Measure of volume. Russian measure of volume

Magnitude is something that can be measured. Concepts such as length, area, volume, mass, time, speed, etc. are called quantities. The value is measurement result, it is determined by a number expressed in certain units. The units in which a quantity is measured are called units of measurement.

To indicate a quantity, a number is written, and next to it is the name of the unit in which it was measured. For example, 5 cm, 10 kg, 12 km, 5 min. Each quantity has countless values, for example the length can be equal to: 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, etc.

The same quantity can be expressed in different units, for example kilogram, gram and ton are units of weight. The same quantity is expressed in different units different numbers. For example, 5 cm = 50 mm (length), 1 hour = 60 minutes (time), 2 kg = 2000 g (weight).

To measure a quantity means to find out how many times it contains another quantity of the same kind, taken as a unit of measurement.

For example, we want to find out the exact length of a room. This means we need to measure this length using another length that is well known to us, for example using a meter. To do this, set aside a meter along the length of the room as many times as possible. If it fits exactly 7 times along the length of the room, then its length is 7 meters.

As a result of measuring the quantity, we obtain or named number, for example 12 meters, or several named numbers, for example 5 meters 7 centimeters, the totality of which is called compound named number.

Measures

In each state, the government has established certain units of measurement for various quantities. An accurately calculated unit of measurement, adopted as a standard, is called standard or exemplary unit. Model units of the meter, kilogram, centimeter, etc. were made, according to which units for everyday use were made. Units that have come into use and are approved by the state are called measures.

The measures are called homogeneous, if they serve to measure quantities of the same kind. So, gram and kilogram are homogeneous measures, since they are used to measure weight.

Units

Below are units of measurement of various quantities that are often found in mathematics problems:

Weight/mass measures

1 ton = 10 quintals
1 quintal = 100 kilograms
1 kilogram = 1000 grams
1 gram = 1000 milligrams

1 kilometer = 1000 meters
1 meter = 10 decimeters
1 decimeter = 10 centimeters
1 centimeter = 10 millimeters

1 sq. kilometer = 100 hectares
1 hectare = 10,000 sq. meters
1 sq. meter = 10000 sq. centimeters
1 sq. centimeter = 100 square meters millimeters

1 cu. meter = 1000 cubic meters decimeters
1 cu. decimeter = 1000 cubic meters centimeters
1 cu. centimeter = 1000 cubic meters millimeters

Let's consider another quantity like liter. A liter is used to measure the capacity of vessels. A liter is a volume that is equal to one cubic decimeter (1 liter = 1 cubic decimeter).

Measures of time

1 century (century) = 100 years
1 year = 12 months
1 month = 30 days
1 week = 7 days
1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 second = 1000 milliseconds

In addition, time units such as quarter and decade are used.

quarter - 3 months
decade - 10 days

A month is taken to be 30 days unless it is necessary to specify the date and name of the month. January, March, May, July, August, October and December - 31 days. February in a simple year is 28 days, February in a leap year is 29 days. April, June, September, November - 30 days.

A year is (approximately) the time it takes for the Earth to complete one revolution around the Sun. It is customary to count every three consecutive years as 365 days, and the fourth year following them as 366 days. A year containing 366 days is called leap year, and years containing 365 days - simple. One extra day is added to the fourth year for the following reason. The Earth's revolution around the Sun does not contain exactly 365 days, but 365 days and 6 hours (approximately). Thus, a simple year is shorter than a true year by 6 hours, and 4 simple years are shorter than 4 true years by 24 hours, i.e., by one day. Therefore, one day is added to every fourth year (February 29).

You will learn about other types of quantities as you further study various sciences.

Abbreviated names of measures

Abbreviated names of measures are usually written without a dot:

Kilometer - km
Meter - m
Decimeter - dm
Centimeter - cm
Millimeter - mm

Weight/mass measures

ton - t
quintal - c
kilogram - kg
gram - g
milligram - mg

Area measures (square measures)

sq. kilometer - km 2
hectare - ha
sq. meter - m 2
sq. centimeter - cm 2
sq. millimeter - mm 2

cube meter - m 3
cube decimeter - dm 3
cube centimeter - cm 3
cube millimeter - mm 3

Measures of time

century - in
year - g
month - m or months
week - n or week
day - s or d (day)
hour - h
minute - m
second - s
millisecond - ms

Measure of vessel capacity

liter - l

Measuring instruments

Special measuring instruments are used to measure various quantities. Some of them are very simple and designed for simple measurements. Such instruments include a measuring ruler, tape measure, measuring cylinder, etc. Other measuring instruments are more complex. Such devices include stopwatches, thermometers, electronic scales, etc.

