What materials are used as construction materials? Main types of building materials

Natural (natural) - without changing the composition and internal structure:
- inorganic ( stone materials and products);
- organic (wood materials, straw, firewood, reeds, husks, wool, collagen).

Artificial:
- Non-firing (hardening at normal conditions) and autoclave (hardening at a temperature of 175-200 °C and a water vapor pressure of 0.9-1.6 MPa):
  - inorganic (clinker and clinker-containing cements, gypsum, magnesium, etc.);
  - organic (bitumen and dectum binders, emulsions, pastes);
  - polymer (thermoplastic and thermosetting);
  - complex:
    - mixed (mixtures of several types of minerals);
    - compounded (mixtures and alloys organic materials);
    - combined (combination of mineral with organic or polymer).
- Roasting - hardening from fiery melts:
  - slag (according to the chemical basicity of the slag);
  - ceramic (according to the nature and type of clay and other components);
  - glass mass (based on the alkalinity of the charge);
  - stone casting (according to the type of rock);
  - complex (according to the type of components being connected, for example: slag-ceramic, glass-slag).

Based on application, they are classified into two main categories. The first category includes structural ones: brick, concrete, cement, timber, etc. They are used in the construction of various building elements (walls, ceilings, coverings, floors). To the second category - special purpose: waterproofing, thermal insulation, acoustic, finishing, etc.

Main types of building materials and products

stone natural building materials and products made from them
inorganic and organic binding materials
forest materials and products made from them
hardware

Depending on the purpose, conditions of construction and operation of buildings and structures, appropriate building materials are selected that have certain qualities and protective properties from exposure to various external environments. Taking these features into account, any building material must have certain construction and technical properties. For example, the material for the external walls of buildings must have the lowest thermal conductivity with sufficient strength to protect the room from the external cold; material for drainage and drainage structures - waterproof and resistant to alternating wetting and drying; Road surface material (asphalt, concrete) must have sufficient strength and low abrasion to withstand the loads from transport.

Properties

Materials and products must have good properties and qualities.

Property- a characteristic of a material that manifests itself during its processing, application or operation.

Quality- a set of properties of a material that determine its ability to satisfy certain requirements in accordance with its purpose.

The properties of building materials and products are classified into four main groups: physical, mechanical, chemical, technological, etc.

Chemical materials include the ability of materials to resist the action of a chemically aggressive environment, causing exchange reactions in them leading to the destruction of materials, a change in their original properties: solubility, corrosion resistance, resistance to rotting, hardening.

Physical properties: average, bulk, true and relative density; porosity, humidity, moisture transfer, thermal conductivity.

Mechanical properties: compressive strength, tensile strength, bending strength, shear strength, elasticity, plasticity, rigidity, hardness.

Technological properties: workability, heat resistance, melting, speed of hardening and drying.

Physical properties

True density ρ is the mass of a unit volume of material in an absolutely dense state. ρ =m/Va, where Va is the volume in a dense state. [ρ] = g/cm³; kg/m³; t/m³. For example, granite, glass and other silicates are almost completely dense materials. Determination of true density: a pre-dried sample is crushed into powder, the volume is determined in a pycnometer (it is equal to the volume of the displaced liquid).
Average density ρm=m/Ve is the mass of a unit volume in its natural state. The average density depends on temperature and humidity: ρm=ρв/(1+W), where W is relative humidity, and ρв is the wet density.
Bulk density (for bulk materials) - the mass of a unit volume of loosely poured granular or fibrous materials.
Porosity P is the degree of filling of the material volume with pores. P=Vp/Ve, where Vp is the pore volume, Ve is the volume of material. Porosity can be open or closed.

Open porosity Pores communicate with the environment and with each other, and are filled with water under normal saturation conditions (immersion in a bath of water). Open pores increase the permeability and water absorption of the material and reduce frost resistance.

Closed porosity Pz=P-Po. Increasing closed porosity increases the durability of the material and reduces sound absorption.

Porous material contains both open and closed pores

Hydrophysical properties

Water absorption of porous materials is determined using a standard method by keeping samples in water at a temperature of 20±2 °C. In this case, water does not penetrate into closed pores, that is, water absorption characterizes only open porosity. When removing samples from the bath, water partially flows out of large pores, so water absorption is always less than porosity. Water absorption by volume Wo (%) - the degree of filling the volume of the material with water: Wo=(mв-mc)/Ve*100, where mв is the mass of the material sample saturated with water; mc is the dry mass of the sample. Water absorption by mass Wм (%) is determined in relation to the mass of dry material Wм=(mв-mc)/mc*100. Wo=Wм*γ, γ is the volumetric mass of dry material, expressed in relation to the density of water (dimensionless value). Water absorption is used to evaluate the structure of the material using the saturation coefficient: kн = Wo/P. It can vary from 0 (all pores in the material are closed) to 1 (all pores are open). A decrease in kn indicates an increase in frost resistance.
Water permeability is the property of a material to allow water to pass under pressure. The filtration coefficient kf (m/h is the speed dimension) characterizes water permeability: kf = Vv*a/, where kf = Vv is the amount of water, m³, passing through a wall of area S = 1 m², thickness a = 1 m during time t = 1 hour with a difference in hydrostatic pressure at the wall boundaries p1 - p2 = 1 m of water. Art.
The water resistance of the material is characterized by grade W2; W4; W8; W10; W12, denoting one-sided hydrostatic pressure in kgf/cm², at which a concrete cylinder sample does not allow water to pass through under standard test conditions. The lower the kf, the higher the waterproof grade.
Water resistance is characterized by the softening coefficient kp = Rв/Rс, where Rв is the strength of the material saturated with water, and Rс is the strength of the dry material. kp varies from 0 (wetting clays) to 1 (metals). If kp is less than 0.8, then such material is not used in building structures located in water.
Hygroscopicity is the property of a capillary-porous material to absorb water vapor from the air. The process of absorbing moisture from the air is called sorption; it is caused by polymolecular adsorption of water vapor on the inner surface of the pores and capillary condensation. With increasing water vapor pressure (i.e. increasing relative humidity air at a constant temperature) the sorption humidity of the material increases.
Capillary suction is characterized by the height of water rising in the material, the amount of absorbed water and the intensity of suction. A decrease in these indicators reflects an improvement in the structure of the material and an increase in its frost resistance.
Humidity deformations. Porous materials change their volume and size when humidity changes. Shrinkage is a reduction in the size of a material as it dries. Swelling occurs when the material is saturated with water.

