On the basis of common meanings and morphological properties, nouns are combined into the following lexical and grammatical categories: 1) common and proper nouns; 2) personal and non-personal; 3) animate and inanimate; 4) concrete and abstract; 5) real; 6) collective. Words of each lexical-grammatical category have their own common features.
Each category combines words with a specific semantics. For example, collective nouns denote a collection of homogeneous objects (or persons) as an indivisible whole (linen, youth, furniture and so on.); personal nouns - names of persons - are opposed in their meaning to all impersonal nouns (cf.: mother, son, builder And potatoes, school, oak and so on.).
Words of each category have common grammatical features. Thus, abstract nouns have only singular forms, number, while most concrete nouns are inflected by number.
3) Lexico-grammatical categories are closely related to grammatical categories and interact with them. For example, collective, real, abstract nouns act as words that do not change according to numbers, and significantly influence the nature of the manifestation of the grammatical category of number; the category of gender is filled with different content in personal and impersonal, animate and inanimate nouns.
4) The meanings on the basis of which words are combined into lexico-grammatical categories are not necessarily expressed by morphological means. For example, in some collective nouns the meaning of collectiveness is expressed using word-forming suffixes, in others there are no external indicators (groceries, rubbish etc.). This is how lexico-grammatical categories differ from grammatical categories, the meanings of which are regularly expressed by morphological means.
3. Common and proper nouns
Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects: sister, pilot, tractor, grass, bream, elephant, primer, barn, run, kindness, uprising, sea and so on.
Proper nouns are the names of individual objects that are unique in their class. Among them thematic groups stand out: 1) names, patronymics and surnames of people: Alexander Nikolaevich Gvozdev, Peter the Great, Nadezhda and so on.; 2) animal names: Kashtanka, Canvas meter and so on.; 3) geographical names: Russia, Tashkent, Black Sea, Volga, Baikal, Ararat, Siberia and so on.; 4) names historical events, periods, socio-political phenomena: October, Renaissance and so on.; 5) names of works of art, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, etc.: “War and Peace”, “Good!”, “Truth”, “Youth” and etc.; 6) names of shops, cafes, household establishments, etc.: "Svetlana"(deli), "Snowflake"(cafe), etc.; 7) names of theaters, cinemas, clubs, etc.: “Russia”, “Drummer”, “Progress”, “Moskvichka” and etc.; 8) astronomical names: Mars, Saturn, Ursa Major, Pisces and etc.; 9) varieties and brands of various items: car "Moskvich" cologne "Lilac", candies "Bird's milk" and etc.
Common and proper nouns differ in grammatical properties: most common nouns are modified by number; proper ones, as a rule, are used only in the form of a singular (Kyiv, Ural, Asia etc.) or plural (Carpathians, Athens, Sokolniki and etc.).
The use of nouns in the plural form, which usually have only a singular form, is associated with a certain semantic load. Yes, the form Petrovs denotes either many namesakes or persons in a related relationship (Petrov brothers, Petrov clan). Finally, the plural form of proper names is used as the name of various persons having common feature (Oblomovs, Manilovs, Pechorins and so on.).
There is a constant process of replenishing common nouns at the expense of proper ones and, conversely, proper names at the expense of common nouns. From proper names they became common nouns: August, om, X-ray, Borjomi, Bologna, Palekh etc. Proper names go back to common nouns: Pisces, Libra(constellations), East(eastern countries), October(Great October Socialist Revolution), Eagle(city), "Is it true"(newspaper), "Storm"(drama), Bear(last name), etc.
When proper names transform into common nouns, the scope of the lexical semantics of the word expands: it acquires a generalized meaning and denotes not just one object, but a class of homogeneous objects. On the contrary, the transition of common nouns into proper names is associated with a narrowing of lexical semantics: the name of a class of objects becomes the name of only a separate object. The grammatical properties of words also change. Wed: general Breeches(m.r.) and trousers riding breeches(cf. p.); eagle(bird; plural) eagles, five eagles) and the city Eagle(does not form plural forms, cannot be combined with cardinal numbers); wolf (wolf, wolf) And Nadezhda Volk(in all cases there is one form: Nadezhda Volk, Nadezhda Volk and so on.).
Due to the mutual transition of common nouns and proper names, homonyms are formed: bath - “Bath”, bear - Bear, scales- Scales and so on.
We use nouns more often than other parts of speech: on average there are about 40 nouns per 100 words.
The famous philologist L. Uspensky said: “A noun is the bread of the tongue.”
1. What is a noun?
A noun is an independent part of speech that denotes an object or phenomenon and answers the questions “Who?” What?". For example:
Who? - man, who? - eagle, who? - Carlson.