Measuring instruments, as a rule, have a measuring scale (or scale for short). This means that there are line divisions on the device, and next to each line division the corresponding value of the quantity is written. The distance between the two strokes, next to which the value of the value is written, can be additionally divided into several smaller divisions; these divisions are most often not indicated by numbers.

It is not difficult to determine what value each smallest division corresponds to. So, for example, the figure below shows a measuring ruler:

The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. indicate the distances between the strokes, which are divided into 10 identical divisions. Therefore, each division (the distance between the nearest strokes) corresponds to 1 mm. This quantity is called at the cost of a scale division measuring device.

Before you begin measuring a value, you should determine the scale division value of the instrument you are using.

In order to determine the division price, you must:

Find the two closest lines on the scale, next to which the values of the quantity are written.
Subtract the smaller number from the larger value and divide the resulting number by the number of divisions between them.

As an example, let’s determine the price of the scale division of the thermometer shown in the figure on the left.

Let's take two lines, near which the numerical values of the measured value (temperature) are plotted.

For example, bars indicating 20 °C and 30 °C. The distance between these strokes is divided into 10 divisions. Thus, the price of each division will be equal to:

(30 °C - 20 °C) : 10 = 1 °C

Therefore, the thermometer shows 47 °C.

Measure various quantities in Everyday life each of us has to do constantly. For example, in order to arrive at school or work on time, you have to measure the time that will be spent on the road. Meteorologists measure temperature, barometric pressure, wind speed, etc. to predict the weather.

Bucket

Basic Russian premetric measure of liquid volume bucket = 1/40 barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles(0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 liters - according to other sources, rare) B. iron, wooden or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on the rocker should be in a “woman’s lift.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups. The oldest "international" measure of volume is [handfulk.

Before mid-17th century V. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses of glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel

The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l)

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:
oak - for beer and vegetable oils
spruce - under water
linden - for milk and honey

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the 15th century The ancient measures were still common - golvazhnya, lukno and harvesting. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobya and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk).

Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was also introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin 4096 cubic arshins or 21952 cubic inches.

Wine measures

The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have [measures certified in the Treasury Chamber].

Bucket is a Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters.

Quarter = 3 liters (previously it was a narrow neck Glass bottle)

The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a shtof = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (the half-liter appeared later in the twenties of the 20th century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the count was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The release dated back to the same time. glass vessels. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists.

Abroad, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon different countries this amounts to 0.63 to 0.76 liters

A flat bottle is called a flask.

Shtof (from German Stof) = 1/10 of a bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic drinks. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Mug (the word means “for drinking in a circle”) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.

Modern faceted glass was previously called "doskan" ("planed boards"), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.
Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.
Shkalik ( popular name- “kosushka”, from the word “mow”, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.
Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), the size and volume of badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar ) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.

Endova
Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Leather bag(skin) up to 60 l

Korchaga - 12 l
Nozzle - 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)
Ladle
Zhban
Tub height of the vessel 30-35 centimeters, diameter 40 centimeters, volume 2 buckets or 22-25 liters
Krynki
Sudenci, misa
Tuesa
Box - from whole pieces bast, sewn with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes from small boxes to large chests of drawers
Balakir is a dugout wooden vessel, 1/41/5 in volume, buckets.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and represented a variety of clay pots, pots, milk bowls, jars, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, tubs, the capacity of which was approximately 1/4 1/2 buckets (about 35 liters). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products such as sour cream, yogurt and cream were kept, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia.

Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales, hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

Number systems and their changes are a problem not only for historians, but also for amateurs historical literature. The metric system that is familiar to us today began to be used in Russia only in 1899 at the suggestion of D.I. Mendeleev, but even then it was not the only one, but one of the possible ones. Before that, there were many Russian measures of length, and many of them were perceived differently at different times.