Thermophysical properties

Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to transfer heat from one surface to another. Nekrasov’s formula connects thermal conductivity λ [W/(m·C)] with the volumetric mass of the material, expressed in relation to water: λ=1.16√(0.0196 + 0.22γ2)-0.16. As temperature increases, the thermal conductivity of most materials increases. R- thermal resistance, R = 1/λ.
Heat capacity c [kcal/(kg C)] is the amount of heat that must be supplied to 1 kg of material to increase its temperature by 1 °C. For stone materials, the heat capacity varies from 0.75 to 0.92 kJ/(kg C). As humidity increases, the heat capacity of materials increases.
Fire resistance is the ability of a material to withstand prolonged exposure to high temperatures (from 1580 °C and above) without softening or deforming. Refractory materials are used for the internal lining of industrial furnaces. Refractory materials soften at temperatures above 1350 °C.
Fire resistance is the property of a material to resist the action of fire in a fire for a certain time. It depends on the combustibility of the material, that is, on its ability to ignite and burn. Fireproof materials - concrete, brick, steel, etc. But at temperatures above 600 °C, some fireproof materials crack (granite) or become severely deformed (metals). Refractory materials smolder under the influence of fire or high temperature, but after the fire ceases, their combustion and smoldering stops (asphalt concrete, wood impregnated with fire retardants, fiberboard, some foam plastics). Combustible materials burn with an open flame, they must be protected from fire by structural and other measures, and treated with fire retardants.
Linear thermal expansion. With seasonal temperature changes environment and material at 50 °C, the relative temperature deformation reaches 0.5-1 mm/m. To avoid cracking, long-term structures are cut with expansion joints.

Frost resistance of building materials: the ability of a material saturated with water to withstand alternate freezing and thawing. Frost resistance is quantitatively assessed by the brand. Accepted as a brand greatest number cycles of alternating freezing down to −20 °C and thawing at a temperature of 12-20 °C, which material samples can withstand without reducing the compressive strength by more than 15%; after testing, the samples should not have visible damage - cracks, chipping (mass loss no more than 5%).

Mechanical properties

Elasticity- spontaneous restoration of the original shape and size after the cessation of the external force.

Plastic- the property of changing shape and size under the influence of external forces without collapsing, and after the cessation of the action of external forces, the body cannot spontaneously restore its shape and size.

Permanent deformation- plastic deformation.

Relative deformation- the ratio of absolute deformation to the initial linear size (ε=Δl/l).

Elastic modulus- ratio of voltage to rel. deformations (E=σ/ε).

Strength- the property of a material to resist destruction under the influence of internal stresses caused by external forces or others. Strength is assessed by tensile strength - temporary resistance R, determined for a given type of deformation. For fragile materials (brick, concrete), the main strength characteristic is the compressive strength. For metals and steel, the compressive strength is the same as the tensile and bending strength. Since building materials are heterogeneous, the tensile strength is determined as the average result of a series of samples. The test results are influenced by the shape, dimensions of the samples, the state of the supporting surfaces, and the loading speed. Depending on their strength, materials are divided into brands and classes. Brands are written in kgf/cm², and classes - in MPa. The class characterizes guaranteed strength. Strength class B is called the temporary compressive strength of standard samples (concrete cubes with an edge size of 150 mm), tested at the age of 28 days of storage at a temperature of 20±2 °C, taking into account the static variability of strength.

Structural quality factor: KKK = R/γ (strength per relative density), for the 3rd steel KKK = 51 MPa, for high-strength steel KKK = 127 MPa, heavy concrete KKK = 12.6 MPa, wood KKK = 200 MPa.

Hardness- an indicator characterizing the property of materials to resist the penetration of another, more dense material into it. Hardness index: HB=P/F (F is the area of the imprint, P is the force), [HB]=MPa. Mohs scale: talc, gypsum, lime...diamond.

Abrasion- loss of the initial mass of the sample when this sample passes a certain path of the abrasive surface. Abrasion: И=(m1-m2)/F, where F is the area of the abraded surface.

Wear- the property of a material to resist both abrasive and impact loads. Wear is determined in a drum with or without steel balls.

Natural stone materials

Classification and main types of rocks

Rocks that have the necessary construction properties are used as natural stone materials in construction.

According to geological classification, rocks are divided into three types:

igneous (primary)
sedimentary (secondary)
metamorphic (modified)

Chemical sedimentary rocks: limestone, dolomite, gypsum.

Organogenic rocks: limestone-shell rock, diatomite, chalk.

3) Metamorphic (modified) rocks were formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence high temperatures and pressures during lifting and lowering earth's crust. These include shale, marble, and quartzite.

Classification and main types of natural stone materials

Natural stone materials and products are obtained by processing rocks.

According to the method of production, stone materials are divided into:

torn stone (rubble) - mined by explosive method
rough stone - obtained by splitting without processing
crushed - obtained by crushing (crushed stone, artificial sand)
sorted stone (cobblestone, gravel).

Stone materials are divided into

stones irregular shape(crushed stone, gravel)
piece products having the correct shape (slabs, blocks).

Hydration binders are divided into:

air (hardening and gaining strength only in air)
hydraulic (hardening in a humid, airy environment and under water).

Gypsum slabs for partitions are made from a mixture of building gypsum with mineral or organic fillers. The slabs are produced solid and hollow with a thickness of 80-100 mm. Gypsum and gypsum concrete partition slabs are used to construct partitions inside a building.

Gypsum concrete panels for floor subfloors are made from gypsum concrete with a compressive strength of at least 7 MPa. They have a wooden slatted frame. The dimensions of the panels are determined by the size of the premises. The panels are designed for linoleum and tile floors in rooms with normal humidity.