What? - apple, what? - movement, what? - memory.
Nouns have morphological characteristics of gender, number and case.
Nouns belong to one of three declensions.
The initial form of a noun is Nominative case singular. For example: apple, person, friendship.
2. Syntactic role of nouns
In a sentence, a noun can be any part of the sentence, but most often it can be a subject or an object. For example: The teacher took my notebook.
IN this proposal two nouns: teacher and notebook. Let's ask them a question to determine which members of the sentence they are: (who?) teacher, this is the subject; I took (what?) a notebook, this is an addition.
And also a noun in a sentence can act as:
Predicate (Moscow is the capital) Moscow is (what is?) the capital.
Definitions (I saw a staircase to the attic) staircase (which one?) to the attic.
Circumstance (There was a closet in the corner) stood (where?) in the corner.
3. Educational observation
Let's distribute the words palace, corn, gate, snow, friendship, bear, dream in three groups.
Words palace, gate, bear we classify it as a group of nouns denoting objects that can be seen, touched, or counted.
Words corn, snow we classify it as a group of nouns denoting objects that can be seen, touched (but not always), measured, weighed (cannot be counted).
Words friendship, dream belong to the group of nouns denoting objects that cannot be seen, cannot be touched, cannot be measured, weighed or counted.
By distributing words into appropriate groups, we divided the nouns based on the semantic feature common to their lexical meanings. WITH Greek language the word “semantics” is translated as “denoting.” In linguistics, semantics is a branch that studies the meaning of language units.
4. Lexico-semantic categories
According to their meaning, all nouns can be divided into 4 groups:
1. Specific nouns name objects and processes that can be counted (as a rule, such nouns have singular and plural forms; the only exceptions are the names of paired objects: trousers, scissors):
- book - two books, many books;
- table - two tables, many tables;
- teacher - two teachers, many teachers.
2. Abstract (or abstract)) nouns name phenomena and concepts perceived mentally. These are actions, processes, states, qualities. (Such nouns cannot be counted):
- courage, friendship, running.
3.Real nouns are called various substances, which cannot be counted (but can be measured). This chemical elements, minerals, Construction Materials, food products, medicines, etc. They are used either in singular or plural. number:
- sawdust, salt, cement.
4. Collective nouns name a collection of identical objects, persons, creatures as a single whole. Used only in unit form. numbers that cannot be counted:
- children, furniture, crows.
5. We distribute nouns according to lexical-semantic categories
You need to pay attention to words such as “platoon”, “group”, “herd”, “squad”, “pack”. Such words also denote a collection of objects or persons, but more specific and limited. Such nouns are concrete and can be counted.
The noun “children” names an indefinite number of persons of the same age as a single whole. This noun is uncountable. That is, you cannot say “two children.” This noun is a collective noun.
And in the phrase “group of children” the noun “group” names a specific limited set of persons and can be counted: one can say “two groups of children”, “several groups”. This is a concrete noun.
The noun “crow” names an indefinite collection of objects of the same type as a single whole. It cannot be counted. You can’t say “two crows.” This is a collective noun.
And in the phrase “flock of crows,” the noun “flock” names a specific, limited set of objects. It can be counted: you can say “two flocks”, “several flocks”. This noun is specific.
Some nouns, depending on the meaning that appears in their context, can be considered either as a material (a silver bracelet) or as a collective (silverware).
Bibliography
- Russian language. 6th grade / Baranov M.T. and others - M.: Education, 2008.
- Babaytseva V.V., Chesnokova L.D. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades - M.: Bustard, 2008.
- Russian language. 6th grade / Ed. MM. Razumovskaya, P.A. Lekanta. - M.: Bustard, 2010.
- On the lexical-semantic categories of nouns ().
- Rudocs.exdat.com ().
Homework
Task 1. Write down words that are nouns and prove that they belong to this class of words.
Life, tomorrow, breakfast, waiting, green, green, turn green, laughter, cheers, break, a lot, blue, silver, transition, jump, jump, deuce, double, double.
Task 2. Give examples of words denoting: 1) names of people; 2) names of animals; 3) things; 4) substances; 5) natural phenomena; 6) events; 7) signs; 8) actions.
NOUN. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Partial features of nouns
A noun is a part of speech that designates an object (substance) and expresses this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflectional category of gender.
A noun names objects in the broad sense of the word; these are the names of things ( table, wall, window, scissors, sled), persons ( child, girl, young man, woman, Human), substances ( cereal, torment A, sugar, cream), living beings and organisms ( cat, dog, crow, woodpecker, snake, perch, pike; bacterium, virus, microbe), facts, events, phenomena ( fire, play, conversation, holidays, sadness, fear), as well as those named as independent independent substances of non-processual and procedural features - qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states ( kindness, stupidity, blue, run, solution, crush).
