Any building is an interconnected system of architectural and structural elements, each of which performs a specific function. These elements can also be called the building parts.
All structural elements can be divided into load-bearing and enclosing. Load-bearing elements include those parts of the building that bear the load from the elements lying above them, as well as the payload (the weight of people, furniture, equipment). Enclosing (self-supporting) structures are those that bear the load only from their own weight. This curtain walls(including internal partitions), as well as the building's covering (roof). External brick walls can be non-load-bearing if the structural system of the building is not wall, but framed: in this case, the floors are supported by pillars, and the brickwork, supported on the floor of its floor, performs only an enclosing function. The load-bearing external elements of the building also play the role of fencing, protecting inner space buildings from environmental influences. Internal enclosing elements (partitions) perform the function of dividing space. External enclosing structures, in addition, take on the load from snow, wind and other atmospheric phenomena, and therefore must be stronger than similar internal structures.
The set of load-bearing structural elements of a building is called load-bearing frame. These elements provide strength, rigidity and stability of the building. The load-bearing frame includes both vertical (walls, pillars, columns) and horizontal (floors) elements. Stationary stairs and the roof are also load-bearing structures.
The supporting frame must be supported by foundation– a structural element that receives loads from the load-bearing frame (which, in turn, receives loads from non-load-bearing parts of the building and from environmental influences, as well as the payload) and transfers them to the soil foundation (soil layers that receive the load from the building or structure) . The lower plane of the foundation, with which it rests on the soil base, is called the base. The upper plane of the foundation, on which the walls or pillars rest, is called the edge. The foundation is the basis of the building, the most important structural part.
Foundations can be strip, columnar, slab (solid) and pile. You can make a strip or columnar foundation from brick (Fig. 14).
Figure 14. Types of brick foundation: a) strip; b) columnar
Strip foundation is a solid wall (ribbon). It can be made of reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic), rubble concrete or brick. Strip foundations are usually used in buildings with a wall load-bearing system. In section (cross section) strip foundation As a rule, it has the shape of a rectangle, but with high loads on the base it is made in steps.
Columnar foundation– these are pillars installed in key places (corners of the building, intersections load-bearing walls) and along the walls with a certain maximum interval and fastened at the top with beams. Such foundations are used in frame or wall-type buildings with low weight structures (for example, under wooden walls). The pillars can be made of wood, brick, rubble concrete or reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic).
Pile and slab foundations used in buildings with heavy loads on the foundation or in difficult soil conditions. These two types of foundations can be combined (when the building rests on a solid slab, installed on piles driven or poured into the ground, located over the entire area of the base).
Base- the upper part of the foundation located above ground level. The base, like underground structures, needs increased resistance to moisture, but it can be made of a different material than the underground part of the foundation. For construction brick foundations and plinths, only high-grade solid ceramic bricks are used. If the building uses a columnar foundation, the base can be made in the form of a fence - a wall or bricks or other material located between the foundation pillars protruding above the ground, the soil and the strapping beams.
The base can be made recessed relative to the wall or, on the contrary, protruding beyond its plane. The plinth is usually not installed flush with the wall, since in this case it is more difficult to waterproof between the wall and the plinth. If the base protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, the protruding part of its edge is called a cordon.
Around the plinth at the level of the ground base, a blind area is made - an inclined element for draining water from the plinth and foundation.
Walls– a vertical load-bearing element of a building, having an elongated (extended) shape in plan, protecting the premises in the building from the external environment and from each other. Walls can be external and internal, load-bearing and self-supporting. Internal self-supporting walls are called partitions; they divide the building space within a floor into rooms. There are also non-load-bearing (curtain) walls made from prefabricated (factory-made) panels hung on the floors. The walls are made of stone, brick, reinforced concrete, concrete blocks and wood. For partitions, brick, wood, reinforced concrete or plasterboard are used.
The side of the wall facing the street, together with the totality of structural and decorative elements called the facade of the building. There are main facades (facing the street, square, etc.), side and courtyard facades.
Pillars, columns, racks, pylons– vertical load-bearing elements frame system, which are free-standing supports.
