmanship, but in 1737, during the Bironovism period, it was abolished again. The hetmanate was revived again by Elizaveta Petrovna in 1750, and in 1764 Catherine II finally liquidated it.
Housing - for feudal lords - stone and brick buildings in the form of castles with fables, fortifications, narrow windows; among the peasants - wooden dwellings of two types: a log house (a quadrangular log house consisted of logs laid horizontally on top of each other, then the roof, doors, windows were completed; common in most of Ukraine) and frame (stakes were driven in between the posts from the inside and outside, rods were braided , were smeared with clay and straw; the dried wall was whitewashed; found in the south of Volyn). At the entrance to the house there was a stove - the opposite corner, but diagonally, was "red" for guests. The rooms were few and large. Lived large families from several generations (usually 2 - 3 families in a room). Pa yard - household buildings (sheds, barns, 1 cattle shed), next to a vegetable garden. The size of the buildings depended on the wealth of the owner.
Clothes - from linen or hemp, usually at home they sewed shirts with embroidery for men (among the nobles -: embroidery from silk, se
ribs, gold) without collars, wide trousers, wide (about 15 cm)
a belt made of linen, usually red. .V women - with
brooch, long wide skirt, apron, sundress, beads (made of stone, glass,
coins, beads), in the ears - earrings or bells. In winter - long
sheepskin jackets or cloaks up to the toes. Feudal lords sewed fur coats from expensive furs.
Food - Rye bread(the poor added barley impurities to the flour
or oats; White bread was for the holidays), cereal soup, kulesh, dumplings,
dumplings, fish, berries, fruits, beer, etc.
Customs - folk (often pagan) and church holidays- Christmas (they went caroling on the night of it). Easter, the holiday of Yanka Kupala, (June 23 before the harvest), the holiday of the Intercession of the Virgin (October 4, the end of agricultural work), etc.
School theater - at the Ostroh school, Lviv fraternal
school - pupils for Christmas, Easter and other holidays and at
At meetings of eminent guests, they read poems of their own composition and greetings, played small plays in the form of a dialogue on educational and religious topics, etc.
People's Square Theater - at fairs, holidays, etc.,
with large crowds of people, comedies were played, sometimes dramas for
attraction of the audience.
After the adoption of the Union of Brest in 1596, the Orthodox Church in Ukraine was banned and most of the churches and monasteries became Uniate. 1) 1620 with the help of the Zaporozhye hetman Peter Sagaidachny, the Jerusalem Patriarch Theophanes arrives in Ukraine and restores the Kiev Metropolis and all Orthodox hierarchy pa Ukraine (produces in dignity Metropolitan of Kiev and 5 Ukrainian and Belarusian bishops). As a result, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth only at the beginning of the 30s of the 17th century, under pressure from large peasant uprisings (S. Nalivaiko and others) and the demands of the Ukrainian brotherhoods, officially allowed Orthodox Church in Ukraine, although it still continues to persecute it.
And at the end of the XVI century. Under the leadership of the Patriarch of Alexandria M. Nigas, a reform of church singing was carried out, which contrasted the Catholic divine service with organ music and polyphonic singing with polyphonic singing from notes. In the 17th century, a peculiar school of such singing had already developed in Ukraine, and Kiev turned into a center, where it reached its apogee, and later it was transferred to Russia, replacing monotonous singing there.
In portrait painting, the clergy departed from the old Byzantine canons, adopting the achievements of the Renaissance art and even trying to surpass it with the power of emotional influence.
There was a shift in the center of the political and cultural life
to Kiev, because: Kiev was the capital of Kievan Rus; and at the beginning of the 17th century. - the largest city in the Dnieper region (15 thousand inhabitants), an important craft, trade and Cultural Center was located on the southeastern "Krappa of the Commonwealth, which made it difficult for the latter to interfere in its affairs, and on the other hand, the Zaporozhye Cossacks were based just a few hundred miles from Kiev; since 1620 Kiev is again the religious center of Orthodoxy in Ukraine.