Gypsum ventilation blocks are made from building gypsum with a compressive strength of 12-13 MPa or from a mixture of gypsum-cement-pozzolanic binder with additives. Blocks are designed for the device ventilation ducts in residential, public and industrial buildings.

Gypsum tongue-and-groove blocks are used in low-rise construction, as well as in the construction of partitions inside industrial, administrative and residential buildings and structures. The interlocking connection of blocks in masonry is achieved by the presence of a groove and a ridge on each of the horizontal planes, respectively. The tongue-and-groove connection allows for quick installation of a wall made of tongue-and-groove blocks. Each block has two through voids, allowing for lightweight partition structures. When laying walls, the voids of all rows are combined, forming sealed closed air cavities filled with effective insulating materials (expanded clay, mineral wool, polyurethane foam, etc.). By filling these voids with heavy concrete, you can create any bearing structures. Gypsum tongue-and-groove slabs are intended for element-by-element assembly of non-load-bearing partitions in buildings for various purposes and for internal lining external walls of buildings. Gypsum blocks are used in accordance with building codes and regulations for self-supporting and enclosing structures of residential, public, industrial and agricultural buildings, mainly in low-rise construction.

Due to its physical and mechanical properties, masonry made from gypsum blocks has a high sound insulation index airborne noise(50 dB) and thermal conductivity, which is of no small importance in the construction of both residential and industrial premises.

Artificial firing materials

Artificial firing materials and products (ceramics) are obtained by firing a molded and dried clay mass at 900-1300 °C. As a result of firing, the clay mass is transformed into an artificial stone that has good strength, high density, water resistance, water resistance, frost resistance and durability. The raw material for the production of ceramics is clay with in some cases, thinning additives introduced into it. These additives reduce the shrinkage of products during drying and firing, increase porosity, and reduce the average density and thermal conductivity of the material. Sand, crushed ceramics, slag, ash, coal, and sawdust are used as additives. The firing temperature depends on the temperature at which the clay begins to melt. Ceramic building materials are divided into porous and dense. Porous materials have a relative density of up to 95% and water absorption of more than 5%; their compressive strength does not exceed 35 MPa (brick, drainage pipes). Dense materials have a relative density of more than 95%, water absorption of less than 5%, compressive strength of up to 100 MPa; they are wear-resistant (floor tiles).

Ceramic materials and products made from fusible clays

Ordinary clay bricks of plastic pressing are made from clays with or without thinning additives. The brick is a parallelepiped. Brick brands: 300, 250, 200, 150, 125, 100.
Ceramic hollow brick (stone) of plastic pressing is produced for masonry load-bearing walls single-storey and multi-storey buildings, interior spaces, walls and partitions, cladding of brick walls.
Lightweight building bricks are made by molding and firing a mass of clay with burnable additives, as well as from mixtures of sand and clay with burnable additives. Brick size: 250×120×88 mm, grades 100, 75, 50, 35. Ordinary clay bricks are used for laying internal and external walls, pillars and other parts of buildings and structures. Clay and ceramic hollow bricks are used for laying internal and external walls of buildings and structures above the waterproofing layer. Light brick is used for laying external and internal walls of buildings with normal indoor humidity.
The tiles are made from fatty clay by firing at 1000-1100 °C. Good-quality tiles, when lightly struck with a hammer, produce a clear, non-rattling sound. It is strong, very durable and fire resistant. Disadvantages - high average density, which makes the supporting structure of the roof heavier, fragility, the need to install roofs with a large slope to ensure rapid water drainage.
Ceramic drainage pipes are made from clays with or without thinning additives, internal diameter 25-250 mm, length 333, 500, 1000 mm and wall thickness 8-24 mm. They are made in brick or special factories. Drainage ceramic pipes are used in the construction of drainage, humidification and irrigation systems, collector and drainage water pipelines.

Ceramic materials and products made from refractory clays

The stone for underground collectors is made of a trapezoidal shape with side grooves. It is used when laying underground sewers with a diameter of 1.5 and 2 m, when constructing sewerage and other structures.
Ceramic facade tiles are used for cladding buildings and structures, panels, and blocks.
Ceramic sewer pipes made from refractory and refractory clays with thinning additives. They have a cylindrical shape and length of 800, 1000 and 1200 mm, internal diameter 150-600 m.
Based on the type of front surface, floor tiles are divided into smooth, rough and embossed; by color - single-color and multi-color; in shape - square, rectangular, triangular, hexagonal, tetrahedral. Tile thickness is 10 and 13 mm. It is used for installing floors in industrial and water management buildings with wet conditions.
Ceramic roofing tiles are one of the oldest types of roofing materials, which are actively used in construction in our time. The process of making ceramic tiles can be divided into several stages - the clay blank is first shaped, dried, coated on top, and then fired in a kiln at a temperature of about 1000 °C.

Coagulation (organic) binders

Mortars and concretes based on them.

Organic binding materials used in waterproofing, in the manufacture of waterproofing materials and products, as well as waterproofing and asphalt solutions, asphalt concrete, are divided into bitumen, tar, bitumen-tar. They dissolve well in organic solvents (gasoline, kerosene), are waterproof, are capable of transitioning from a solid to a plastic and then a liquid state when heated, have high adhesion and good adhesion to building materials (concrete, brick, wood).

Anhydrite binders

Anhydrite occurs as a natural rock (CaSO4) without crystalline water (natural anhydrite NAT) or is formed from artificially prepared anhydrite in sulfur recovery plants. flue gases in coal-fired power plants (synthetic anhydrite SYN). It is often also referred to as REA - gypsum. In order for anhydrite to accept water, basic materials are added to it as activators (inhibitors), such as construction lime, or basic and salt materials (mixed inhibitors).

The anhydride solution begins to set after 25 minutes and becomes solid after no later than 12 hours. Its hardening occurs only in air. Anhydrite binder (AB) is supplied in accordance with DIN 4208 in two strength classes. It can be used as a binder for plasters and screeds, as well as for internal building structures. Plasters with anhydrite binder must be protected from moisture.

Mixed binders

Mixed binders are hydraulic binders containing finely ground traces, blast furnace slag or blast sand, and lime hydrate or Portland cement as a water absorption inhibitor. Mixed binders harden both in air and under water. Their compressive strength is established according to DIN 4207 to be at least 15 N/mm² 28 days after installation. Mixed binders can only be used for mortars and unreinforced concrete.