Angles walls - the place where the ends of two walls meet. Most often this connection is at right angles; other angles are found much less frequently in projects.
Partition- part of the wall located between two openings. According to the method of laying, a brick wall resembles a pillar. The pier adjacent to the corner of the wall is called corner, the remaining piers are called ordinary.
Cornice- a projection at the top of the wall, designed to protect the walls from water flowing from the roof. This element can also play a decorative role. In brickwork, the cornice is formed by laying several overlapping rows. The cornice can also be installed at level interfloor ceilings- For additional protection the “floor - walls” assembly and for the architectural and artistic design of the facade (with designation of the number of storeys). An interfloor stepped cornice is also called an interfloor profiled rod. Instead of a cornice, a belt can be installed between floors - a horizontal protruding element of a simple rectangular profile. When installing interfloor cornices, the upper cornice located under the roof is called the main, or crowning, cornice. Small cornices called sandriks may be located above door or window openings. The cornice located under the window opening is called a window sill. The distance over which the cornice protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, as well as the protruding part itself, is called the overhang of the cornice.
Opening- a hole in a wall or ceiling to accommodate a door, window, hatch or ladder. The top and side edges of a door or window opening are called slopes. A wall without openings is called a blank wall.
Openings in a brick wall are necessarily completed with lintels - metal or reinforced concrete (with dimensions multiple to the size of the brick) beams that support the masonry above the opening. The lintel can also be arched, and it can be made from brickwork. A straight (not arched) brick lintel can only be obtained with preliminary reinforcement and using formwork.
Windows and doors (filling window and doorways) refer to the enclosing elements of the building. Windows serve to illuminate and ventilate rooms, doors serve to connect rooms with each other and with the outside environment.
Overlap– a horizontal load-bearing structure supported by walls or pillars (columns) and supporting the weight of partitions, equipment, people and furniture. The enclosing role of floors is reduced to dividing a building into floors, as well as protecting it from the external environment from below and above. The ceiling that separates two ordinary floors is called interfloor, or interfloor. The ceiling that separates the first floor of a building from the basement or soil foundation is called the basement, or above the basement. The attic is the floor that separates top floor from the attic. If the building does not have an attic, the upper floor serves as a roof structure. The floor can be a solid slab (or a set of slabs) or a beam system. There are also overlaps unusual shape: arched, vaulted, etc. B individual construction Such overlaps are rare these days.
On top of the load-bearing structures of the floors on the operating floors, a floor covering is made from the selected material (boards, ceramic tiles, linoleum, laminate, parquet, etc.), below - ceiling covering.
Balconies, loggias, and bay windows are also architectural and structural elements of the building. A balcony is an open area protruding beyond the plane of the wall (without walls, but with a fence) at the level of one of the floors. A bay window, like a balcony, protrudes beyond the surface of the wall, but has a permanent (wall) fence that can be arranged at the level of several floors, uniting them. The loggia does not protrude beyond the plane outer wall and is a platform open from the facade.
The brickwork in the building will necessarily be combined with other materials: wood, reinforced concrete, metal. Since these materials constitute different structural elements of buildings and have different specifications, often high-quality thermal and waterproofing is required between the masonry and other material.
Roof– a set of load-bearing elements on which the covering (roof) rests, as well as the covering itself. The roof is the upper waterproofing part of the roof. The load-bearing elements of the roof are trusses, rafters, beams, arches (depending on the type of structure). The roof includes the base under the roof (sheathing, insulating materials) and roofing (tiles, slate, roofing metal etc.).
The roof performs both load-bearing and enclosing functions. The design must provide for the removal of precipitation from the building. Water drainage can be external or internal. In individual construction they are most often used external system drainage system, consisting of gutters, funnels and pipes through which water enters storm sewer without causing damage to the walls and foundation. Internal drainage is more complicated to install; it is usually used in buildings with flat roof And large area the buildings.
Roofs can be flat (with a slope of up to 2.5%) and pitched. Pitched roofs vary in the number and shape of slopes (from single-pitched to complex multi-pitched and domed).