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Description
UKRAANIEIINTSY (self-name), people, the main population of Ukraine (37.4 million people). They also live in Russia (4.36 million people), Kazakhstan (896 thousand people), Moldova (600 thousand people), Belarus (over 290 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (109 thousand people), Uzbekistan (153 thousand people). . person) and other states on the territory the former USSR.
Total number 46 million people, including in Poland (350 thousand people), Canada (550 thousand people), the USA (535 thousand people), Argentina (120 thousand people) and other countries. They speak Ukrainian of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.
Ukrainians, along with closely related Russians and Belarusians, belong to Eastern Slavs... The Ukrainians include the Carpathian (Boyko, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polissya (Litvin, Polishchuk) ethnographic groups.
History reference
The formation of the Ukrainian nation (origin and formation) took place in the 12-15 centuries on the basis of the southwestern part of the East Slavic population, which was previously part of the the old Russian state- Kievan Rus (9-12 centuries). During the period of political fragmentation in connection with the existing local peculiarities of language, culture and life (in the 12th century the toponym "Ukraine" also appeared), the preconditions were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples on the basis of the Old Russian people - Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian.
The main historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian people was the Middle Dnieper region - Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernigov region. A significant integrating role was played by Kiev, which rose from the ruins after the defeat by the Golden Horde invaders in 1240, where the most important shrine of Orthodoxy was located - Kiev-Pechersk Lavra... Other southwestern East Slavic lands gravitated to this center - Sivershina, Volyn, Podolia, Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia. Beginning in the 13th century, the Ukrainians underwent Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish and Moldovan conquests.
From the end of the 15th century, the raids of the Tatar khans who established themselves in the Northern Black Sea region began, accompanied by the mass captivity and theft of the Ukrainians. In the 16-17 centuries, in the course of the struggle against foreign conquerors, the Ukrainian nation was significantly consolidated. Vital role played at the same time the emergence of the Cossacks (15th century), which created a state (16th century) with a peculiar republican system - the Zaporozhye Sich, which became a political stronghold of the Ukrainians. In the 16th century, the book Ukrainian (the so-called Old Ukrainian) language was formed. On the basis of the Middle Dnieper dialects at the turn of the 18-19th centuries, the modern Ukrainian (New Ukrainian) literary language was formed.
The defining moments of the ethnic history of Ukrainians in the 17th century were the further development of handicrafts and trade, in particular, in cities that enjoyed Magdeburg law, as well as the creation, as a result of the liberation war under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian state - the Hetmanate and its entry (1654) as autonomous Russia. This created the preconditions for the further unification of all Ukrainian lands.
In the 17th century, significant groups of Ukrainians moved from the Right Bank, which was part of Poland, as well as from the Dnieper region to the east and southeast, the development of empty steppe lands by them and the formation of the so-called Slobozhanshchina. In the 90s of the 18th century, the Right Bank Ukraine and the southern, and in the first half of the 19th century - the Danubian Ukrainian lands became part of Russia.
The name "Ukraine", used in the 12-13th centuries to designate the southern and southwestern parts of the Old Russian lands, by the 17-18th century in the meaning of "kraina", i.e. the country was fixed in official documents, became widespread and served as the basis for the ethnonym "Ukrainians". Along with the ethnonyms originally used in relation to their southeastern group - "Ukrainians", "Cossacks", "Cossack people", "Ruski". In the 16th - early 18th century, in the official documents of Russia, the Ukrainians of the Middle Dnieper and Slobozhanshchyna were often called "Cherkasy", later, in pre-revolutionary times - "Little Russians", "Little Russians" or "Southern Russians".
Features of the historical development of various territories of Ukraine, their geographical differences led to the emergence of historical and ethnographic regions of Ukrainians - Polesie, Central Dnieper, South, Podolia, Carpathians, Slobozhanshchina. Ukrainians have created a vibrant and distinctive national culture.
Food varied greatly among different segments of the population. The food was based on vegetable and flour foods (borscht, dumplings, various yushki), cereals (especially millet and buckwheat); dumplings, pampushki with garlic, lemishka, noodles, jelly, etc. Fish, including salted fish, occupied a significant place in food. Meat food was available to the peasantry only on holidays. The most popular were pork and lard.