Bituminous materials

Bitumen is divided into natural and artificial. In nature, pure bitumen is rare. Typically, bitumen is extracted from porous sedimentary rocks impregnated with it as a result of the rise of oil from underlying layers. Artificial bitumens are obtained during oil refining, as a result of distilling gases (propane, ethylene), gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel from its composition.

Natural bitumen- a solid or viscous liquid consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons.

Polyethylene pipes manufactured by the method of continuous screw extrusion (continuous extrusion of polymer from a nozzle with a given profile). Polyethylene pipes are frost-resistant, which allows them to be used at temperatures from −80 °C to +60 °C.

Polymer mastics and concretes

Hydraulic structures operating in aggressive environments, high speeds and solid runoff are protected with special coatings or linings. In order to protect structures from these influences and increase their durability, polymer mastics are used, polymer concrete, polymer concrete, polymer solutions.

Polymer mastics- designed to create protective coatings, protecting structures and structures from the effects of mechanical loads, abrasion, temperature changes, radiation, and aggressive environments.

Polymer concrete - cement concretes, during the preparation of which in concrete mixture organosilicon or water-soluble polymers are added. Such concretes have increased frost resistance and water resistance.

Polymer concrete- these are concretes in which polymer resins serve as binders and inorganic fillers mineral materials.

Polymer solutions differ from polymer concretes in that they do not contain crushed stone. They are used as waterproofing, anti-corrosion and wear-resistant coatings for hydraulic structures, floors, and pipes.

Thermal insulation materials and products made from them

Thermal insulation materials are characterized by low thermal conductivity and low average density due to their porous structure. They are classified according to the nature of their structure: rigid (slabs, bricks), flexible (strands, semi-rigid slabs), loose (fibrous and powdery); in view of the main raw materials: organic and inorganic.

Organic thermal insulation materials

Sawdust, shavings - used in dry form with impregnation in the structure with lime, gypsum, cement.

Construction felt is made from coarse wool. It is produced in the form of antiseptic-impregnated panels 1000-2000 mm long, 500-2000 mm wide and 10-12 mm thick.

Reed is produced in the form of slabs with a thickness of 30-100 mm, obtained by wire fastening through 12-15 cm of rows of pressed reeds.

The construction properties of wood vary widely, depending on its age, growth conditions, wood species, and humidity. In a freshly cut tree, moisture content is 35-60%, and its content depends on the time of cutting and the type of tree. The moisture content in wood is lowest in winter, highest in spring. The highest humidity is characteristic of coniferous species (50-60%), the lowest - hard deciduous species (35-40%). Drying from the wettest state to the point of saturation of the fibers (up to a moisture content of 35%), the wood does not change its size; upon further drying it linear dimensions are decreasing. On average, shrinkage along the fibers is 0.1%, and across - 3-6%. As a result of volumetric shrinkage, cracks are formed at the joints wooden elements, the wood is cracking. For wooden structures Wood should be used at the same humidity level at which it will work in the structure.

Wood materials and products

Round timber: logs - long sections of a tree trunk, cleared of branches; round timber (podtovarnik) - logs 3-9 m long; ridges - short sections of a tree trunk (1.3-2.6 m long); logs for piles of hydraulic structures and bridges - sections of a tree trunk 6.5-8.5 m long. The humidity of round timber used for load-bearing structures should be no more than 25%.

Wood building materials are divided into lumber and panel materials.

Lumber

Lumber is obtained by sawing round wood.

Plates are logs sawn lengthwise into two symmetrical parts.
The beam has a thickness and width of more than 100 mm (double-edged, three-edged and four-edged).
Lumber - lumber up to 100 mm thick and no more than double thickness.
Croaker is the sawn-off outer part of a log, one side of which is not processed.
Board - lumber up to 100 mm thick and more than twice the width. It is considered the main type of lumber.

A high-tech type of lumber is wall and window laminated timber, as well as bent-laminated load-bearing structures and floor beams. They are made by gluing boards, bars, and plywood with waterproof adhesives. (Waterproof glue FBA, FOC).

Joinery products are made from lumber. Planed long products are moldings (lining, batten, plinth, lath), platbands (window and doorways), handrails for railings, stairs, window sill boards, windows and doors. Joinery products are made in specialized factories or workshops from softwood and hardwood.

Wood boards

Panel building materials made from wood include: plywood, fibreboard, particle board, cement-bonded particle board, oriented strand board.

For the manufacture of metal building structures and structures, rolled steel profiles are used: equal and unequal angles, channels, I-beams, and T-beams. Rivets, bolts, nuts, screws and nails are used as steel fasteners. When performing construction and installation work, various metal processing methods are used: mechanical, thermal, welding. The main methods of producing metal work include mechanical hot and cold processing of metals.

At hot processing metals are heated to certain temperatures, after which they are given the appropriate shapes and sizes during the rolling process, under the influence of hammer blows or press pressure.

Cold processing of metals is divided into metalworking and metal cutting. Metalworking and processing consists of the following technological operations: marking, chopping, cutting, casting, drilling, cutting.

Metal processing and cutting are carried out by removing metal shavings with a cutting tool (turning, planing, milling). It is produced on metal-cutting machines.

To improve construction qualities steel products they are subjected to heat treatment- hardening, tempering, annealing, normalization and carburization.

Hardening consists of heating steel products to a temperature slightly above the critical temperature, holding them for some time at this temperature and then rapidly cooling them in water, oil, or oil emulsion. The heating temperature during hardening depends on the carbon content of the steel. When hardening, the strength and hardness of steel increases.

Tempering consists of heating hardened products to 150-670 °C (tempering temperature), tempering them at this temperature (depending on the steel grade) and subsequent slow or rapid cooling in still air, water or oil. During the tempering process, the toughness of the steel increases, the internal stress in it and its brittleness decrease, and its machinability improves.

Annealing consists of heating steel products to a certain temperature (750-960 °C), holding them at this temperature and then slowly cooling them in a furnace. When steel products are annealed, the hardness of the steel decreases and its machinability also improves.