The meaning of objectivity is manifested in the fact that nouns either name objects or denote signs and actions like objects. Whatever a noun names, it represents some substance as independent, as a bearer of characteristics. For each noun you can ask a question with pronouns Who or What. A. M. Peshkovsky called such questions “measures of a noun,” i.e., objectivity. "When we ask Who or What, we do not name any object (and we do not know it, otherwise we would not ask), but only show by our question that what we are asking about appears to us as an object, and not as a quality or action.”
The meaning of an object may lie in the root (house, bench, book, feather, dog, raven, coat, taxi etc.), but in general, objectivity is associated with the grammatical structure of a word, which includes forms of inflection, word-forming suffixes (and other word-formation features), substitution of syntactic positions of subject and object, and syntactic connections. Yes, word tenderness lexical meaning denotes quality, but at the same time expresses objectivity, and this is explained by the fact that it is grammatically formalized as a noun: formed using a substantive suffix -ness, has a substantive gender, changes according to the substantive paradigm, can be the subject and object of a sentence and attach an agreed definition to itself (Your tenderness surprised me).
The morphological features of nouns are the categories of gender, number and case. As for animation (inanimateness), it is the basis for identifying a special lexical and grammatical category of nouns.
From the syntactic side, nouns are characterized by the fact that they can be any member of a sentence except a simple predicate (that is, they cannot replace the position of the finite form of a verb), but they are specifically distinguished from other parts of speech by the fact that they express a grammatical subject and object. These two functions are primary for a noun. If it is known about a lexeme that it cannot be either a subject or an object, then we can assume that this lexeme does not belong to nouns (should not relate).
A striking syntactic feature of nouns is their concordant property. There are no nouns with which one or another adjective could not agree.
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
When describing nouns in grammars, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories. This allocation takes into account following conditions:
Each category combines words with a specific semantics;
The words of each of the identified lexico-grammatical categories have common morphological, and in some cases, word-formation characteristics;
Lexico-grammatical categories are closely related to grammatical categories and interact with them;
The meanings on the basis of which words are combined into lexico-grammatical categories are not necessarily expressed by morphological means. In this way, lexico-grammatical categories differ from grammatical categories, the meanings of which are regularly expressed by morphological means.
Nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories:
proper and common nouns;
concrete, abstract, collective and material;
animate and inanimate.
These categories overlap: for example, proper names include the names of both animate and inanimate objects; real nouns denoting a homogeneous mass of a substance can have a collective meaning ( cranberry, grape, sugar); Concrete nouns combine in their composition all those words - animate and inanimate - that name the objects being counted.
Based on the naming of an object as an individual or as a representative of a whole class, all nouns are divided into own And common nouns. Proper nouns(or proper names) are words that name individual objects included in the class of homogeneous ones, but in themselves do not carry any special indication of this class. Common nouns(or common nouns) are words that name an object according to its belonging to a particular class; accordingly, they designate an object as a carrier of characteristics characteristic of objects of a given class.
The boundary between proper names and common nouns is unstable and fluid: common nouns easily become proper names, nicknames and nicknames. Proper names are often used to generically designate homogeneous objects and thus become common nouns: keep your mouth, Don Quixote, Don Juan; We all look at Napoleons(Pushkin); Your iconic and stern face hung in chapels in Ryazan(Yesenin.); Young Yesenins come to the capital, humbly and briskly, in red cowboy shorts(Smelyakov).
Among proper names, there are: 1) proper names in the narrow sense of the word and 2) names.
Proper names in the narrow sense of the word are geographical and astronomical names and names of people and animals. This is a lexically limited and slowly expanding circle of words-names assigned or assigned to one subject. Repetitions here are possible as coincidences (for example, matching names of rivers, villages, towns); they are also high in frequency in the system of proper names for persons and animals.
Among the names of persons, as a rule, there are no words that repeat common nouns. In cases like Idea, Era, Helium, Radium, Uranus, Steel(personal names given in the 20s and 30s of the XX century) generalized objective meanings in proper names are weakened, and in old names of this type they are completely lost, for example: Faith, Hope, Love.