Your own standard

The “measuring unit” in the Old Russian SI was an adult healthy man. Because of this, the units were very arbitrary - often each merchant or princely official had his own measure (a fact reflected in the saying “measure to your own arshin”). Although the names of the units were the same, they often meant different real values in different areas. Large distances were measured very arbitrarily; more often the unit was one day's march (on foot or on horseback).

Your own arshin and oblique fathom

Since centuries, several basic units of measurement of length have been known from documents.

Arshin (0.71 m). The measurement was based on the full length of one hand (from the tip of the middle finger to shoulder joint). The standard appeared only in the 17th century, although the measure was used earlier. It is sometimes believed that the arshin was a measure of step length. But for one it turns out to be a lot, but for two (in Rus' they usually thought so) it’s not enough.
Elbow. Arm length up to elbow joint. In different areas and different time could range from 36 to 48 cm.
Fathom. There are at least 10 species. Accordingly, the length also varies: from 1.42 m (3 cubits, simple) to 2.48 m (oblique). The measurement was based on the height of a man with his arms raised or his arm span.
Field. It was the maximum distance for a plow to pass when plowing before turning (at this distance on the plain you can clearly see a person). It was estimated at 750 fathoms (most likely simple, but this is not indicated in the document).
Verst. Some believe that the word was originally equivalent to field. But the versts were also different, and could range from 500 to 1000 fathoms. In this case, a three-arshin fathom (2.13 m) was taken as a basis. The longest mile used was 1.06 km.

Dozen divisor

It should be remembered that before the 1917 revolution in Russia, dozens were more often counted than tens. Therefore, smaller values were often ½, ¼, 1/3, 1/6 larger (divisors of the number 12 are used).

The large span was half a cubit. It was measured by the distance between the tips of the thumb and little finger (about 22 cm). There were other options. For example, an ordinary span was determined by the thumb and index finger.
Palm – 1/6 elbow (slightly more than 7 cm).
The top is ¼ span (4.45 cm).

Minor measurements were also used: finger (length of the first phalanx index finger, 2 cm) and a nail (slightly more than 1 cm).

It's easier with the meter

This measurement system was outdated long before the advent of the metric system. This was due to the development of trade - merchants’ own standards constantly caused scandals and disputes. The first decisive measures to unify units of measurement were taken during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. In the era of Peter the Great, they began to use European measurements (foot, inch) and “adjust” traditional ones to them (for example, a fathom was recognized as 7 feet).

But the metric system beat all options due to its versatility and accuracy. No one could measure the Parisian meridian to their own arshin.

Source: kramola.info

Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc. The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures of determining length, distances (fathom, verst). The root “AR” in the word a r sh i n - in Old Russian (and in other neighboring languages) means “EARTH”, “surface of the earth”, and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult (“small fathoms”; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three...), or in threes (“official fathoms”; one-two-three - one , one-two-three - two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length, the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (from the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - “quarter arshin”, “quarter”, “chet”), from which it is easy to visualize it was possible to get smaller shares - two inches (1/2 inch) or an inch (1/4 inch).

Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring ‘from the shoulder’. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced as a standard the “official arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

STEP- average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

SPAN(pyadnitsa) is an ancient Russian measure of length. SMALL SPAND (they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.

BIG SPAN- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).

Somersault Sick(“span with somersault”, according to Dahl - ‘span with somersault’) - span with the addition of two joints of the index finger = 27-31 cm

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold is a pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. Two titles for a long time used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.

“Verstoy” was also called a milestone on the road.

The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.

Mezhevaya Versta- an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. the “travel” mileage remains, equal to 500 fathoms.

SAZHEN- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Makhovaya fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathom” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger raised up right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has oblique fathoms in his shoulders” (meaning - hero, giant).

This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as one could reach with one’s hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured ... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds”, which were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, unnamed - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.

Makhovaya Fathom— the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.