From flour with the addition of poppy and honey, numerous poppy seeds, cakes, knyshi, bagels were baked. Such drinks as uzvar, varenukha, sirivets, various liqueurs and vodka, including the popular vodka with pepper, were widespread. As ceremonial dishes, the most common were cereals - kutia and kolyvo with honey.
National holidays
Traditions, culture
The Ukrainian folk costume is varied and colorful. Womens clothing consisted of an embroidered shirt (shirts - tunic-like, polikovaya or on a yoke) and unstitched clothes: jersey, spare tires, plakhta (from the 19th century a sewn skirt - speednitsa); in cool weather they wore sleeveless jackets (kersets, kiptari, etc.). Girls braided their hair in braids, laying them around their heads and decorating them with ribbons, flowers, or putting a wreath of paper flowers on their heads, colorful ribbons... Women wore various bonnets (ochipka), towel-like hats (namitka, obrus), and later, headscarves.
A man's suit consisted of a shirt (with a narrow stand-up, often embroidered collar with a drawstring) tucked into wide or narrow trousers, sleeveless jackets and belts. In summer, straw flews served as a headdress, at other times - felt or astrakhan, often the so-called smushkov (from smushki), cylinder-like hats. The most common footwear was rawhide postols, and in Polesie - lychak (bast shoes), among the wealthy - boots.
In the autumn-winter period, both men and women wore a retinue and an opanchu - long-length clothes of the same type as the Russian caftan, made of homespun white, gray or black cloth. The women's retinue was fitted. In rainy weather, they wore a retinue with a hood (kobenyak), in winter - long sheepskin sheepskin coats (jackets), covered with cloth by wealthy peasants. Rich embroidery, appliqué, etc. are characteristic.
Second half of the 17th century in the history of Ukraine. The second half of the 17th century in the history of Ukraine was filled with desperate disputes over the social structure of the country, socio-economic problems, the struggle of the ruling hetmans with numerous contenders for the hetman's mace.
Most of Khmelnitsky's successors had neither his popularity and authority, nor managerial talent. Therefore, these rulers were constantly looking for "patrons" for Ukraine, easily succumbed to the influence of predators-neighbors or adapted to changing circumstances. For the most part, they did not rule for long. Many of them were guided not so much by the state as by their own interests.
The consequence of this was a foreign intervention and the seizure of Ukrainian lands, a political crisis, economic devastation and Civil War... Ukrainian society split almost immediately after the death of Khmelnytsky. His successor, Ivan Vyhovsky, faced with manifestations of the aggressive policy of Muscovy, was forced to seek an alliance with the recent enemy of the Ukrainians, the Commonwealth.
In 1658, he defeated a 150,000-strong Moscow army near Konotop, and then concluded the Gadyach treaty with Poland, which provided for the autonomy of Ukraine. But the hetman could not take advantage of this agreement, since a Cossack foreman rose up against him, accusing him of "selling Ukraine to the Poles." This event became the reason for the fratricidal war, which only in 1659 cost the Ukrainians about 50 thousand lives, and Vyhovsky himself - the hetman's mace.
Civil war, now dying down, then flaring up with new strength, blazed in Ukraine during 1656-1665 and 1668-1689. Describing these events in a message to King Jan Kazimierz, the Polish magnate Pototsky testified: "... Ukrainians eat themselves, one village is at war with another, the father's son, and the son's father is robbing." After Vyhovsky's abdication, power in Ukraine, with the support of the Moscow tsar, passed to the son of Bohdan Khmelnitsky, Yuri. This 18-year-old boy, who was very young and did not have the talent of a ruler, and was also in poor health, immediately signed with Moscow a new version of the Pereyaslav agreement, which was actually enslaving for Ukrainians.
From now on, Russian garrisons were deployed in all large cities Ukraine, and the hetman, deprived of the right to conduct foreign policy without tsarist permission, turned into a puppet, a toy in the hands of foreigners. It was under the heir of Khmelnitsky that Ukraine lost its integrity.