Persons' names include patronymics (names based on the father's name) and surnames (inherited family names). The patronymic is always motivated by the father's personal name: Vladimirovich, Alexeyevich, Vladimirovna, Alekseevna; Nikitich– Nikitichna; Ilyich– Ilyinichna. Russian surnames, as a rule, are formed from various nominal stems using suffixes - ov (-yev) And - in (-yn), less often - sk(Ouch), -sk(th), -tsk(Ouch), -tsk(th): Korolev, Pushkin, Borodin, Kunitsyn, Lugovskoy, Mayakovsky, Trubetskoy. There are a number of surnames that formally coincide with adjectives in their forms. p. husband or female R.: Good, Mostovoy– Good, Pavement, as well as (in pronunciation, but not stress) in gender forms. p.un. h. husband R.: Blagovo, Durnovo, Sukhovo, in Church Slavonic form Zhivago, Dead, or gen. p.m. h.: Twisted, Polish, Black.
The semantic originality of proper names determines their morphological features: these words are not typically used in plural forms. h. Plural forms. h. here are normal to designate different persons and objects that have the same thing given name: There are several Svetlanas in one class; IN orphanage there were six valentines. Plural forms h. surnames designate, firstly, persons who are in family, related relationships with each other: Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, Dobrynina's wife, merchants Morozovs, dynasty of steelworkers Kuznetsov; secondly, persons having the same surname (namesakes): Three hundred Ivanovs and two hundred Petrovs live in the city.; Both of them– my namesakes: Alexandrov Nikolai Grigorievich(gas.).
For proper names - names, common nouns or combinations of words are used. In this case, the common noun does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function. These are the names newspaper « News", magazine « Health", factory « Hammer and sickle", factory « Bolshevik", perfume « Lilac". Proper names can also serve as names: hotel « Moscow», steamship « Ukraine".
Values common nouns are preserved as part of the names of artistic and scientific works: “ Dead Souls» , « Break», « Crime and Punishment", « Lady with a dog", « Cities and years", « Capital", « Dialectics of nature".
The spelling feature of all proper names is that they are written with a capital letter. If a proper name - the name consists of several words, then only the first word is written with a capital letter: “ Captain's daughter» , « Fathers and Sons", « Hammer and sickle"(name of plant).
Common nouns are divided into four types: concrete, abstract (abstract), real and collective. This division is associated with the morphological category of number, since only concrete nouns are consistently used in the forms of both numbers.
Specific nouns are words that name things, persons, facts and all phenomena of reality that can be presented separately and counted: pencil, ring, engineer, duel, war. All concrete nouns, with the exception of nouns that do not have singular forms. h. (pluralia tantum), have unit forms. and many more h. In terms of their meaning and morphological features, concrete nouns are contrasted not only with abstract nouns, but also with collective and material nouns.
Abstract (abstract) nouns are words that name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions and states: glory, laughter, good, captivity, kindness, closeness, dexterity, run, movement. Most of the abstract nouns are words formed from adjectives and verbs using a zero suffix ( bitterness, illness[simple], export, replacement), suf. - awn(spelling also - There is) (beauty, freshness, cowardice), -stv(O) (nonentity, majority, championship, boasting), -shchin(A)/ -rank(A) (piecework, unmarked[obsolete]), - change (realism, humanism), -And|j|- / -sti|j|- (spelling words in - no, -effect) (cordiality, calmness), -from(A) (acid, kindness, hoarseness), -purl(A) (white, curvature), -in(A) (depth, gray hair), -neither|j|- / -eni|j|- / -you|j|- (spelling words in - tion, -tion, -tie) (punishment, patience, extraction, development), -To(A) (fuse, hunger strike, bombing), -atsi|j|- / -enci|j|- / -ici|j|- / -qi|j|-/- And|j|- (spelling words in - ation, -ation, -tion, -ition, -tion, -and I) (stylization, compilation, transposition[specialist.], competition), -as much (massage), -hedgehog (payment) and some other, less productive suffixes.
A minority of abstract nouns are unmotivated words: trouble, mind, disposition, fear, flour, sadness, passion, grief, cosiness, sadness, essence.
Abstract nouns usually do not have plural forms. h. Plural forms. h. form only those words that can name not only abstract properties, qualities, states or actions, but also their individual manifestations: pain – pain, deception– deceptions, m at ka– m at ki, sadness– sadness, joy– joy, movement– movement.
TO collective include nouns that name a collection of homogeneous objects and express this meaning using suffixes such as - stv(O): students, youth; -|j|- (spelling words in - yo:): womanly, beast, fools; -n(I): sailor girl, kids; -And|j|- (spelling words in - and I): pioneer, aristocracy; -from(A): poor and etc.
With a broad understanding of collectiveness, nouns with a collective meaning as a lexical-grammatical category can also include words in which collectiveness is expressed not word-formatively, but lexically: tops, small fry, trash, furniture. All such words.
Note. Nouns used in singular forms. h. in the collective meaning, do not belong to the collective, for example: corn (new harvest grain), feather (stuff pillows with feathers), enemy(enemy army).
Distinctive feature of all collective nouns is that they do not form plural forms. h.