OBLIQUE FATHOUS(originally “oblique”) - 2.48 m.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The value of this ancient measure of length, according to different sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

Elbow is a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. IN retail trade canvas, cloth, linen - elbow was the main measure. In a large wholesale trade- linen, cloth, etc., arrived in the form of large sections - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific, well-defined meaning)

PALM= 1/6 cubit (six-palmed cubit). VERSHOK equaled 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name “Vershok” comes from the word “top”. In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

Ancient Russian measures of length, weight, volume

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:

1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”

2 - combination of “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”

from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"

For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”

For trees - “height *** arshins”

Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers

1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters

Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.

Mach fathom = 1.76 m.

1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm

(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)

1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)

1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

1 quarter (span, small span, span, span, span, span, span) = 4 inches = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)

The name p i d comes from the Old Russian word “metacarpus”, i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, “span” was replaced by “quarter arshin”)

Synonym for “quarter” is “chet”

Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.

A “span with somersault” is equal to the small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27-31 cm.

- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).

1 finger ~ 2 cm.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm

The name comes from Dutch - “thumb”. Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.

1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.)

The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.

1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm

1 point = 0.254 millimeters

1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km

(from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))

1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km

1 English mile= 1.609 km

1 yard = 91.44 centimeters

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the "Description Books" armory The Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) records: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershok (10.5 vershok) ... Large cast iron archin, Lion iron, with belts, length three arshins three quarters and a half inch.” The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span, as an ancient measure of length, still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.

From the second half of the XVIII century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.

The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:

Fathom = 7 feet

Arshin = 28 inches

A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

VOLUME MEASURES

Bucket

The basic Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is a bucket = 1/40 of a barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 l - according to other sources, rarely). A bucket is an iron, wooden or leather utensil, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for carrying. In everyday life, two buckets on the rocker should be in a “woman’s lift.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups. The oldest “international” measure of volume is “handful”.

Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel

The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l).

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:

oak - for beer and vegetable oils,

spruce - under water,

linden - for milk and honey.

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (magpies). Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the 15th century The ancient measures were still widespread - golvazhnya, lukno and harvesting. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korob and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: the Smolensk barrel, the herring barrel (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than the Smolensk barrel).

Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.

In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The production of glass vessels also dates back to this time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, barrels and casks.

Endova

Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Leather bag(skin) - up to 60 l

Korchaga— 12 l

Nozzle— 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)

Ladle,Zhban

Tub- height of the vessel - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters, volume - 2 buckets or 22-25 liters

Krynki,Sudenians, mises,Tuesa

Box- from solid pieces of bast, sewn together with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers.

Balakir- a dugout wooden vessel, 1/4-1/5 in volume, buckets.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pans, lids, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, containers, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 bucket (about 3-5 l). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia.

Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In Old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Ancient volume measures:

1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters

1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters=

1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm

1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)

1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm

1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm

1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:

flipper- 12 quarters

quarter(chet) - 1/4 part of cadi

octopus(eighth - eighth part)

Kad(tub, shackle) = 20 buckets or more

Large tub- more tubs

Tsybik- box (of tea) = 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).

Details: The tea was tightly kneaded in wooden boxes, "tsibiki" - covered in leather frames, in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesta (‘Place’ is a possible option).

half a half,quadruple

Liquid measures

barrel(40 buckets)

boiler(from half a bucket to 20 buckets)

bucket,half a bucket,quarter bucket

osmukha (1/8)

crush(1/16 bucket)

Measures of volume of liquid and granular bodies:

1 quarter = 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 l

1 garnets = 3.280 liters

Weights

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:

Berkovets = 10 pounds

Pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg

Pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg

Lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g

Spool = 4.27 g

Fraction = 0.044 g

Hryvnia(latest pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to denote both weight and monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.

Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).

There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

GOLDEN equaled 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

LB(from the Latin word ‘pondus’ - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.5 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.

The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.

Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)

LOT- Old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE- the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD equaled 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.

Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).

The pud as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Area measures

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as fractions of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after “ Cathedral Code" 1649) mainly, the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, thus, a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because lands due to their location and irregular shapes were inconvenient to measure. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

The question of choosing standards from the many existing ones (both domestic and overseas) turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon arrival, and then reweighed repeatedly at the mints; At the same time, the weight turned out to be different.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. there was an opinion that more precisely scales at St. Petersburg customs. It was decided to make model scales from the customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.