Coating- an enclosing structural element located on top of the load-bearing elements of the roof and performing the function of protection from precipitation and other environmental influences.
General information about building structural systems
SECTION 2.1. BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Ensuring spatial rigidity of buildings.
The building and its elements must have:
Strength - ability to withstand loads
Stability - the ability of a building to resist horizontal loads
Spatial rigidity - ability individual elements and the entire building not to deform under the action of applied forces.
In demon frame buildings spatial rigidity is provided by the device:
Internal cross walls and walls stairwells associated with longitudinal (external) walls
Interfloor enterprises connecting the stand to each other In frame buildings with a device
Multi-tiered frames formed by a combination of columns, crossbars and ceilings, representing a geometrically unchangeable system.
Shear walls installed between columns
Walls of staircases and elevator shafts associated with frame structures
Ground mating of frame elements at joints and nodes.
The structural system of a building is a set of vertical and horizontal load-bearing structural elements, interconnected in a certain way and ensuring the strength and stability of the building.
Structural elements of a building (foundations, walls, individual supports, floors) that absorb all types of loads arising in the building and acting on it from the outside, and transmitting these loads to the foundation soils are called load-bearing frame of the building. Depending on the combination of elements forming the load-bearing frame, the following structural systems of buildings are distinguished:
Frameless with load-bearing walls (wall);
Frame;
With an incomplete frame (combined).
Constructive decisions elements and systems of the building as a whole are selected on the basis of variant design and technical and economic analysis of their main technical and economic indicators.
Frameless system is a system that combines external and internal walls and floor slabs resting on them into a single load-bearing frame. The frameless system, in turn, is divided into:
A system with longitudinal walls located along the long facade side of the building and parallel to it (there can be two, three, four) (Fig. 2.1);
A system with transverse load-bearing walls, with a narrow pitch (4.2 - 4.8 m), with a wide pitch (more than 4.8 m), with mixed steps (Fig. 2.2);
System with longitudinal and transverse walls (cross-wall with simultaneous support of floor panels along the contour). The size of the floor panels in this case equal to size spatial cell between four walls (Fig. 2.3).
In buildings with a frameless system, external load-bearing walls combine two functions: load-bearing and enclosing.
Rice. 2.1. Building with longitudinal load-bearing walls:
A - axonometry; B - floor plan; B - floor plan; 1 - floor slab; 2 – external load-bearing wall; 3- internal longitudinal load-bearing wall; 4 – transverse self-supporting wall
Rice. 2.2. Building with transverse load-bearing walls:
A - axonometry; B - floor plan; B - floor plan; 1-floor slab; 2 – external load-bearing wall; 3- internal longitudinal load-bearing wall; 4 – external longitudinal self-supporting wall
Rice. 2.3. A building with longitudinal and transverse load-bearing walls at the same time (supporting floor panels along the contour):
A - axonometry; B - floor plan; B - floor plan; 1- floor panel; 2 - external longitudinal load-bearing wall; 3 - external transverse load-bearing wall; 4- internal transverse load-bearing wall; 5- internal longitudinal load-bearing wall
What is a collection of irregularities called? earth's surface?
In fact, such a totality is called RELIEF. Moreover, the relief can be very different. If we take the entire surface of the Earth as a planet, then using the example of a globe it is easy to see that its relief is a sphere, or more precisely, the geoid is the shape of our planet. If you go lower, you will see mountains and seas, depressions and hills, canyons, hills, fields, all the irregularities, which together will be the relief. The terrain can be flat with a small amount of unevenness, mountainous, with large differences uneven in height, and hilly, when the difference in elevation on the ground is no more than half a kilometer.
In my unprofessional opinion, this is the relief. And I’m not entirely sure, because the relief most likely contains the entire spectrum of evenness and evenness. I hope that my first answer is still correct.
Electrical wiring is a set of insulated wires and cables with their fastening elements, protective and supporting structures.
Electrical wiring ensures the supply of electricity to consumer electrical receivers. When designing electrical wiring, you should be guided by the current “Rules for the Construction of Electrical Installations” (PUE), “Norms for the Technological Design of Electrical Installations” and “Building Norms and Rules” (SNiP).