Normalization consists of heating steel products to a temperature slightly higher than the annealing temperature, holding them at this temperature and then cooling them in still air. After normalization, a steel with higher hardness and a fine-grained structure is obtained.

Cementation is the process of surface carburization of steel in order to obtain high surface hardness, wear resistance and increased strength in products; at the same time, the inner part of the steel retains significant viscosity.

Non-ferrous metals and alloys

These include: aluminum and its alloys - this is a lightweight, technologically advanced, corrosion-resistant material. In its pure form it is used for making foil and casting parts. For the manufacture of aluminum products, aluminum alloys are used - aluminum-manganese, aluminum-magnesium... Aluminum alloys used in construction with low density (2.7-2.9 g/cm³) have strength characteristics that are close to the strength characteristics of construction steels. Products from aluminum alloys characterized by simplicity of manufacturing technology, good appearance, fire and earthquake resistance, antimagnetic, durability. This combination of construction and technological properties of aluminum alloys allows them to compete with steel. The use of aluminum alloys in enclosing structures makes it possible to reduce the weight of walls and roofs by 10-80 times and reduce the complexity of installation.

Copper and its alloys. Copper is a heavy non-ferrous metal (density 8.9 g/cm³), soft and ductile with high thermal and electrical conductivity. In its pure form, copper is used in electrical wires. Copper is mainly used in various types of alloys. An alloy of copper with tin, aluminum, manganese or nickel is called bronze. Bronze is a corrosion-resistant metal with high mechanical properties. It is used for the manufacture of sanitary fittings. An alloy of copper and zinc (up to 40%) is called brass. It has high mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, and lends itself well to hot and cold processing. It is used in the form of products, sheets, wire, pipes.

Zinc is a corrosion-resistant metal used as an anti-corrosion coating when galvanizing steel products in the form of roofing steel and bolts.

Lead is a heavy, easily processed, corrosion-resistant metal used for caulking the seams of bell pipes, sealing expansion joints, manufacturing of special pipes.

Metal corrosion and protection against it

Exposure of metal structures and structures to the environment leads to their destruction, which is called corrosion. Corrosion begins from the surface of the metal and spreads deep into it, while the metal loses its shine, its surface becomes uneven and corroded.

Based on the nature of corrosion damage, a distinction is made between continuous, selective and intergranular corrosion.

Continuous corrosion is divided into uniform and uneven. With uniform corrosion, metal destruction occurs at the same rate over the entire surface. With uneven corrosion, the destruction of the metal proceeds at an unequal rate at various areas its surface.

Selective corrosion covers separate areas metal surface. It is divided into superficial, pitting, through, and spot corrosion.

Intercrystalline corrosion occurs inside the metal, and the bonds along the boundaries of the crystals that make up the metal are destroyed.

Based on the nature of the interaction of the metal with the environment, chemical and electrochemical corrosion are distinguished. Chemical corrosion occurs when metal is exposed to dry gases or liquids other than electrolytes (gasoline, oil, resins). Electrochemical corrosion is accompanied by the appearance electric current, which occurs when metal is exposed to liquid electrolytes (aqueous solutions of salts, acids, alkalis), moist gases and air (conductors of electricity).

To protect metals from corrosion, various methods are used to protect them: sealing metals from aggressive environments, reducing environmental pollution, ensuring normal temperature and humidity conditions, applying durable anti-corrosion coatings. Usually, in order to protect metals from corrosion, they are coated with paints and varnishes (primers, paints, enamels, varnishes), protected with corrosion-resistant thin metal coatings- are used for constructing walls, foundations, floors, roofs and other parts of residential and non-residential buildings and structures. Materials are usually divided into natural ones, which are used for construction in the form in which they are found in nature (wood, granite, ... ... Great Medical Encyclopedia

During the construction, operation and repair of buildings and structures, building products and structures from which they are erected are subject to various physical, mechanical, physical and technological influences. A hydraulic engineer is required to competently select the right material, product or structure that has sufficient strength, reliability and durability for specific conditions.

Construction materials and products used in the construction, reconstruction and repair of various buildings and structures are divided into natural And artificial, which in turn are divided into two main categories :

The main types of building materials and products are:

· natural stone building materials and products made from them;

· inorganic and organic binding materials;

· forest materials and products made from them;

· metal products.

Depending on the purpose, conditions of construction and operation of buildings and structures, appropriate building materials are selected that have certain qualities and protective properties from exposure to various external environments. Taking these features into account, any building material must have certain construction and technical properties. For example, the material for the external walls of buildings must have the lowest thermal conductivity with sufficient strength to protect the room from the external cold; material for drainage and drainage structures – waterproof and resistant to alternating wetting and drying; The material for road surfaces (asphalt, concrete) must have sufficient strength and low abrasion to withstand the loads from transport.

When classifying materials and products, it is necessary to remember that they must have good properties and qualities.

Property- a characteristic of a material that manifests itself during its processing, application or operation.

Quality– a set of properties of a material that determine its ability to satisfy certain requirements in accordance with its purpose.

Properties of building materials and products classified into basic groups: physical, mechanical, chemical, technological, etc.

To chemical refer to the ability of materials to resist the action of a chemically aggressive environment, causing exchange reactions in them, leading to the destruction of materials, a change in their original properties: solubility, corrosion resistance, resistance to rotting, hardening.

Physical properties: average, bulk, true and relative density; porosity, humidity, moisture transfer, thermal conductivity.

Mechanical properties: strength limits in compression, tension, bending, shear, elasticity, plasticity, rigidity, hardness.

Technological properties: workability, heat resistance, melting, speed of hardening and drying.

Construction materials and products are classified according to:

· degree of readiness;

· origin;

· purpose;

technological feature .

By degree of readiness distinguish between building materials and building products - finished goods and elements mounted and secured at the work site.

Building materials include wood, metals, cement, concrete, brick, sand, mortars for masonry and various plasters, paints, natural stones, etc.

Construction products are prefabricated reinforced concrete panels and structures, window and door blocks, sanitary products and cabins, etc. Unlike products, building materials are processed before use - mixed with water, compacted, sawn, etc.