A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as an example of a measure of length when determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. Using this half-arshin measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.

The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.

In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, and developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the Russian monetary account system was built on the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units measurements using length measures. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-piece was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”

According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736-1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce “in all Russian state arshins." In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797 on “Establishments throughout Russian Empire true scales, drink and grain measures" was started big job on the ordering of weights and measures. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four questions measurements: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their size was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English measures - in a fathom there are 7 English feet, in an arshin - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It is interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.

Cut- the amount of material in a single piece of cloth sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)

“No estimate”- no number

Sverstna, perfect - suitable, to match

Additional reading:

New domestic research

ARSHIN is an ancient Russian measure of length, equal, in modern terms, to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, with normal walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures of determining length, distances (fathom, verst). The root "AR" in the word a rsh i n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring peoples) means "EARTH", "surface of the earth", "furrow" and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length distance traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult of normal build (“small<простыми>fathoms"; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three...), or threes ("official fathoms"; one-two-three - one, one-two-three - two.. .), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used.Later, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length, the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (from the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - “quarter arshin”, “quarter”, “chet”), from which, by eye, it was easy to get smaller shares - two inches (1/2 inch) or an inch (1/4 inch).

Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring “from the shoulder”. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “official yardstick,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

STEP - the average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

PYAD (pyatnitsa) is an ancient Russian measure of length. SMALL SPAN (they said - "span"; since the 17th century it was called - "quarter"<аршина>) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.

BIG SPAN - the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).

SPAND WITH A TUMPLER ("span with a somersault", according to Dahl - "span with a somersault") - span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm

VERSTA is an old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
"Verstoy" was also called a milestone on the road.

Mezhevaya Versta is an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a “travel” mileage equal to 500 fathoms.

SAZHEN is one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Makhovaya fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathom” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has slanting fathoms in his shoulders” (meaning - hero, giant)

This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as one could reach with one’s hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds”, which were used in measuring distances in construction and in land surveying.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.

FLY FATTH - the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.

OBLIQUE SAZHEN (originally “oblique”) - 2.48 m.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW was equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger of the hand”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

Elbow is a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, and linen, the elbow was the main measure. In large-scale wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., came in the form of large pieces - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific, quite specific value)

VERSHOK equaled 1/16 of an arshin, 1/4 of a quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

Growth in Vershki	1	3	5	7	9	10	15
Height in meters	1,47	1,56	1,65	1,73	1,82	1,87	2,09

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:
1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”
2 - combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"

For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”

For trees - “height *** arshins”

Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers

1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters

Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.

1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)

1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)

1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

1 quarter<четверть аршина>(span, small pip, pyadnitsa, pyada, pyaden, pyadyka) = 4 vershka = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)
The name p i d comes from the Old Russian word “metacarpus”, i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, “span” was replaced by “quarter arshin”)
Synonym for "quarter" - "chet"

Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.

A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.

1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).

1 finger ~ 2 cm.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
The name comes from Dutch - "thumb". Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.

1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.)
The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.

1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm

1 point = 0.2540 millimeters

1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
(from the Latin word "milia" - thousand< больших >double steps, “canes”)

1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km

1 English mile = 1.609 km

1 yard = 91.44 centimeters

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the “Description Books” of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershok (10.5 vershok) ... Large cast iron archina, Iron lion, with belts, length three arshins, three quarters and a half inch." The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span, as an ancient measure of length, still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed, due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.

From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.

The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

Volume measures

The basic Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is a bucket = 1/40 of a barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 l - according to other sources, rarely) V. - iron, wooden or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on a rocker should be “fit for a woman.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups.

Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses of glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel

The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l)

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:
oak - for beer and vegetable oils,
spruce - under water,
linden - for milk and honey.

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

Wine measures

The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber.”

Bucket - Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters

Quarter<четвёртая часть ведра>= 3 liters (previously it was a narrow-necked glass bottle)

The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a shtof = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (the half-liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the bill was on buckets, the box, according to established tradition, still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

Abroad, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - in different countries this ranges from 0.63 to 0.76 liters

A flat bottle is called a flask.

Shtof (from German Stof) = 1/10 of a bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Mug (the word means “for drinking in a circle”) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.