Internal and external electrical wiring
Internal wiring is electrical wiring installed indoors.
External wiring is called wiring laid along the outer walls of buildings and structures, under canopies, etc., as well as between buildings on supports (no more than four spans of 25 m each) outside streets and roads.
Open and hidden electrical wiring
Open electrical wiring includes wiring laid on the surface of walls, ceilings, supports, trusses and others. building elements buildings and structures. Wires and cables are laid directly on the surface of walls, ceilings, on rollers, insulators, on cables, on brackets, in pipes, in flexible metal sleeves, or directly by gluing to the surface.
Open electrical wiring can be stationary, mobile and portable. Open electrical wiring includes wiring laid inside the structural elements of buildings and structures (in walls, floors, ceilings), as well as in plastered grooves, without grooves under the layer wet plaster, in closed channels and voids building structures etc.
Wires and cables are laid either in pipes, flexible metal sleeves, boxes, or without them.
Hidden electrical wiring completely protects wires and cables from mechanical damage and environmental influences.
Replaceable and non-replaceable electrical wiring
Hidden electrical wiring can be replaceable or non-replaceable.
Replaceable wiring is the type of wiring that allows you to replace wires during operation without destroying building structures. In this case, the wires are laid in pipes or channels of building structures.
Fixed wiring cannot be dismantled without destroying structures or plaster.
- designing electrical wiring in a garden house, cottage or residential building begins with drawing electrical diagram connections linked to the floor plan of the house on a scale of 1:100 (1:200);
- Electrical wiring on the plan is drawn in a single-line design. Lamps, switches, sockets, and protection devices are indicated on the plan drawings by conventional symbols.
In various climatic zones of the country during construction garden houses, cottages and dachas use a variety of Construction Materials and designs. All erected buildings are divided into three categories:
- according to the degree of flammability of building materials and structures;
- according to environmental conditions;
- according to the degree of electric shock.
According to the requirements" Building codes and rules" all building materials and structures are divided into three groups: combustible, non-combustible and non-combustible.
- fireproof includes all natural and artificial inorganic materials used in construction; metals, gypsum and gypsum fiber boards with an organic matter content of up to 8% by weight; mineral wool slabs on a synthetic, starch or bitumen binder with a content of up to 6% by weight;
- Refractory materials include materials consisting of non-combustible and combustible components, for example, asphalt concrete, gypsum and concrete materials containing more than 8% by weight of organic filler; mineral wool slabs on a bitumen binder with a content of 7-15%; clay-straw materials with a density of at least 900 kg/m³; wood subjected to deep impregnation with fire retardants, fiberboard, textolite, and other polymer materials;
- All other organic materials are classified as combustible.
The "Rules for the Construction of Electrical Installations" (PUE) adopt the following environmental conditions:
- Dry: relative humidity in them does not exceed 60%. These are residential heated premises.
- Humid: here the relative humidity does not exceed 75%, vapors or condensing moisture are released only temporarily and in small quantities ( unheated premises, canopy residential buildings, warehouses, sheds, utility rooms, kitchens, etc.).
- Raw: their relative humidity exceeds 75% for a long time.
- Particularly damp: here the relative humidity is close to 100%. The ceiling, walls, floor and objects in the room are covered with moisture (bathrooms, shower rooms, toilets, basements, vegetable stores, greenhouses, etc.).
- Hot: the temperature exceeds 30°C for a long time (steam rooms, baths, attics, etc.).
- Dusty: possible copious discharge process dust in such quantities that it can settle on wires and penetrate into electrical equipment.
- Rooms with a chemically active environment: here, due to production conditions, vapors are constantly or for a long time contained or deposits are formed that have a destructive effect on the insulation and live parts of electrical equipment (room for livestock and birds, etc.).
- Explosive rooms and outdoor installations: explosive mixtures of flammable gases or vapors with air or other oxidizing gases, as well as combustible dusts and fibers with air can form in them (garages, gas and oil product storage facilities, etc.).