By origin building materials are divided into natural and artificial.

Natural materials- this is wood, rocks (natural stones), peat, natural bitumen and asphalt, etc. These materials are obtained from natural raw materials through simple processing without changing their original structure and chemical composition.

TO artificial materials include: brick, cement, reinforced concrete , glass, etc. They are obtained from natural and artificial raw materials, by-products of industry and agriculture using special technologies. Artificial materials differ from the original raw materials, both in structure and in chemical composition, which is due to their radical processing in the factory.

The most widely used classifications of materials are according to purpose and technological characteristics.

By purpose materials are divided into the following groups:

Structural materials are materials that absorb and transmit loads in building structures;

Thermal insulation materials, the main purpose of which is to minimize the transfer of heat through the building structure and thereby ensure the necessary thermal conditions in the room with minimal energy consumption;

- acoustic materials (sound-absorbing and sound-proofing materials) - to reduce the level of “noise pollution” in the room;

Waterproofing and roofing materials - to create waterproof layers on roofs, underground structures and other structures that need to be protected from exposure to water or water vapor;

Sealing materials - for sealing joints in prefabricated structures;

Finishing materials - to improve the decorative qualities of building structures, as well as to protect structural, thermal insulation and other materials from external influences;

Special-purpose materials (for example, fire-resistant or acid-resistant) used in the construction of special structures A number of materials (for example, cement, lime, wood) cannot be classified into any one group, since they are used both in their pure form and as raw materials for the production other building materials and products. These are the so-called materials general purpose.

The difficulty of classifying building materials by purpose is that the same materials can be classified into different groups. For example, concrete is mainly used as a structural material, but some of its types have a completely different purpose: particularly lightweight concrete is a heat-insulating material; especially heavy concrete - a special-purpose material that is used for protection against radioactive radiation.

By technology materials are divided, taking into account the type of raw materials from which the material is obtained and the type of its manufacture, into the following groups:

- natural stone materials and products - obtained from rocks by processing them: wall blocks and stones, facing slabs, architectural details, rubble stone for foundations, crushed stone, gravel, sand, etc.;

Artificial stone materials and products obtained by molding, drying and firing (brick, ceramic blocks and stones, tiles, pipes, earthenware and porcelain products, facing and flooring tiles, expanded clay), etc.

Inorganic binders- mineral materials, mainly powdery, which when mixed with water form a plastic body, which over time acquires a stone-like state: various types of cements, lime, gypsum binders, etc.

Concrete- artificial stone materials obtained from a mixture of binder, water, fine and coarse aggregates. Concrete with steel reinforcement called reinforced concrete, it resists not only compression, but also bending and stretching.

Mortars- artificial stone materials consisting of binder, water and fine aggregate, which over time transform from a doughy to a stone-like state.

Artificial unfired stone materials- obtained on the basis of inorganic binders and various fillers : sand-lime brick, gypsum and gypsum concrete products, asbestos-cement products and structures, silicate concrete.

Organic binders and materials based on them - bitumen and tar binders, roofing and waterproofing materials: roofing felt, glassine, isol, brizol, hydroisol, roofing felt, adhesive mastics, asphalt concrete and mortars.

Polymer materials and products- materials produced on the basis of synthetic polymers (thermoplastic non-thermosetting resins ): linoleums, relin, synthetic carpet materials, tiles, laminated plastics, fiberglass, foam plastics, foam plastics, honeycomb plastics, etc.

Wood materials and products- obtained as a result of mechanical processing of wood: round timber, lumber, blanks for various joinery products, parquet, plywood, skirting boards, handrails, door and window units, glued structures.

Metal materials - the most widely used ferrous metals in construction (steel and cast iron), rolled steel (I-beams, channels, angles), metal alloys, especially aluminum.

Physical properties of building materials. Average density ρс- mass per unit volume of material in its natural state, i.e. with pores. Average density (in kg/m3, kg/dm3, g/cm3) is calculated using the formula:

where m is the mass of the material, kg, g; Ve - volume of material, m 3, dm 3, cm 3.

The average density of bulk materials (crushed stone, gravel, sand, cement, etc.) is called bulk density. The volume includes pores directly in the material and voids between grains.

Relative density d- attitude medium density material to the density of the standard substance. Water at a temperature of 4°C and having a density of 1000 kg/m 3 is taken as the standard substance. Relative density (dimensionless value) is determined by the formula:

True density (ρu)- the mass of a unit volume of an absolutely dense material, i.e., without pores and voids. It is calculated in kg/m3, kg/dm3, g/cm3 using the formula:

where m is the mass of the material, kg, g; Va is the volume of material in a dense state, m 3, dm 3, cm 3.

For inorganic materials, natural and artificial stones, consisting mainly of oxides of silicon, aluminum and calcium, the true density is in the range of 2400-3100 kg/m 3, for organic materials, consisting mainly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, it is 800 -1400 kg/m3, for wood - 1550 kg/m3. The true density of metals varies in a wide range: aluminum - 2700 kg/m 3, steel - 7850, lead - 11300 kg/m 3.

Porosity (P)- degree of filling of the volume of material with pores. Calculated in % using the formula:

where ρс, ρu - average and true density material.

For building materials P ranges from 0 to 90%. For bulk materials, voidness (intergranular porosity) is determined.

Hydrophysical properties of building materials.Hygroscopicity- the property of a capillary-porous material to absorb water vapor from moist air. The absorption of moisture from the air is explained by the adsorption of water vapor on the inner surface of the pores and capillary condensation. This process, called sorption, is reversible. Fibrous materials with significant porosity, for example, thermal insulation and wall materials, have a developed internal pore surface and therefore high sorption capacity.

Water absorption- the ability of a material to absorb and retain water. Water absorption characterizes mainly open porosity, since water does not pass into closed pores. The degree of reduction in the strength of a material at its maximum water saturation is called water resistance . Water resistance is numerically characterized by the softening coefficient (Krasm), which characterizes the degree of reduction in strength as a result of its saturation with water. .

Humidity- This is the degree of moisture content in the material. Depends on the humidity of the environment, the properties and structure of the material itself.