Modern faceted glass was previously called "doskan" ("planed boards"), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.

Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.

Shkalik (popular name - “kosushka”, from the word “mow”, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.

Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Endova
Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Leather bag (skin) - up to 60 l

Korchaga - 12 l
Nozzle - 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)
Ladle
Zhban

Tub - vessel height - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters, volume - 2 buckets or 22-25 liters

Krynki
Sudenci, misa
Tuesa

The oldest (first?) “international” measure of volume is g o r st (palm with fingers folded into a boat). A large (kind, good) handful - folded so that it holds a larger volume. A handful is two palms joined together.

The box is made from solid pieces of bast, sewn together with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers

Balakir is a dugout wooden vessel, 1/4-1/5 in volume, a bucket.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia. Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In Old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Ancient volume measures:

1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters

1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters

1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm

1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)

1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm

1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm

1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:
flipper - 12 quarters
quarter (chet) - 1/4 part of cadi
ocmina (octah - eighth part)

Kad (tub, shackle, looks like a small barrel / keg) = 20 buckets or more
"Big tub" - bigger tub

Tsybik - box (of tea) = from 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).
Details: Tea was compacted tightly into wooden boxes, “tsibiki” - leather-covered frames, in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesta (“Place” is a possible option).

Polosmina
quadruple

Liquid measures ("wine measures"):

Barrel (40 buckets)
cauldron (from half a bucket to 20 buckets)
bucket
half a bucket
quarter bucket
osmukha (1/8)
crumb (1/16 bucket)

Measures of volume of liquid and granular bodies:

1 quarter = 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 l

1 garnets = 3.280 liters

Weights

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:
. Berkovets = 10 poods
. pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
. pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
. lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
. spool = 4.27 g
. fraction = 0.044 g
...

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small and expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

POUND (from the Latin word “pondus” - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.

Until recently, a small pack of tea, weighing 50 grams, was called “octam” (1/8 pound)

LOT is an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.

The pud, as a unit of mass, was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in Russia in the 18th century:

Weights	Value in spools	Derivatives quantities	Value in grams	In kilograms	Note
Berkovets	38400	10 pounds 400 hryvnia (pounds) 800 hryvnia	163800	163,8
Flipper		72 pounds		1179 (1 ton)
Kad		14 pounds		230
Kongar (Kontar)	9600	2.5 pounds	40950	40,95
Pud	3840	40 pounds	16380	16,38 (0.1638 quintal)
Half a pound	1920		8190	8,19
Steelyard	240	2.5 hryvnia	1022	1,022 (1,024)
Half-badman	120		511	0,511
Ansyr	128		546	0,546
Large hryvnia (hryvnia) Lb trade	96	32 lots 1/40 pood	409,5	0,4095
Pound apothecary- skiy			307,3		according to other sources - 358.8g
Libra	72	72 spools	307,1	0,3071
Small hryvnia (grivenka)	48	1200 buds 4800 pies	204,8	0,2048
Half-grill wreath	24		102,4	0,1024

Lot	3	3 spools	12,797		Old Russian unit of mass measurement
Spool	1	96 shares 25 kidneys 1/96 lb	4,266		Old Russian unit of mass measurement; the spool was used to weigh small but expensive goods. A measure of the volume of bulk solids - how many of them will fit on the plane of a raised coin
Scrupul (pharmacist) skiy)		20 grains	1.24 grams		ancient unit of apothecary weight
Bud			171 milligram
Gran (pharmacist) skiy)			0.062 grams		used in old Russian pharmaceutical practice
Share	1/96		0.044 grams 44.43 mg

Pie			43 milligram

Note: the weights most commonly used at that time (18th century) are highlighted in font.

Area measures

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then, in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that, on average, 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Surface area measures:

1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers

1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares

1 kopn = 0.1 tithe

1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters

1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters

1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm

1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m

1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter

1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeters

Units of measurement in Rus' in the 18th century

TO XVIII century there were up to 400 units of measures of different sizes used in different countries. The variety of measures made trading operations difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, uniform systems of measures were defined for the entire country. In the 18th century In connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, the question of measurement accuracy and the creation of standards on the basis of which verification work ("metrology") could be organized in Russia arose.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. There was an opinion that, more precisely, the scales at the St. Petersburg customs office. It was decided to make model scales from those customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.