Nouns real substances are called: food products ( fat, cereal, flour, sugar), materials ( gypsum, cement), types of fabrics ( velvet, chintz), fossils, metals ( iron, coal, tin, steel, emerald, jasper), chemical elements, medicines ( Uranus, pyramidon, aspirin), crops ( oats, potato, wheat) and other homogeneous divisible masses. Unlike collective nouns, material nouns, as a rule, do not have suffixes to express the real meaning. This meaning is expressed only lexically.
Real nouns are usually used only in singular form. h., or only in plural. h.: honey, tea, flour, tin; yeast, perfume, cream. Taking the plural form. h., a real noun, usually used in singular. h., is separated from the unit form. h. lexically: cereal(whole or crushed grains of some plants used as food), but cereals (various varieties cereals).
Husband nouns r., naming substances, in genus. p.un. h. along with inflection - A(spelling also - I) have inflection - at(spelling also - Yu): glass of tea And tea, sugar cube And sugar, chocolate bar And chocolate.
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animated nouns are names of people and animals: Human, son, teacher, student, cat, squirrel, a lion, starling, crow, perch, pike, insect. Inanimate nouns are the names of all other objects and phenomena: table, book, window, wall, institute, nature, forest, steppe, depth, kindness, incident, movement, drive.
Note. The division of nouns into animate and inanimate does not fully reflect the division into living and inanimate that exists in the world. Animate nouns do not include, firstly, the names of trees and plants ( pine, oak, Linden, hawthorn, gooseberry, chamomile, bell), secondly, the names of collections of living beings ( people, army, battalion, crowd, herd, Roy).
Animate nouns are morphologically and word-formatively different from inanimate nouns. Animate nouns - names of female persons or animals - are often motivated by a word that names a person or animal without indicating its gender or (less commonly) names a male person or animal: teacher ← teacher, student ← student, schoolboy ← schoolgirl, Muscovite ← Muscovite, grandson ← granddaughter, priest ← priest, lion ← lioness, elephant ← elephant, cat ← cat, goose ← goose.
Animate nouns, as a rule, have the morphological meaning husband. or female R. and only a few - the meaning of environments. r., while the belonging of a noun to one gender or another (except for the middle r.) is determined semantically: nouns husband. R. call a person or animal male, and nouns female. R. - female. Animate nouns. R. are called living beings without regard to gender. This or the name of a non-adult creature ( child), or common type names face, creature, animal, insect, mammal, herbivore. Inanimate nouns are divided into three morphological genders - masculine, feminine and neuter.
Paradigms of animate and inanimate nouns in plural. hours are consistently different: animate nouns in the plural. h. have the form of wines. n., coinciding with the form of the genus. P.: no brothers and sisters, no animals – saw brothers and sisters, saw animals. Inanimate nouns in plural. h. have the form of wines. n., coinciding with the form named after. P.: peaches, pears and apples lie on the table - I bought peaches, pears and apples. The forms of agreed upon definitions repeat the indicated difference: no siblings, there are no animals, saw my brothers and sisters, saw interesting animals And ripe peaches, sweet pears and Antonov apples lie on the table, bought ripe peaches, sweet pears and Antonov apples.
In the unit paradigm h. Animation and inanimateness are expressed in the words husband. R. 2nd letter, but not in the words of the women. and Wednesday R.: in units. h. animate nouns husband. R. the forms of the genus coincide. and wine P. ( no brother, I see my brother), and for inanimate ones - forms named after. and wine P. ( need a pencil, bought a pencil). Thus, the shapes of wines. p. in units h. in the words husband. R. vary consistently depending on whether the word names an animate or inanimate object. Women's words R. in units h. the formulated rule for expressing animate/inanimate is not followed: no brother And I see my brother, But no sister, I see my sister; need a pencil And bought a pencil, But need a pen, bought a pen. Words Wednesday r., as well as the words of wives. r., in units h. do not have a formal distinction between animate/inanimate. All nouns R. (both animate and inanimate) are formally characterized in the same way as the inanimate nouns husband. r., - forms named after. and wine they have the same: an unknown animal appeared, saw an unknown animal.
The words husband. R. with inflection - A in them etc., as well as in words of general gender in cases where they name a male person, animation is expressed syntactically - by the form of gender. n. of an adjective that agrees with a noun, and is not expressed by the case forms of the nouns themselves: I borrowed a book from a young man I knew; moved away from the obnoxious crybaby And met a young man I knew, I remembered the obnoxious crybaby.
The only deviation from the consistent expression of animation in the plural. h. is the form of wine. n., equal to them. (not gender) p. in words - names of persons as part of phraseological constructions like go to soldiers , take (whom-n.) V couriers , go to nannies .