IN permeability- the ability of the material to pass water under pressure. It is characterized by the filtration coefficient Kf, m/h, which is equal to the amount of water Vw in m 3 passing through a material with an area S = 1 m 2, thickness a = 1 m during a time t = 1 hour, with a difference in hydrostatic pressure P1 - P2 = 1 m water column:

The inverse characteristic of water permeability is waterproof- the ability of the material not to allow water to pass under pressure.

Vapor permeability- the ability of materials to transmit water vapor through their thickness. It is characterized by a vapor permeability coefficient μ, g/(mhchPa), which is equal to the amount of water vapor V per m3 passing through a material of thickness a = 1 m, area S = 1 m² for a time t = 1 hour, with a difference in partial pressure P1 - P2 = 133.3 Pa:

Frost resistance - the ability of a material in a water-saturated state not to collapse during repeated alternate freezing and thawing. Destruction occurs due to the fact that the volume of water when turning into ice increases by 9%. The pressure of ice on the pore walls causes tensile forces in the material.

Consumables for construction work do not belong to the main raw materials, but are closely related to them. As the name suggests, these include small tools and materials that are consumed or worn out in the process of completing a specific order, i.e., with a short service life. Further in the article it is indicated what applies to construction consumables.

Tools and auxiliary materials for manual application of protective, decorative and adhesive coatings

This is first and foremost paint brushes and rollers. Depending on the type of surface being treated and the type of coating applied, they differ in shape and size. For ease of use, these products can be equipped with special telescopic rods, which can extend the handle of the tool up to four meters, which allows you to paint even a very high ceiling.

Using a roller means purchasing a paint cuvette of the appropriate size, which, thanks to its ribbed surface, evenly distributes paint over the entire area of the painting tool and removes excess paint. As a rule, several rollers are purchased for working with coatings. different color and composition, but you can use one handle, changing only the attachments. When working with one painting tool for several days, to prevent drying out, both brushes and rollers are soaked in a container of water until next application or tightly wrapped in cellophane film.

This same series of construction consumables includes one that allows you to seriously reduce time and nerves when beating the perfect edge during application paint coating, and also keep the mating surface clean. They differ only in the width of the overlapped edge and the footage.

Spare parts, abrasive and cutting tools

Each electric tool used in construction or repair requires its own equipment, which is a processing structural element, as a rule, of a replaceable type. This includes drills, cut-offs, as well as lubricants and much more.

Consumables for construction tools are a significant cost element and the cause of endless disputes between the customer and the contractor. This situation is associated with a high degree of standardization of such components. With the same functionality, both the price and quality of products can have a serious difference. The choice is not always obvious, but if there is a large volume of work, it is worth giving preference to products from well-established manufacturers.

Classify Consumables construction equipment can be based on the following characteristics:

Metalworking. These include drills, borings, metal cutters, cutting and grinding wheels, grinding materials, hacksaw blades, lubricants.
Woodworking. Cutting blades for jigsaws, wood drills.
For processing stone, tiles and concrete. Diamond-coated discs, chisels and impact drills with pobedite tips.

In this entire list, only wood saws and drill-type components (with the exception of impact drills) can be restored by sharpening.

Hardware and fasteners

Depending on the type of work, this group of construction consumables can be even more expensive than the equipment of processing tools. This includes wood and metal screws, nuts, bolts, washers and other hardware, all kinds of screwdriver attachments and any other types of fasteners (ties, rivets, clamps, staples).

Container and packaging

Can be returnable or non-returnable. This is an important element in preserving the presentation of basic materials. This can be paper, polyethylene, barrels, bags, pallets, boxes and other packaging.

Utility equipment and personal protective equipment

Hair and wire brushes, rags, containers for carrying and stirring bulk materials and garbage collection, brooms, stationery, gloves, goggles, respirators, etc.

All these little things add up to a hefty penny and cannot always be fully taken into account at the stage of drawing up a work estimate. Therefore, to simplify calculations, construction consumables are often allocated 3% of the cost of basic resources and included in the estimate as a general line without deciphering the nomenclature.

Currently, there is a huge amount of building materials on the market. All of them are divided according to one criterion or another into several groups. Classification of building materials can be made according to their origin, degree of readiness, technological characteristics and purpose.

If you look at modern market, you can immediately see some differences even within the same group. Classification of building materials and products is the division of all their types according to one or another criterion.

Some features

If we go directly to the consideration of certain groups, then we should start by dividing them according to the degree of readiness. There are two types here. The first is directly building materials and products. The second type is ready-made products that are fixed at work sites. As for building materials, they must be subjected to certain processing before use.

Products in this regard are much simpler. They can be used directly in the form in which they are presented on the market. The classification of materials and products by degree of readiness is based precisely on these two concepts.

Now we can talk about their division by origin. They are divided into natural and artificial. The first type has become quite widespread. Natural building materials are distinguished by the fact that they are obtained directly from natural products through minor processing. Of course, every person in his life has had the opportunity to see structures made of wood or natural stone. At the same time, their structure and composition do not change during processing.

Artificial materials include all those that are obtained through certain manipulations with natural and chemicals. Here it is worth talking about changes in structure and properties. The result is a product that combines all the positive properties of natural material and artificial additives. It is worth talking in more detail about the classification of materials and products by purpose.

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Classification by purpose

Construction materials are quite widespread. They are used specifically to absorb the load and redistribute it. They are used in the construction of buildings and structures to make them more reliable and durable.
Thermal insulation materials.

Insulation has long been used to create warmth and comfort in the home. Thermal insulation materials are necessary to ensure minimal outflow of thermal energy. That is, they create a reliable layer between the internal structure and its outer part. Due to this, you can easily regulate the thermal conditions indoors.

There are currently many different types thermal insulation materials. Some of them are a dense structure, and some are available in the form of cotton wool. Today you can even find loose insulation materials on the market. They all serve the same function – keeping the house warm.

Some types can be used independently, while others involve the use additional funds protection. An example is waterproofing, which is necessary to prevent moisture from entering the material. Mineral wool is the most widely used.

It is available in the most various types. Can be used directly in its straight form, or can be sealed mats or slabs. The latest options have become the most widespread, as they allow maintaining a fairly high degree of tightness.