The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units of measurement using measures of length. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-piece was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”

According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736-1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce arshins “in the entire Russian state.” In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797 on the “Establishment of correct scales, drinking and grain measures throughout the Russian Empire,” a lot of work began on streamlining measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshins - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It is interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). The state-branded yardstick, priced at 1 silver ruble, was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of old yardstick templates.

Stage [Greek. stadion - stages (measure of length)] - this ancient measure distances of more than two thousand years (from it - Stadium in other Greece; Greek stadion - a place for competitions). The size of the stage is about two hundred meters. "...right opposite the city<Александрии>lay the island of Pharos, on the northern tip of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (7 stages)" (F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Ancient measures in modern language

In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings

Sayings:

“You write in big letters” - large

"Kolomenskaya Versta" is a humorous name for a very tall person.

"Oblique fathoms in the shoulders" - broad-shouldered

in poetry:

You can’t understand Russia with your mind, you can’t measure it with a common (official) yardstick. Tyutchev

Currency units

Quarter = 25 rubles
gold coin= 5 or 10 rubles
Ruble = 2 half rubles = 100 kopecks
Tselkovy is the colloquial name for the metal ruble.
Fifty, fifty kopecks = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Two-kopeck = 20 kopecks.
Five-altyn = 15 kopecks
Pyatak = 5 kopecks.
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half a coin) = 1 kopeck.
Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equivalent to a quarter of a penny. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins have been minted from copper.

The modern penny (the one that saves the ruble), gradually going out of circulation due to inflation of money, becomes an antique.

Foreign names:

English, traditional "beer pint" - 0.56826 l.
Eighth of a pound = 1/8 pound
Fluid ounce (US) - 30 milliliters.
Gallon English - 4.546 l
Barrel - 159 liters
Carat - 0.2 g, weight of wheat grain
Ounce avoirdupois - 28.35 g
English pound - 0.45359 kg
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 small handweight = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg.

Whale. measures: 1 li = 576 m, 1 liang = 37.3 g, 1 fen = 1/10 cun = 0.32 cm - in zhenjiu therapy.
individual size = approximately 2.5 cm

In Tibetan medicine: 1 lan = 36 grams, 1<с/ц>en = 3.6 g., 1<п/ф>un = 0.36g.

An ounce (translated from Latin uncia - a twelfth part, of a whole, by weight, length or volume), before the introduction of the metric system of measures, was the most common unit of weight in the world (approximately thirty grams). Continues to be used in countries where weight is measured in pounds. A modern troy ounce, equal to 31.1 grams, is used when trading gold and other precious metals.
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Foot (English foot) - 30.48 centimeters.
Yard -91.44 cm.
Nautical mile - 1852 m.
1 cable - a tenth of a mile.
Lieux maritimes (old French distance unit) = 5557 meters (1/20 degree meridian)
Rhumb - 11 1/4° = 1/32 fraction of a circle - a unit of angular measure.

Sea knot (speed) = 1 mph
// according to the old method of measurement, corresponds to the number of feet (they were tied in knots) of the measuring cable per minute.

Ancient Russian quantities:
Quarter - quarter, quarter
"a quarter of wine" = a fourth of a bucket.
"quadruple grain" = 1/4 cady
kad - an old Russian measure of bulk solids (usually four pounds)
Osmina, osmukha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called osmushka ("octam of tea").
"a quarter to eight" - time = 7:45 am or pm
Five - five units of weight or length
A ream is a measure of paper, formerly equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
"one hundred and eighty osmago November day of osmago" - 188 November eighth
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half a point = 4.5
Half elevenths = 10.5
Half a hundred and two hundred and fifty.
Field - "arena, lists" (115 steps - a variant of the magnitude), later - the first name and synonym for "verst" (field - million - mile), Dahl has a variant meaning of this word: "daily march, about 20 versts"<"успев до ночёвки">
“Printed fathom” - official (standard, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
A cut is an amount of material in a single piece of fabric sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)
“No estimate” - no number.
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match