Wires and cables
In order to save scarce wires with copper conductors, wires and cables with mainly aluminum conductors are currently used for electrical wiring.
Copper wires and cables are laid only in cases stipulated by the “Rules for the Construction and Operation of Electrical Installations”, for example, in fire and explosive premises, in buildings with combustible floors.
The laying of wires and cables with aluminum conductors is, in principle, no different from the laying of wires and cables with copper conductors, but is carried out with greater care to avoid damage to the conductors due to their lower mechanical strength compared to copper ones. Working with aluminum wires, you should not allow multiple bends in the same place, or cuts in the cores when stripping the insulation.
A wire is one uninsulated or one or more insulated metal current-carrying core, on top of which, depending on the installation and operating conditions, there may be a non-metallic sheath, winding or braiding with fibrous materials.
Wires can be bare and insulated.
Bare wires are those that do not have protective or insulating coatings on top of the current-carrying cores. Bare wires of brands PSO, PS, A, AS, etc. are usually used for air lines power transmission
Isolated are called wires in which the current-carrying cores are covered with insulation, and on top of the insulation there is a braid of cotton yarn or a sheath of rubber, plastic or metal tape. Insulated wires are divided into protected and unprotected.
Protected wires are called insulated wires that have a sheath on top of the electrical insulation designed to seal and protect from external climatic influences. These include wires of the brands APRN, PRVD, APRF, etc.
Insulated wires that do not have electrical insulation on top are called unprotected. containment(wires of the brands APRTO, PRD, APPR, APPV, PPV, etc.)
A cord is a wire consisting of two or more insulated flexible or especially flexible conductors with a cross-section of up to 1.5 mm², twisted or laid parallel, covered with a protective insulating sheath.
A cable is one or more insulated cores twisted together and enclosed in a common rubber, plastic, or metal sheath (NVG, KG, AVVG, etc.).
For electrical wiring, power and lighting networks carried out inside garden houses and dachas, as well as on the territory garden plots, insulated installation wires and non-armored power cables with rubber or plastic insulation in a metal, rubber or plastic sheath with a cross-section of phase conductors up to 16 mm².
The conductive cores of the installation wires have standard cross-sections in mm: 0.35; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0; 1.5; 2.5; 4.0; 6.0; 10.0; 16.0, etc. The wire cross-section is calculated using the following formula:
S = ?D 2: 4
where S is the wire cross-section, mm²;
n - number equal to 3.14;
D - wire diameter, mm.
The diameter of the current-carrying core (without insulation) is measured with a caliper or micrometer. The cross-section of the cores of stranded wires is determined by the sum of the cross-sections of all wires included in the core.
The insulation of the installation wires is designed for a certain operating voltage. Therefore, when choosing a wire brand, it should be taken into account that the operating voltage for which the wire insulation is designed must be greater than the supply voltage electrical network. The network voltage is standardized: - 380 V, phase - 220 V, and installation wires are available for a rated voltage of 380 V and higher, therefore, as a rule, they are suitable for electrical wiring.
The installation wires must match the load being connected. For the same brand and the same cross-section of wire, loads of different magnitudes are allowed, which depend on the laying conditions. For example, wires or cables laid openly are cooled better than those laid in pipes or hidden under plaster. Wires with rubber insulation allow long-term heating of their cores, not exceeding 65°C, and wires with plastic insulation - 70°C.
The cross-section of the current-carrying conductors is selected based on the maximum permissible heating of the conductors, at which the insulation of the wires is not damaged.
The main structural part of a building is the walls. Walls are load-bearing structures that are designed to have sufficient strength and stability under vertical and horizontal loads.
Wall is a vertical fence that separates a room from the outside environment or from another room.
The walls are divided:
- depending on the load perception - on carriers, self-supporting And non-load-bearing;
- by type of material - stone, wood, walls made of local materials, as well as combined
In this article we will look at the main types of walls by type of material - wooden And stone.
Wooden walls
For the walls of low-rise buildings, wood is a traditional material. The most comfortable in terms of sanitary and hygienic requirements are paving walls And chopped walls from coniferous trees. Their disadvantages are sedimentary deformation in the first 1.5-2 years and low fire resistance.