The belonging of words to the category of animate or inanimate reveals itself in a unique way morphologically in the system of names, which in their lexical meanings combine the concepts of living and inanimate. These are the following cases.
1) Nouns that name objects that either do not correspond to the everyday idea of living things (names of microorganisms: virus, microbes, bacterium) or, conversely, are associatively identified with living objects ( dead man, Deceased, doll), are used as follows: the former tend to be used as inanimate ( observe, study bacteria, viruses, microbes And observe, study bacteria, viruses, microbes ; the latter is preferable), the latter are used as animate (... our nets were dragged dead man . Pushkin).
2) Inanimate nouns applied to specific persons or living beings acquire morphological signs of animation. These are negatively characterizing names of the type bag, oak, stump, cap, mattress usually with a qualifying pronominal adjective: our bag deceived, in this oak (stump) you can't explain anything, I saw this old one cap , this mattress .
3) Words idol And idol in meaning (the one who is worshiped, who is adored) (when attributed to a specific person) appear as animate: look with delight at your idol , adore your idol ; Thirteen years old, Imagine, fell in love with my current husband... I waited until I was twenty-three years old, angered my father, and went-for my own sake idol (Turgenev); look at idols movie(gas.). Word idol in meaning (that which is worshiped, imitated; ideal) appears sometimes as animate, sometimes as inanimate: Do idol from this old one, useless person(L. Tolstoy); don't do it idol from spelling(gas.); But: How Desdemona chooses Idol for your heart(Pushkin); All in the past, she gradually created for herself idol in the virtue of a real man(A. Rybakov). Use of the word idol V given value as the inanimate predominates. Noun idol in meaning (statue, sculpture, which is worshiped as a deity) is rarely used as an animate: On the banks of the Danube, the Russians placed a wooden idol Perun(A. N. Tolstoy); Mityai looked sternly at the gray, carved with a pagan chisel idols (S. Borodin).
Words idiot, idol, idol, used abusively in relation to a person, have morphological signs of animation: I don't want to see this blockhead ; And who is it? idol ugly! (Sholokhov).
4) Words spirit(disembodied supernatural being) genius, type when applied to a face they act as animate: summon the spirit, know a genius, meet a strange guy; I give him the example of the German geniuses (Pushkin); This is not the time to call out shadows (Tyutchev) (word shadow used in the meaning (spirit, ghost)).
5) Words used in some games, in particular cards and chess; lady, jack, king, horse, elephant declined as animate nouns: open jack, king; take the elephant, horse. Modeled after the declension of such names as jack And king, change ace And trump: discard an ace; open trump card; We went to Silvio and found him in the yard, putting bullet on bullet in ace , glued to the gate(Pushkin).
Note. In games, it is generally possible to represent inanimate objects as animate. Thus, in billiards the following expressions are known: play ball A, make a ball A: " Such ball missed", – said the student mockingly. Like all players, he declined the ball in the genitive case, like a living being, for no billiard player can bring himself to see an inanimate object in the ball, – there are so many purely feminine whims in him, sudden stubbornness and inexplicable obedience(L. Slavin).
The presence of animate nouns with their own paradigm, which distinguishes them from inanimate nouns, serves as the basis for many researchers to identify a special morphological category of animate/inanimate in the Russian language. However, the consideration of animate and inanimate nouns as lexical-grammatical categories (i.e., as classes of words within a noun as a part of speech) is supported by the fact that these nouns are absolutely consistently contrasted on the basis of only lexical-semantic features. The opposition between animate/inanimate does not have a regular grammatical expression obligatory for a morphological category: this opposition is consistently reflected in case forms pl. h. and inconsistently - in case forms singular. h. In units h. Contrasting words on the basis of animate/inanimate occurs only in the words husband. R.; at the words of wives. and Wednesday R. such opposition is not formally expressed.
Parts of speech in Russian
Parts of speech- these are groups of words united on the basis of the commonality of their characteristics.
The features on the basis of which words are divided into parts of speech are not uniform for different groups of words.
So, all words of the Russian language can be divided into interjections And noninterjective words. Interjections are unchangeable words that indicate emotions ( oh, alas, damn it), expression of will ( stop, that's it) or which are formulas verbal communication (thanks Hi). The peculiarity of interjections is that they do not enter into any syntactic connections with other words in a sentence; they are always isolated intonationally and punctuationally.
Non-interjective words can be divided into independent And official. The difference between them is that independent words can appear in speech without function words, but function words cannot form a sentence without independent words. Function words are unchangeable and serve to convey formal semantic relationships between independent words. Functional parts of speech include prepositions ( to, after, during), unions ( and, as if, despite the fact that), particles ( exactly, only, not at all).