Acoustic materials. They are used to reduce noise levels in the room. Almost every modern apartment contains similar materials. They allow a person to constantly be in silence. For a big city this is simply a necessity.
Waterproofing. Today, almost no construction can be completed without such materials. This is due to the fact that most structures gradually collapse when interacting with moisture. This applies to almost all materials. Most of them form oxides as a result of interaction. They are neoplasms that do not always have positive characteristics. Waterproofing allows you to separate one material from another, and can create a reliable layer that perfectly prevents water from entering one of them. Currently, there are a huge number of waterproofing materials on the market. Some of them are used to maintain the integrity of the foundation, while others protect walls and floors from liquids. Almost no modern construction can be completed without their use.
Roofing materials. This is the type that is installed directly on the roof of the building. Today there are a huge number of roofing materials. This includes metal tiles, slate and others. Their main task is to prevent water leaks into the residential part of the building.
Sealing materials. The classification of building materials and products implies the use of this type. They are used to eliminate gaps in the joints of prefabricated structures. This is also a fairly common type that is always used by humans in practice.

Decoration Materials. Today the market is simply overflowing with such options. They are specially created to improve the appearance of the building and the interior. Don't forget about its benefits. It protects the thermal insulation, sound insulation and waterproofing layers from external aggressive factors. Many examples can be given.

If we talk about exterior finishing, here we can highlight such popular materials as siding, lining, a natural stone. When it comes to materials for interior decoration, we should talk about plaster and primer.

Special purpose materials. This type used in the construction of special structures. An example would be acid-resistant or fire-resistant materials.

Some materials that exist in nature and are obtained artificially cannot be classified into any specific group. They can be used either in their pure form or present as one of the components of those that still exist on the market. They are called general purpose materials. There are a huge number of them.

It is worth noting the fact that the classification of materials and products by purpose is quite complex. This is due to the fact that the same species may belong to various groups. For example, concrete in its direct form is used as a structural material. There is a form of it that has increased lightness.

In this case, concrete is used as a heat insulator. In some cases it may represent a heavy structure. This material is used to ensure radiation safety in special rooms.

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Classification of materials and products according to technological characteristics

Depending on what type of raw material is used to make the material, it is divided into certain groups.

Natural stone. Rocks are used to make them. This type includes wall blocks, facing tiles, crushed stone, gravel and so on.
Ceramic materials and products. Most often, ceramics are used for facing works. This material is made from clay by special processing. This can be annealing, roasting, drying and other manipulations. By the way, brick also belongs to this group.
Products from mineral melts. This includes materials that are made from glass and other similar substances.
Inorganic binders. They are mainly powdery components that, when interacting with water, form a viscous structure. Over time, it tends to harden. This includes various cements. Lime and gypsum also belong to this group.
Concrete. They stand out in a separate group. Obtained by mixing binders, water and additional elements. The result is a fairly strong structure. Most often used to create foundations. If concrete is supplemented with reinforcement, then this structure will be called reinforced concrete.
Wood materials and products. They are obtained by mechanical processing of wood. These can be a variety of materials. This includes boards and lining.
Metallic substances. Quite widely used in construction. Ferrous metals and their alloys are especially popular. They are used in a wide variety of sectors of the national economy. As for non-ferrous metals, they have a longer service life. This is achieved thanks to their structure. They do not interact with liquids and therefore do not corrode.

Non-ferrous metals and alloys are directly used in the manufacture of wires, various electronic components, and plumbing systems. Today, the application of such materials to ferrous metals is widely used. In this case, a protective film is obtained that prevents the interaction of the base material with the environment.

This practice is widely used in construction today. Galvanized sheets, which are known to almost every person, are obtained in this way.

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Natural and artificial materials

Prominent representatives of this category are natural and artificial stone. These materials are used everywhere. They can be used for both finishing works, and for construction.

Natural stone has been used by people for a long time. This material has a number of properties for which it is valued. It has excellent strength characteristics and hardness characteristics. This makes a person buy it as a facing material. Today, natural stone is quite expensive. Only wealthy people can afford it. This is the only material that is used everywhere.

The beauty of natural stone is incomparable. Granite and marble are actively used as the main building materials. This is not strange. Time has done everything with him so that truly high-quality material eventually reaches the person.

As for artificial stone, it is also quite widespread. This is due to the fact that almost everyone can afford it. Its cost, in comparison with natural material, is very low. Moreover, the price differs by an order of magnitude. If we talk about production, special chemical catalysts are used here. They accelerate the growth of stones.

If we talk about strength characteristics, they are slightly lower than those of their older brothers. Each person chooses one or another option for himself. If we talk about installing stone, this process is very difficult. Many people hire specialists for these purposes.

This prominent representatives of this class. They differ in composition and properties, but at the same time they look approximately the same. There are often cases when natural stone cannot be visually distinguished from artificial stone.

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Natural wood and its substitutes

If we talk about other representatives of this group of elements, we can highlight natural wood and its plastic substitutes. Today, in this regard, we can talk about siding.

Natural wood is an environmentally friendly product.

It is used almost everywhere. His an undeniable advantage is beauty. No matter what form it is presented in, it will still look simply beautiful. Do not forget about the other properties of this material.

The tree has excellent resistance to various external climatic influences. Of course, this should only be discussed when it has been treated with special antiseptics.

The strength of the tree is quite high. That is why the best material for arrangement has not yet been found own home. The main disadvantage of this material is that it is quite expensive. That is why many are starting to switch to its artificial analogues. An example is siding, which is sealed exactly like wood. Externally, it is not much different from a natural product.

However, the structure of the material is fundamentally different. It most often represents plastic panels, which are easy to install. It is quite possible for a person to do all the work alone. If we talk about natural wood, then everything is a little different. One person cannot completely decorate a house. Of course, the strength characteristics of plastic are somewhat lower than those of wood. The cost of wood siding can please everyone. It costs much less than natural material.

What materials should you prefer? Everyone decides this question for themselves. Natural ones have more positive characteristics, but are much more expensive. This is what makes everything more people switch to artificial analogues.