Frame walls justified in the presence of lumber and effective insulation materials. Note that frame walls do not require massive foundations, unlike log walls, they do not cause post-construction deformations. Fire resistance and capitality frame walls increases when facing with brick.
Logs It is advisable to harvest in winter, since the wood is less susceptible to rotting and warping during drying. Wood moisture content should be 80-90%. Logs must be free of cracks, rot, and not affected by bark beetles and fungi. The quality of the material can be determined by hitting the butt of an ax; a clean and clear sound indicates good quality. Wooden houses build no more than two floors high.
By design wooden walls of heated buildings are divided into chopped from logs or beams, frame, panel and frame-panel.
Chopped log walls
Characteristic
Chopped log walls They are a structure made of logs stacked on top of each other in horizontal rows and connected at the corners by notches. The thickness of the logs in the upper cut for the external walls of heated buildings located in the central zone of Russia is 22 cm, in the northern and north-eastern regions it is 24-26 cm. The diameter of the logs is chosen to be the same, with the difference between the upper and lower cuts not exceeding 3 cm.
Technology
Each row of logs in the wall is called crown. The crowns, laid sequentially one on top of the other from the bottom to the top of the wall, form a frame. First lower crown called the frame, it is made 2-3 cm thicker than the other crowns.
The crowns are placed with their butts alternately in different directions and connected along the length by means of vertical ridge(Fig. 10), and the joints of the crowns are spaced apart along the height of the wall. The crowns are held together using grooved grooves and insert tenons measuring 25x50x120.
The crowns are stacked groove down, thereby eliminating the possibility of water flowing into it. Tow is placed in the grooves between the crowns to seal the seam and insulate it. Depending on climatic conditions, the width of the groove is taken from 12 to 15 cm.
Spikes placed every 1.5-2.0 m along the height of the log house in a checkerboard pattern, rectangular (8x2 cm) or round (3-4 cm) cross-section, 10-12 cm high. In the piers, spikes are placed in each crown, one above the other in quantity at least two and located 15-20 cm from the edges of the wall.
Within 1-2 years after construction, the log house gives a settlement amounting to 1/20 of its height, due to shrinkage of the wood and compaction of tow in the seams. Due to draft of the log house nests for tenons should exceed the height of the tenons by 10-20 mm, and gaps of 6-10 cm are left above the openings, which are filled with tow and covered with platbands.
Seams between logs to reduce airflow, caulk with tow for the first time immediately after the construction of the walls and a second time 1-2 years after the end of settlement. In the corners of the building, the crowns are matched with a notch with the remainder in the bowl or without the remainder - in the paw. With the method of joining the crowns in the corners into a paw, i.e. without any residue, less wood is consumed, so this method is more appropriate. In Fig. Figure 11 shows a section of a chopped log wall from the cornice to the foundation.
Advantages and disadvantages
Chopped log walls are highly durable and have good heat-protective qualities, at favorable conditions durability. Log processing and wall construction - labor-intensive process, requiring high flow rate wood.
Cobblestone walls
Characteristic
Cobblestone walls erected from horizontally laid beams. The use of beams makes it possible to eliminate manual processing of logs, cutting of corner joints, wall junctions and move on to mechanized preparation of wall elements.
Procurement of material
Bars for walls are prepared at the factory with all notches for mates and sockets for tenons. Compared with log houses The labor intensity of constructing log houses is significantly less, and wood consumption is reduced. Unlike log walls, block walls are assembled immediately on ready-made foundations.
Technology
Section of beams for external walls, 150x150 mm and 180x180 mm are accepted. Depending on climatic conditions, for interior walls- 100x150 mm and 100x180 mm. The beams are laid on top of each other with resinous tow placed between them and the seams caulked. For better drainage of water from the horizontal seam between the beams, a 20x20 mm chamfer is removed from the upper edge of the front part of the beam.