Independent words can be divided into significant And pronominal. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relationships, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relationships, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf.: table - it is, comfortable - like this, easy - like this, five - how many). Pronominal words form separate part speech - pronoun.
Significant words are divided into parts of speech taking into account the following characteristics:
1) generalized meaning,
2) morphological characteristics,
3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic connections).
There are at least five significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral (group of nouns), adverb and verb.
Thus, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, i.e. classes of words identified taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.
The above can be presented in the form of the following table:
In complex 3 there are 10 parts of speech, combined into three groups:
1. Independent parts of speech:
Noun,
Adjective,
Numeral,
Pronoun,
Adverb.
2. Functional parts of speech:
Pretext,
Particle.
3. Interjection.
Moreover, each independent part of speech is determined on three grounds (generalized meaning, morphology, syntax), for example: a noun is a part of speech that denotes an object, has a gender and changes in numbers and cases, and in a sentence performs the syntactic function of a subject or object.
However, the significance of the bases in determining the composition of a particular part of speech is different: if a noun, adjective, verb are determined for the most part by their morphological characteristics (it is said that the noun denotes an object, but it is specially stipulated that it is such a “generalized” object), that is two parts of speech distinguished based on meaning - pronoun and numeral.
A pronoun as a part of speech combines morphologically and syntactically heterogeneous words that “do not name an object or attribute, but point to it.” Grammatically, pronouns are heterogeneous and correlate with nouns ( who am I), adjectives ( this one, which one), numerals ( how many, several).
The numeral as a part of speech combines words that are related to number: they indicate the number of objects or their order when counting. At the same time, the grammatical (morphological and syntactic) properties of words like three And third are different.
Complex 1 (its latest editions) and complex 2 propose to highlight a larger number of parts of speech. Thus, the participle and gerund are considered not as forms of the verb, but as independent parts of speech. In these complexes the words of the state are highlighted ( it's impossible, it's necessary); in complex 1 they are described as an independent part of speech - a category of state. In complex 3 the status of these words is not clearly defined. On the one hand, their description completes the “Adverb” section. On the other hand, it is said about state words that they “are similar in form to adverbs,” from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. In addition, in complex 2 the pronoun is expanded to include non-nominal words that are grammatically correlated with adverbs ( there, why, never and etc.).
The issue of parts of speech in linguistics is controversial. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. Thus, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications that use several bases. School classification is exactly this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works varies and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech.
There are words in the Russian language that do not fall into any of the parts of speech identified by school grammar. These are sentence words Yes And No, introductory words, not used in others syntactic functions (so, in total) and some other words.
Noun
A noun is an independent significant part of speech, combining words that
1) have a generalized meaning of subject matter and answer questions Who? or What?;
2) are proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have constant sign gender and non-constant (for most nouns) signs of number and case;
3) in a sentence they most often act as subjects or objects, but can be any other members of the sentence.
A noun is a part of speech, when highlighted, it comes to the fore grammatical features words As for the meaning of nouns, this is the only part of speech that can mean anything: an object ( table), face ( boy), animal ( cow), sign ( depth), abstract concept ( conscience), action ( singing), relation ( equality). In terms of meaning, these words are united by the fact that you can ask a question about them Who? or What?; This, in fact, is their objectivity.
Classification of nouns by meaning
Within words different parts it is customary to highlight speeches ranks by value- groups of words united by their lexical meaning, which influences their morphological characteristics. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the stem of this word.
Nouns have two groups of digits according to meaning:
1) ownership/name;
2) concreteness/abstractness/materiality/collectivity.
Common nouns nouns designate objects without distinguishing them from a class of the same type ( city, river, girl, newspaper).
Own nouns designate objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them ( Moscow, Volga, Masha,« News"). It is necessary to distinguish proper names from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects (“ Evening Moscow"). Proper names do not necessarily include a proper name ( Moscow State University).
Specific nouns name sensory objects - things ( table), faces ( Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.
Abstract nouns denote abstract concepts ( joy), signs ( white), actions ( drawing).
Real nouns denote substances ( milk, cream, sand).
Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects ( foliage) or persons ( kids).
The meaning of the morphological identification of these particular groups of nouns by meaning is that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects morphological feature number of a given noun. Thus, both numbers have the form of common concrete nouns ( house - houses). The words of the remaining groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only a single one), for example.
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
Among nouns there are several large groups.
■ Common nouns are generalized names for homogeneous objects. For example, city not called a specific large locality, and anyone who is also administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural center no matter how big or small, old or new, built in the same or different architectural styles.