According to the Treaty of Andrusov signed in 1667 between the Russians and Poles, the left-bank part of the state remained under the rule of Muscovy, and the right-bank part again became part of the Commonwealth. As for the lands on which the Zaporizhzhya Sich was located, they passed under the double Polish-Moscow administration. This was the first, but, unfortunately, not the last case of the division of our country.
The Ukrainian people have been experiencing the dire consequences of this political catastrophe for almost 300 years. Leaving the hetman's office, Yuri Khmelnitsky went to a monastery. Meanwhile, the hetman whirlwind swept over Ukraine. For a short period of time, the hetman's mace was in the hands of Pavel Tyuri, and again Yuri Khmelnitsky - on the Right Bank, and Yakov Somko, Ivan Bryukhovetsky, Demyan Mnogogreshny and Ivan Samoilovich - on the Left Bank. Most of these politicians were henchmen of either the Russian tsar or the Poles and unquestioningly followed their instructions, further worsening the life of the Ukrainian people.
I tried to change the situation. He carried out a number of reforms that had a positive effect on the situation inside the country. Was the same balanced foreign policy hetman. Taking advantage of the old idea of Bohdan Khmelnitsky, Doroshenko entered into an alliance with Turkey. Then, in the fall of 1667, a combined army of Cossacks and Turks attacked the Polish army in Galicia, forcing King Jan Casimir to grant the hetman broad autonomy. Having established himself on the Right Bank, he moved with the army to the left-bank part of Ukraine, removed Ivan Bryukhovetsky from the hetman's post and united the entire state under his rule.
The military exploits of Ivan Sirko are sung in many Cossack thoughts, folk songs and legends. It is with his name that historical tradition connects the famous response of the Cossacks Turkish Sultan Mohammed IV on his demand to submit to the Ottoman Empire. In a letter to him, the Cossacks, in particular, wrote: "You will not be sons of Christians around you, we are not afraid of your victory, we will fight with you with earth and water, .." According to legend, having received this letter, the Sultan issued a special firman ( decree) so that in all mosques they pray to Allah for the death of Ivan Sirko.
A significant role in these events was played by the Cossack foreman, among whom the comrades-in-arms of Bogdan Khmelnitsky - Ivan Bohun and Ivan Sirko - stood out.
Having devoted their entire lives to fighting the enemies of the Ukrainian people, they took part in decisive battles against foreign invaders. In particular, Ivan Sirko's dedication to the cause of freeing the people from oppression, extraordinary courage, organizational and military talent is evidenced by at least the fact that the Cossacks elected him as chieftain eight times. This Cossack leader was highly respected in the army. During his life, he participated in more than a hundred military campaigns and was defeated only once. And they also loved him for the fact that he was of simple origin - he came from the Cossack settlement of Artemovka near Merefa in the Kharkiv region. (There are other assumptions about the birthplace of Sirko: the village of Grushevka in the Dnipropetrovsk region or Podillia - now the Vinnitsa region.)
But, despite the support of Ivan Sirko and other Cossack leaders, he could not hold the conquered positions. Soon, applicants for the hetman's office rose up against him, incited by Russians, Poles and Tatars.
An internecine struggle flared up again, about which Sirko spoke with bitterness: “Now we have four hetmans: Samoilovich, Sukhovei, Khanenko, Doroshenko, and there is nothing good from anyone: they sit at home and shed only Christian blood for the hetmanship, for estates, for mills. ". As a result of internal disputes and political encroachments on Ukraine in 1686 after the conclusion between Russia and Poland of the so-called " eternal peace"It was again and for a long time divided between neighboring states. The agreement of 1686 was called by I. Ya. Francon a “wild agreement”, which legalized the existence of “two Ukrainians” for almost 100 years. By the way, in order to keep Kiev, the Russian tsar paid Rzeczpospolita 146 thousand gold rubles for it. The left bank, which the Ukrainians called the Hetmanate, and the Russians called Little Russia, fell under the rule of Moscow; The right bank went to Poland. Only Northern Bukovina remained in the hands of the Turks, and the population of the western Carpathians was under the rule of the Hungarians. As for the Zaporizhzhya Sich, at the end of the 17th century it gradually lost its significance as a stronghold of the Cossacks and completely passed under the wing of the Russian Empire.