Rows of beams are connected to each other cylindrical dowels with a diameter of 30 mm and a length of 60 mm, placing them at a distance of 1.5-2 m from one another. The crowns of the mating paving walls are at the same level and connect them at corners, junctions and sections different ways. The conjugation of the corner and the junction of the walls using dowels is shown in Fig. 12 using spikes measuring 35x35 mm and 35x25 mm.
Protection of paving walls
Effective protection of paving walls from atmospheric influences is planking or brick cladding, which protects walls from moisture, increases thermal protection, reduces exposure to wind, and fire resistance increases with brick cladding of walls. Brick cladding must be installed with a gap from the paving walls at a distance of 5-7 cm, below and above brick cladding leave vents to ensure ventilation.
Frame walls
Advantages
Frame walls require less wood than log or block walls, are less labor-intensive, and therefore more economical.
The basis of the frame walls is carrier wooden frame , sheathed on both sides with sheet or molded materials. Frame walls, due to their lightness, are practically not subject to shrinkage, which allows them to be sheathed or covered immediately after construction.
Wall protection
Frame walls must be protected from atmospheric moisture by external cladding with overlapped vertical and horizontal joints and arranging drains from the protruding elements of the walls. Protection against water vapor is provided by installing a vapor barrier made of synthetic film, glassine, or using other types of vapor barrier, laying them between the inner lining and the insulation.
Technology
For frame manufacturing 50 mm thick boards are used for external and internal walls, as for rafters and beams. With a thickness of 50 mm, load-bearing wall posts are recommended to be used with a width of at least 100 mm.
Width of frame posts in external walls is determined by the calculated thickness of the insulation, depending on the efficiency of the insulation itself and the calculated temperature of the outside air. The supporting frame posts are placed at a distance of 0.5 m, depending on the size of the window and door openings. The basement beams are placed at a distance of 0.5 m. The corner posts of the frame are made of beams or composite boards, and the row posts are made of boards 50x100, or 60x120 mm.
Frame with inside sheathed with boards of any profile and section, plasterboard boards; typeset, sheet wall panels and others finishing materials. On the outside, clapboard, siding, planks, thermal brick panels and other materials are used to cover the frame.
Insulation
Insulation of frame walls carried out with the help of mineral and organic materials density up to 500-600 kg/m³. Mineral, glass wool boards, and expanded polystyrene are effective modern insulation materials, because they are fire-resistant, lightweight, not susceptible to rotting, exposure and penetration of bacteria, fungi, and are not destroyed by rodents. Organic insulation materials are susceptible to destruction by rodents, are flammable, and subject to rotting; in addition, before backfilling, they must be treated with an antiseptic and mixed before use with a mineral binder - cement, lime, gypsum, then laid in a wet state in layers of 15-20 cm, compacting. This backfill dries within 4-5 weeks, so pre-prepared slabs and blocks of lightweight concrete should be used to fill the frame. The materials for backfilling are: pumice, sawdust, gilak, shavings, peat and others, which are significantly inferior in their properties to modern mineral insulation.
Panel walls
Advantages
Difference panel boards wooden houses from frame ones is that their main structural parts consist of enlarged panel elements, manufactured, as a rule, at the factory. Construction process panel houses comes down to installation at the construction site and finishing works. The construction of panel wooden houses reduces the labor intensity of work and ensures high installation rates.
Technology
In panel rooms wooden houses the basis of the walls is bottom harness made of wood antiseptic bars, laid on the base of the building and attached to it using anchor bolts. Wall panels are installed on the frame. Above wall panels fastened by placing on them top harness, on which it rests attic floor. Wall panels are made internal and external, which, in turn, are divided into blind, window and door. The height of the boards is equal to the height of the floor, the width is assumed to be 600-1200 mm. The panels consist of paving frames and sheathing, internal and external, between which insulation is placed.
Mattresses made from mineral felt. A vapor barrier is laid under the sheathing on the inside of the shield in order to prevent the formation of condensation of water vapor inside the shield penetrating into it from the side of the room. To reduce airflow under external cladding lay paper.
The panels are placed vertically and connected with nails. When making joints between panels, it is necessary to ensure sufficient density and airtightness of the joint. In Fig. 14b shows the recommended design of vertical joint of panels. The joint must be covered with continuous layers of air and vapor barrier.