■ Proper nouns name singular, individual objects. These include: first names, patronymics, last names of people ( Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin)- , geographical names ( Saint Petersburg, Cape of Good Hope); titles literary works, films, performances, paintings ( "Pit", "They fought for their homeland", "Burnt by the Sun", "Gull", "Morning in pine forest" ); names of historical events ( Battle of Kulikovo, battle of Borodino ); names of enterprises, institutions ( Publishing group "Yurist", Joint-Stock Company"Zlatoust"); animal names ( Kashtanka, Murka).
Nouns of both groups are not limited by an impenetrable partition, but can move from one to another. Thus, the group of common nouns can be replenished by mythological names (cf.: Aurora- goddess of the dawn and Aurora- dawn; Amur- deity of love and Amur- a sculptural or pictorial image of the deity of love; a handsome boy), names of scientists (cf.: Ampere- French physicist and ampere- unit of force electric current; Faraday- English physicist and faraday- non-systemic unit electric charge), names of literary and fairy-tale heroes(cf.: Harlequin- a character in a comedy of masks and harlequin- jester, clown; Baba Yaga- fairy-tale character and Baba Yaga- ugly evil old woman), names of cities and their parts (cf.: Broadway- a street in New York and Broadway— the central street of the city; Babylon — ancient city in Mesopotamia and Babylon- about turmoil, disorder, noise), etc.
The group of proper names can be replenished by: names of buildings (cf.: acropolis- fortress in ancient cities and Acropolis in Athens as an architectural monument, Kremlin- a fortress in old Russian cities and Kremlin in Moscow as a government residence), names of objects (cf.: anthracite — coal And Anthracite- city; birch- tree and Birch- village); names of persons ( apostle- disciple of Christ; follower of some idea and Apostle- Christian liturgical book; twins- children born at the same time of the same mother and Twins- constellation and zodiac sign), etc.
A large number of examples of mutual transition of common nouns and proper nouns presented in the "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language. Uppercase or lowercase?" (1999).
Proper names are written with a capital letter. Titles of books, names of magazines, paintings, films, factories, ships, etc. are placed in quotation marks.
■ Personal nouns denote a person, a person: animator, sponsor, Czech, Yalta resident Many male names have parallel female names: dissertation candidate, Czech — Czekh etc. Personal nouns with suffixes -sh (A) And -their (A) type doctor, engineer, doctor They usually have a conversational character, even a disparaging tone. Many names for male persons are also used in relation to female persons, especially in the official sphere of communication: president, prime minister, professor, associate professor, technician ( the president spoke, the prime minister said, the technician didn't show up).
■ Concrete nouns name objects (persons), which, as a rule, can be considered: answering machine, auditor, Afghan. Such nouns have singular forms. and many more h.
■ Abstract nouns have an abstract (abstract) meaning, they name some characteristic or some action that is not associated with specific objects (persons): regionalism, egalitarianism, farming; modernization, acceleration, farming. Abstract nouns in their direct lexical meaning cannot have a cardinal number and are usually used in the form of only one number - singular. ( evolution) or plural ( elections). Some abstract nouns that have the singular form can be used in the plural form when their direct lexical meaning changes. ( The beauty of nature, which, living in the city, hard to imagine. Beauty here they mean “beautiful places”).
■ Collective nouns denote a collection of similar objects or persons as a single whole. Here we mean the actual objects ( video equipment, weapon), faces ( underground, elite), animals ( beast, livestock). Collective nouns have forms of one number - usually singular. and rarely plural, are not able to be combined with cardinal numerals, do not have an animation category when denoting a collection of homogeneous living beings ( greet the generals). According to their structure, collective nouns are of two types: a) containing suffixes of collective meaning: -V-, -j-, -n-, -stv-, -atnik, -uj- (foliage, crow, relatives, students, chicken coop, partocracy); b) not containing formal signs of collectivity, expressing it only by lexical meaning ( furniture, limit, elite). Collective nouns are not collective nouns that denote such collections of homogeneous objects that occur along with other similar collections and therefore can be counted, i.e. have forms of both numbers: people — peoples, herd — herds, squad — squads.
. Real nouns denote a substance, a homogeneous mass ( milk, cement, perfume), which can be divided into parts, measured, but not counted. They are used in the form of only one number - singular. ( oil, sugar) or plural ( shavings, sawdust); they cannot have a numeral attached to them. Some real nouns m.r. may be used to indicate measures and quantities in R.p. units not just the main ending -A, -I, but also variant -y, -yu: cement color A — ton of cement, weight cha I — glass of tea Yu. If material nouns are used in a special meaning, they can receive plural forms: Distinguished by chemical composition carbon and alloy become , by appointment — structural and instrumental become; The store sells a variety of mineral water.