Mineral felt 20 mm thick is placed in the joint, gluing it cold bitumen mastic . Then, using a lever device, the joint is compressed. In panel houses, the floors are made of panels or beams.
Wall protection
When installing the basement and cornice units, it is necessary to take measures to protect them from freezing by installing insulated base and an insulated frieze belt at the eaves, as well as from humidifying the internal air with vaporous moisture, arranging a vapor barrier for this purpose. Under basement floor The underground is not insulated. The underground should be cold and well ventilated, and the structure ceilings above the underground and especially the base unit should have reliable insulation and a vapor barrier laid on top under the finished floor structure. To protect against freezing, an insulated belt is installed outside at the ceiling level.
Stone walls
Homogeneous walls
Material
Homogeneous walls composed of ordinary hollow or light building bricks. In heterogeneous lightweight walls part of the brickwork was replaced by the thickness of the wall with thermal insulation tiles and an air gap.
Technology
Walls are erected with a thickness of 1/2, 1, 11/2, 2, 21/2, 3 bricks or more, taking into account the thickness of the vertical joints equal to 10 mm; brick walls have a thickness of 120, 250, 380, 510, 640, 770, respectively mm or more. The thickness of the horizontal joints is assumed to be 12 mm, then the height of 13 rows of masonry should be 1 m.
When constructing brick walls, two masonry systems are used: two-row - chain and six-row spoon.
IN double-row masonry system Pod rows alternate with spoon rows. Transverse seams in this system overlap by 1/4 brick, and longitudinal seams by 1/2 brick (Fig. 16).
Six-row system involves alternating five spoon rows with one back row. In each spoon row there are transverse vertical seams tied in half a brick, longitudinal vertical seams formed by spoons are tied in rows of stitches through five spoon rows.
Masonry using a six-row system is simpler than using a two-row system. To reduce the air permeability of the walls, the facing seams of the masonry are sealed special tool, giving the seams the shape of a roller, fillet or triangle. This method is called jointing.
Flaws
The disadvantage of ordinary solid brick, clay or silicate, is its large volume weight and therefore big thermal conductivity.
Crowning cornices
Technology
Crowning cornice, shown in Fig. 17, brick masonry walls with a small offset - up to 300 mm and no more than 1/2 the thickness of the wall, can be laid out of brick by gradually releasing rows of masonry by 60-80 mm in each row. When the offset is more than 300 mm, the cornices are made from prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs, embedded in the walls.
The inner ends of reinforced concrete slabs are covered with prefabricated longitudinal reinforced concrete beams, which are attached to the masonry using steel anchors embedded in it, thereby ensuring the stability of the cornice.
Classification
Lightweight brick walls are divided into 2 groups. The first group includes structures consisting of two thin longitudinal brick walls, between which they lay thermal insulation material, the second group includes structures consisting of one brick wall, insulated with thermal insulation boards.
Brick walls with insulation from thermal insulation panels
Characteristic
Brick walls with insulation of thermal insulation panels (Fig. 19) consist of a load-bearing part - masonry, the thickness of which is determined only from the conditions of the strength and stability of the wall, and a heat-insulating part - foam concrete, gypsum or gypsum slag panels.
Advantages and disadvantages
Lightweight concrete stones compared to ordinary bricks, they have a lower volumetric weight and lower thermal conductivity, therefore the use ceramic stones for the construction of external walls allows you to reduce their thickness. The disadvantage is that lightweight concrete stones with a lower volumetric weight have less strength and resistance to weathering.
Characteristic
Three-hollow stones with large voids have dimensions of 390x190x188 mm. In bonded rows, a bonded stone with a smooth end surface is used.
After laying stones in the wall, the voids in the climatic conditions of the middle and northern regions should be filled with slag, a material with low thermal conductivity, since when the voids are large, air exchange occurs in them, increasing the thermal conductivity of the wall. Filling voids with low-conductivity materials increases the labor intensity of masonry. To reduce air circulation in voids, three-hollow stones with blind voids are used - five-walled stones.